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PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Presented  by  Mrs.  Sanford  H.  Smith. 


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FAC-SIMILP]S 


OF 

ANCIENT  NEW  TESTAMENT  MANUSCRIPTS, 

TO  ILLUSTRATE  CHAPTER  XXVI.,  PAGE  380. 

Most  of  the  following  specimens  of  ancient  manuscripts  are  taken  from 
Scrivener's  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament.  No.  (1)  is 
from  Tischendorf  s  Novum  Testamentum  Greece  ex  Sinaitico  Codice ;  Nos.  (2) 
and  (11)  from  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible ;  and  No.  (5)  from  Home's  Intro- 
duction, Vol.  IV. 

No.  (1).  PLATE  I.  Sinai  Codex,  Century  IV.  Heb.  12  :  27-29.  Notice 
the  occasional  use  of  very  small  letters.  In  line  3  the  article  ttjv  is  inserted  by 
correction  in  its  proper  place,  while  it  is  left  standing  where  it  should  not  at  the 
beginning  of  line  2. 

No.  (2).  PLATE  I.  Alexandkine  Codex,  Century  V.  Jno.  1 : 1-5.  In  the 
margin  stands  the  first  Ammonian  section  (A),  and  under  it  the  tenth  Eusebian 
canon  (I). 

No.  (3).  PLATE  II.  Vatican  Codex,  Century  JV.  Psa.  1:1,2  and  part 
of  verse  3  ;  called  by  Scrivener  "a  tolerable /ac-simiZe." 

No.  (4).  PLATE  III.  Codex  Ephraemi,  palimpsest  of  Century  V.  1  Tim. 
3:16,  and  end  of  verse  15.  The  heavier  upper  writing  in  two  columns  (cursive) 
is  a  translation  from  Ephraem  the  Syrian.  The  paler  underneath  is  the  Greek 
text. 

No.  (5).  PLATE  IV.  Codex  Bezae,  Century  VI.  Matt.  5 : 1-3.  From 
the  type  cast  for  Kipling's  edition,  which  give  a  good  idea  of  the  manuscript.  It 
is  bilingual,  the  Greek  and  Latin  stichometrically  written  and  on  opposite  j)ages. 
In  the  present  specimen  the  Latin  is  placed  below  the  Greek.  On  the  left  mar- 
gin of  the  Greek  are  the  Ammonian  sections. 

No.  (6).  PLATTE  II.  Codex  Puepukeus,  Century  VI.  Part  of  Juo.  15  :  20. 
In  the  margin  thc;  Ammonian  section  139  (PA0),  and  under  it  the  third  Eusebian 
canon  (F). 

No.  (7).  PLATE  in.  Codex  Laudianus,  Century  VI.  Part  of  Acts  20:28. 
Bilingual  and  stichometrically  written,  the  Latin  on  the  left  and  the  Greek  on 
the  right. 

No.  (8).  PLATE  III.  Codex  Monacensis,  Century  X.  Luke  7  :  end  of 
verse  25  and  beginning  of  verse  26. 

No.  (9).  PLATE  III.  Codex  Basilensis  (cursive).  Century  X.  Matt.  15:1, 
and  part  of  verse  2. 

No.  (10).  PLATE  V.  Codex  Rubee  (cursive,  in  bright  red  ink),  Century  X. 
2  Cor.  1 :  4,  with  end  of  verse  3,  and  beginning  of  verse  5. 

No.  (11).  PLATE  V.  Part  of  Luke  20 : 9,  10,  from  a  fragmentary  Palim- 
psest of  century  VI.,  brought  in  1847  from  the  Nitrian  desert,  and  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  add.  17,211.  It  is  covered  by  Syrian  writing  of  Century  IX. 
orX. 


•/• 


d).  PLATE  I. 

SINAI  CODEX. 

TOKeeTI  AH  KlAHXi 
T  H  M  TCD  N  C  KKey 
O M  6  Kl  CO  n'm  C TKOc 

cvNa:>cnerToiH 

MeHCDKl)  WXMIKH 
TAM  H  CXKe^O  M  £NK 
XI  O  R  XC  I  Xe  1 XH  XCA 

xevroN  rrxf  AAXiL. 

kXWOVsJTeCGXOM^^ 
XKriHMHCAXTpT 

o  M  e  N  €  Y>\p  e  c  tci>- 
Tcu  e  tu  H  e  TK€7>Kx 

rxpoe  c  H  M  CD  N  n|f 

KATXN  AXICKON 

(2). 
ALEXANDKINE  CODEX. 


MApx"rthiNOAqrOCKAioAorocH 

T1  f^oCTOMOISKAieC  HMOXOroC  • 

ovToCHt-ieMXj»x:Kn|»oc"roNeN 

-rTXMnrx2s.iXYroVBreMGTOI<Xl^u» 

pe  ic^YT^overe  MGnroov^^ee  m 
o  re  ro  r-4  e  rvi  eM^Y"r<^^  uj  M  Mi-4 

l<Ai-rocbcuce^^TnCi<OTixd)Ai 

Met  KAlHCKO^lAAVTOOVJ^^T^e 


(3).  PLATE  II. 

VATICAN  CODEX. 

Ki  AKApiQ^x  fsj  Hpo  coy  Kenr  Of  eye  Hen 

KXle  HO^co  <^H^pTcoXci>NoyKeCTH 
KA I  en  J  K  A0  eXpivN  Ao  JM  oj  no  y  Ke  ka^  ice 
iCx  X  H  en  nrco  m  om  cx>  k  y  to  e  c\h  m  avtt  y 

K^ieHT-tON  O  MCQAYTOYM€A»e"THCe 
HMCpXCKAlHYKTO^C 

KXie  CTA.ia:)CT0  5  YAONxone  <|>YT"€Y 


(6). 
CODEX  PURPUREUS. 

i^  TO  yA  o  roy  oy 
ercuerrrOHy 

MIWOyKGCTir. 

AOyKO  C  M  I  ^-^ 

ToyKy/\y  tov 


1* 


PLATE  III. 


,V 


T 


fEm 


CD 

2 

c 


t 


5 


e 

0 


:^a^wO 


o 

H 
ft 
O 


<  <f  > 

o     * 


^y 


h 


>o<^ 


h\ 


PLATE  rV. 


O 

o 

o 
o 

s 

I 

o 

u 

i 


z  >: 

o  w 

o  5  J^  rs  ^ 


I 

o 

Z 


(0.  5  53 


»<^  <5  i<  E,  S 

;i  S  :^  «§ 


M  isi  J^f 


(10). 
CODEX  KUBER. 


PLATE  Y. 


(11). 

A  PALIMPSEST  FROM  THE  NITRIAN  DESERT. 


COMPANION 


TO/ 


THE     BIBLE. 


BY  REV.  E.  P/BARROWS,  D.  D., 

PROFESSOK   OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE      - 
AMEEICAN    TEACT    SOCIETY, 

150  NASSAU-STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


Enteeed  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1867,  by  the  Ameeican 
Teact  Society,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States 
for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


\- 


GENERAL  PREFACE. 


The  design  of  the  present  work,  as  its  title  indicates,  is  to 
assist  in  the  study  of  God's  word.  The  author  has  had  special 
reference  to  teachers  of  Bible  classes  and  Sabbath-schools; 
ministers  of  the  gospel  who  wish  to  have  ready  at  hand  the 
results  of  biblical  investigation  in  a  convenient  and  condensed 
form  ;  and,  in  general,  the  large  body  of  intelligent  laymen  and 
Avomen  in  our  land  who  desire  to  pursue  the  study  of  Scrip- 
ture in  a  thorough  and  systematic  way. 

The  First  Part  contains  a  concise  view  of  the  Evidences  of 
Revealed  Religion.  Here,  since  Christianity  rests  on  a  basis 
of  historic  facts,  special  prominence  has  been  given  to  the 
historic  side  of  these  evidences ;  those,  namely,  which  relate  to 
the  genuineness,  integrity,  authenticity,  and  inspiration  of  the 
several  books  of  the  Bible.  A  brief  view  is  added  of  the  evi- 
dences which  are  of  an  internal  and  experimental  character. 

In  the  Introductions  to  the  Old  and  New  Testament  which 
follow  in  the  Second  and  Third  Parts,  the  general  facts  are  first 
given;  then  an  account  of  the  several  divisions  of  each,  with 
their  office  and  mutual  relations,  and  such  a  notice  of  each 
particular  book  as  will  prepare  the  reader  to  study  it  intelli- 
gently and  profitably. 

The  Fourth  Part  is  devoted  to  the  Principles  of  Biblical 
Interpretation.  Here  the  plan  is  to  consider  the  Scriptures, 
first,  on  the  human  side,  as  addressed  to  men  in  human  lan- 
guage and  according  to  human  modes  of  thinking  and  speak- 
ing; then,  on  the  divine  side,  as  containing  a  true  revelation 
from  God,  and  differing  in  this  respect  from  all  other  writings. 
To  this  twofold  view  the  author  attaches  great  importance. 
To  the  human  side  belong  the  ordinary  principles  of  interpre- 


4  GENERAL  PREFACE. 

tation,  which  apply  alike  to  all  writings ;  to  the  divine  side,  the 
question  of  the  unity  of  revelation,  and  the  interpretation  of 
types  and  prophecies. 

In  each  of  the  abovenamed  divisions  the  author  has  en- 
deavored to  keep  prominently  in  view  the  unity  of  revelation 
and  the  inseparable  connection  of  all  its  parts.  It  is  only 
when  we  thus  contemplate  it  as  a  glorious  whole,  having  begin- 
ning, progress,  and  consummation,  that  we  can  truly  under- 
stand it.  Most  of  the  popular  objections  to  the  Old  Testament 
have  their  foundation  in  an  isolated  and  fragmentary  way  of 
viewing  its  facts  and  doctrines;  and  they  can  be  fairly  met 
only  by  showing  the  relation  Avhich  these  hold  to  the  entire 
plan  of  redemption. 

The  plan  of  the  present  work  required  brevity  and  conden- 
sation. The  constant  endeavor  has  been  to  state  the  several 
facts  and  principles  as  concisely  as  could  be  done  consistently 
wath  a  true  presentation  of  them  in  an  intelligible  form.  It 
may  be  objected  that  some  topics,  those  particularly  which 
relate  to  the  Pentateuch,  are  handled  in  too  cursory  a  way. 
The  author  feels  the  difficulty;  but  to  go  into  details  on  this 
subject  would  require  a  volume.  He  has  endeavored  to  do  the 
best  that  was  consistent  with  the  general  plan  of  the  work. 
The  point  of  primary  importance  to  be  maintained  is  the 
divine  authority  and  inspiration  of  the  Pentateuch — the  whole 
Pentateuch  as  it  existed  in  our  Saviour's  day  and  exists  now. 
There  are  difficult  questions  connected  with  both  its  form  and 
the  interpretation  of  certain  parts  of  it  in  res^iect  to  which 
devout  believers  may  honestly  differ.  For  the  discussion  of 
these  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  works  professedly 
devoted  to  the  subject. 

The  present  volume  is  complete  in  itself;  ^-et  it  does  not 
exhaust  the  circle  of  topics  immediately  connected  with  the 
study  of  the  Bible.  It  is  the  author's  purpose  to  add  another 
volume  on  Biblical  Geography  and  Antiquities,  with  a  brief 
survey  of  the  historic  relations  of  the  covenant  people  to  the 
Gentile  world. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

A  CONCISE  VIEW   OF  THE  EVIDENCES   OF  REVEALED 
EELIGION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Introductoey  Eemaeks.  1.  Christianity  rests  on  a  Basis  of  Historic  Facts 
inseparably  connected  from  First  to  Last — 2.  This  Basis  to  be  maintained 
against  Unbelievers — 3.  General  Plan  of  Inquiry" — Christ's  Advent  the  Central 
Point — From  this  We  look  forward  and  backward  to  the  Beginning — 4.  Impor- 
tance of  viewing  Eevelation  as  a  Whole — 5.  Fragmentary  Method  of  Objec- 
tors— Particular  Order  of  the  Parts  in  this  Investigation -page  31 

CHAPTER  II. 

Genuineness  of  the  Gospel  Naeeatives.  1.  Terms  defined — Necessity  of 
knowing  the  Authors  of  the  Gospels— 2.  Kemarks  on  their  Origin — They 
were  not  written  immediately,  but  successively  at  Intervals — Earlier  Docu- 
ments noticed  by  Luke  —  3.  Manner  of  Quotation  by  the  Early  Church 
Fathers— 4.  External  Evidences  traced  upward  from  the  Close  of  the  Second 
Century— Testimony  of  Irenasus — Of  Tertullian — Of  Clement  of  Alexandria- 
Letter  of  the  Churches  of  Lyons  and  Vienne— 5.  Comprehensiveness  and 
Force  of  these  Testimonies — Freedom  of  Judgment  in  the  Primitive  Church- 
es—This shown  by  the  History  of  the  Disputed  Books:— 6,  Public  Character 
and  Use  of  the  Gospels — 7.  Earlier  Testimonies— Justin  Martyr — His  Desig- 
nation of  the  Gospels — They  are  Our  Canonical  Gospels — Explanation  of  his 
Variations  and  Additions — His  References  to  the  Gospel  of  John— 8.  Testi- 
mony of  Papias — 9.  Epistle  to  Diognetus — 10.  The  Apostolic  Fathers— Cle- 
ment of  Eome— Ignatius  Polycar^j — The  So-called  Epistle  of  Barnabas — 11. 
The  Ancient  Versions  and  Muratorian  Canon — Syriac  Peshito— Old  Latin — 
12.  Testimony  of  the  Heretical  Sects— Marcion — Valentinus — Tatian— 13.  Con- 
clusiveness of  the  above  External  Testimony— 14.  Internal  Evidences— Uela.- 
tion  of  the  First  Three  Gospels  to  the  Last— They  differ  in  Time— The  First 
Three  written  before  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  Fourth  after  that 
Event— They  differ  in  Character  and  Contents— Yet  were  all  alike  received  by 
the  Churches — 15.  Eelation  of  the  First  Three  Gospels  to  Each  Other — They 
have  Eemarkable  Agreements  and  Differences— These  and  their  General  Ee- 
ception  explained  by  their  Genuineness — 16.  The  Gospels  contain  no  Trace 
of  Later  Events — 17.  Or  Later  Modes  of  Thought.  18.  From  the  Character 
of  the  Language 36 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Uncobrupt  Peeservation  or  the  Gospel  Narratives.  1.  What  is  meant  by 
an  Uncorrupt  Text— 2.  Ancient  Materials  for  Writing— Palimpsests— Uncial 
and  Cursive  Manuscripts — 3.  The  Apostolic  Autographs  have  perished,  but 
We  have  their  Contents— This  shown  from  the  Agreement  of  Manuscripts— 
From  the  Quotations  of  the  Fathers— From  Ancient  Versions— Character  of 
the  "Various  Eeadings" — They  do  not  affect  the  Substance  of  the  Gospel — 
4.  The  Ancient  Versions  made  from  a  Pure  Text — This  shown  from  the  Pub- 
lic Beading  of  the  Gospels  from  the  Beginning — From  the  Multiplication  of 
Copies— From  the  High  Value  attached  to  the  Gospels— From  the  Want  of 
Time  for  Essential  Corruptions — From  the  Absence  of  all  Proof  of  such  Cor- 
ruptions—5.  The  Above  Bemarks  apply  essentially  to  the  other  New  Testa- 
tament  Books - 59 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Authenticity  and  CEEDZBiiiiTY  or  the  Gospel  Narratives.  1.  General  Be- 
marks—2.  Their  Authors  Sincere  and  Truthful — 3.  Competent  as  Men — 4. 
And  as  Witnesses — 2.  Character  of  the  Works  which  they  record— Super- 
natural Character  of  our  Lord's  Miracles — They  were  very  Numerous  and 
Diversified,  and  performed  openly — 6.  And  in  the  Presence  of  His  Enemies — 
7.  The  Besurrection  of  Jesus— Its  Vital  Importance — 8.  The  Character  of 
Jesus  proves  the  Truth  of  the  Becord— Its  Originality  and  Symmetry— It 
unites  Tranquillity  with  Fervor— Wisdom  with  Freedom  from  Guile— Pru- 
dence with  Boldness — Tenderness  with  Severity' — Humility  with  the  Loftiest 
Claims — He  is  Heavenly-minded  without  Asceticism — His  Perfect  Purity — 
His  Virtues  Imitable  for  All  alike — Our  Lord's  Character  as  a  Teacher — His 
Freedom  from  the  Errors  of  His  Age  and  Nation— His  Beligion  One  for  All 
Men  and  Ages—This  explained  by  its  Divine  Origin — Our  Lord's  Manner  of 
Teaching — His  Divine  Mission — Divinity  of  His  Person— Originality  of  its 
Manifestations — God  His  Father  in  a  Peculiar  Sense— He  is  the  Source  of 
Light  and  Life — He  has  Inward  Dominion  over  the  Soul — He  dwells  in  Be- 
lievers, and  they  in  Him — The  Inference — His  Power  over  the  Human 
Heart — Supernatural  Character  of  the  Gospel — A  Word  on  Objections 6Q 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Acknowledged  Epistles.  1.  These  Books 
a  Natural  Sequel  to  the  Gospels — 2.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles — External  Testi- 
monies— 3.  Internal  Evidence — 4.  Credibility — 5.  Date  of  Composition — 6. 
2he  Acknowledged  Epistles  —  Distinction  of  Acknowledged  and  Disputed 
Books — 7.  First  Group  of  Pauline  Epistles— Second  Group,  or  the  Pastoral 
Epistles — Their  Date — Their  Peculiar  Character — 8.  First  Epistles  of  Peter  and 
First  of  John~9.  Mutual  Belation  between  the  Gospels  and  Later  Books — 
1 0.  Argument  from  Undesigned  Coincidences 87 

CHAPTER  VI. 

•i'HE  Disputed  Books.  1.  The  Question  here  simply  concerning  the  Extent  of 
the  Canon— 2.  The  Primitive  Age  One  of  Free  Inquiry — 3.  Its  Diversity  of 


CONTENTS.  7 

Judgment  no  Decisive  Argument  against  a  Given  Book — 4.  The  Caution  of 
tlie  Early  Churches  gives  Weight  to  their  Judgment — This  Judgment  Nega- 
tive as  well  as  Positive ' 96 

CHAPTER  YII. 

Inspibation  and  the  Canon.  General  Eemarks— 1.  Eule  of  Judgment  deter- 
mined—It is  the  Writer's  Eelation  to  Christ— 2.  Christ  Himself  Infallible— 3. 
The  Apostles— They  held  the  nearest  Eelation  to  Him— Their  Infallibility  us 
Teachers  shown— From  the  Necessity  of  the  Case— From  Christ's  Express 
Promises — From  their  Own  Declarations— Summary  of  the  Argument  in  Ee- 
spect  to  the  Apostles— 4.  Inspiration  of  the  Apostolic  lien — 5.  Argument  from 
the  Character  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament— 6.  The  Inspiration  of  the 
Sacred  Writers  Plenary— 7.  Principles  on  which  the  Canon  is  formed  ---  101 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Inseparable  Connection  between  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.  General 
Eemarks  —  1.  Previous  Eevelations  implied  in  Christ's  Advent — 2.  In  the 
Character  of  the  Jewish  People— 3.  Proved  from  the  New  Testament— Christ's 
Explicit  Declarations— 4.  The  New  Testament  based  on  the  Facts  of  the 
Old— The  Fall  of  Man— The  Abrahamic  Covenant,  which  was  conditioned  on 
Faith  alone,  and  fulfilled  in  Christ— Christ  the  End  of  the  Mosaic  Economy— 
In  its  Prophetical  Order— In  its  Kingly  Office— In  its  Priestly  Office— 5.  The 
New  Testament  Writers  the  Interpreters  of  the  Old 11 3 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Authoeship  of  the  Pentateuch.  Meaning  of  the  Term — 1.  It  existed  in  its 
Present  Form  from  Ezra's  Day — 2.  ' '  The  Law  "  ascribed  to  Moses  in  the  New 
Testament— How  Much  is  included  in  this  Term— 3.  Force  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment Testimony — 4.  The  Law  of  Moses  at  the  Eestoration — 5.  Jewish  Tradi- 
tion that  Ezra  settled  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  —He  left  the  Penta- 
teuch essentially  as  he  fovmd  it— References  to  the  Law  in  the  Books  of 
Kings  and  Chronicles — 6.  Xhe  Book  of  Deuteronomy— Its  Mosaic  Authorship 
Certain — 7.  The  Inference  Certain  that  he  wrote  the  Preceding  Laws— 8.  This 
corroborated  by  their  Form— 9.  By  Eeferences  in  the  New  Testament — And 
the  Old  also— 10.  Eelation  of  Deuteronomy  to  the  Earlier  Precepts— In  Ee- 
spect  to  Time — And  Design— Change  in  Moses'  Personal  Eelation  to  the  Peo- 
ple— Peculiarities  of  Deuteronomy  explained  from  the  Above  Considerations — 
Meaning  of  "the  Words  of  this  Law"  in  Deuteronomy— 11.  Mosaic  Author- 
ship of  Genesis  shown— From  Antecedent  Probability— From  its  Connection 
with  the  Following  Books— Objections  considered— Supposed  Marks  of  a 
Later  Age— And  of  Different  Authors— 12.  Unity  of  the  Pentateuch 120 

CHAPTER  X. 

Authenticity  and  Credibility  of  the  Pentateuch.  1.  Its  Historic  Truth 
assumed  in  the  New  Testament— This  shown  by  Examples— 2.  It  was  the 
Foundation  of  the  Whole  Jewish  Polity— And  could  not  have  been  imposed 


8  CONTENTS. 

upon  tlie  People  by  Fraud — Contrast  between  Mohammed  and  Moses— 3.  Sci- 
entific Difficulties  connected  with  the  Pentateuch — 4.  Alleged  Moral  Difficul- 
ties— Exclusiveness  of  the  Mosaic  Economy — Its  Eestrictions  on  Intercourse 
with  Other  Nations — 5.  Its  Numerous  Ordinances — The  Mosaic  Laws  required 
Spiritual  Obedience — 0.  Objections  from  the  Toleration  of  Certain  Usages — 
7.  Extirpation  of  the  Canaanites — 8.  The  Mosaic  Economy  a  Blessing  to  the 
Whole  World * 134 

CHAPTEB  XL 

Kemaining  Books  of  the  Old  Testament.  1.  General  Remarks — 2.  The  New 
Testament  assumes  their  Divine  Authority — Historical  Books — 3.  Books  not 
strictly  Historical  or  Prophetical — 4.  Prophetical  Books — Argument  from 
Prophecy  for  the  Divine  Origin  of  the  Old  Testament — 5.  Christ  the  Fulfil- 
ment of  Prophecy — In  his  Office  as  a  Prophet — as  a  King — as  a  Priest — 6. 
The  Jewish  Institutions  and  History  a  Perpetual  Adumbration  of  Christ  pre- 
paratory to  His  Advent — 7.  Ptcmarks  on  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament— 8. 
Principle  of  its  Formation— 9.  Inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament 142 

CHAPTEE  XII. 

Evidences  Internal  and  Expekimental.  1.  External  Evidences  Important,  but 
not  Indispensable  to  True  Faith — 2.  Internal  Evidences — View  which  the 
Bible  gives  of  God's  Character — 3.  Code  of  Morals  in  the  Bible— It  is  Spiritual, 
Eeasonable,  and  Comprehensive — Obedience  to  It  the  Sum  of  all  Goodness — 
4.  All  Parts  of  the  Bible  in  Harmony  with  Each  Other — 5.  Power  of  the  Bible 
over  the  Conscience — 6.  Argument  from  Personal  Experience — 7.  From  the 
Character  of  Jesus — 8.  From  General  Experience — The  Love  of  Jesus  the 
Mightiest  Principle  of  Action — Persecution  first  winnows,  then  strengthens 
the  Church — The  Church  corrupted  and  w'eakened  by  Worldly  Alliances — 
9.  The  Gospel  gives  an  Inward  Victory  over  Sin — It  purifies  and  elevates  So- 
ciety— 10.  Its  Self-purifying  Power — 11.  The  Argument  summed  up 149 


PART  II. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 
FIRST  DIVISION— GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTEE  XIII. 

Names  and  External  Fobm  or  the  Old  Testament.  1.  Origin  and  Meaning 
of  the  Word  Bible— Jewish  Designations  of  the  Old  Testament — 2.  Origin  of 
the  Terms  Old  and  New  Testament— Earher  Latm  Term— 2.  The  Unity— 
Sci-ipture  has  its  Ground  in  Divine  Inspiration— Its  Great  Diversity  in  Re- 
spect to  Human  Composition — 4.  Classification  and  Arrangement  of  the  Old 


CONTENTS.  9 

Testament  Books — Classification  of  tlie  Hebrew  ;  of  the  Greek  Version  of 
the  Seventy ;  of  the  Latin  Vulgate — No  One  of  these  follows  entirely  the 
Order  of  Time— 5.  Original  Mode  of  Writing  called  Continuous — 6.  Ancient 
Sections— Open  and  Closed ;  Larger  Sections  called  Parshiyoth  and  Haph- 
taroth— 7.  Chapters  and  Verses — Caution  in  Kespect  to  our  Modern  Chap- 
ters   165 

CHAPTEE  XIV. 

The  Original  Text  and  its  History.  1.  Chaldee  Passages  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  —  Divisions  of  the  Hebrew  and  Cognate  Languages— 2.  The  As- 
syrian or  Square  Character  not  Primitive — Jewish  Tradition  respecting  its 
Origin — 3.  The  Hebrew  Alphabet  and  its  Character — 4.  Change  in  the  Lan- 
guage of  the  Hebrew  Nation — 5.  Introduction  of  the  Vowel-Points  and  Ac- 
cents— The  Question  of  their  Antiquity — 6.  Jewish  Kules  for  the  Guidance 
of  Copyists — Their  Deep  Eeverence  for  the  Sacred  Text— Its  Uncorrupt 
Transmission  to  Us — 7.  Age  and  Character  of  Hebrew  Manuscrij)ts — 8.  Form 
of  Hebrew  Manuscripts — the  Public  in  Kolls,  the  Private  in  the  Book  Form, 
Poetical  Passages,  Columns,  Pen  and  Ink  Accompaniments — 9.  The  Samar- 
itan Pentateuch 175 

CHAPTER  XV. 

FoEMATioN  AND  HiSTOEY  OP  THE  Hebeew  Canon.  1.  Meaning  of  the  Word 
"Canon" — Gradual  Formation  of  the  Hebrew  Canon— Its  Main  Divisions — 
I.  Tlie  Pentateuch— 2.  General  Kemark  on  its  Hebrew  Name— 3.  The  Penta- 
teuch forms  the  Nucleus  of  the3,01d  Testament  Canon — It  was  given  by  Divine 
Authority,  committed  to  the  Charge  of  the  Priests,  kept  by  the  Side  of  the  Ark, 
and  to  be  publicly  read  at  Stated  Times — II.  Tlie  Historical  Books — 4.  The 
Authors  and  Exact  Date  of  Many  of  them  Unknown — Important  Historical 
Documents  were  deposited  in  the  Sanctuary — 5.  The  Authors  of  the  Books  of 
Joshua  and  Judges  made  Use  of  such  Documents — 6.  The  Author  of  the 
Books  of  Samuel  also — 7.  Original  Sources  for  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Chron- 
icles—8.  These  Two  Works  refer  not  to  Each  Other,  but  to  a  Larger  Collection 
of  Original  Documents— 9.  Character  of  these  Documents — They  were  writ- 
ten, in  Part  at  Least,  by  Prophets,  and  they  all  come  to  us  with  the  Stamp 
of  Prophetic  Authority. — 10.  The  Books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther- 
Ill.  The  Prophetical  Books — 11.  The  Books  enumerated — Paucity  of  Proph- 
ets before  Samuel — Schools  of  the  Prophets  established  by  him — The  Proph- 
ets a  Distinct  Order  of  Men  in  the  Theocracy  from  his  Day  onward — 12.  The 
Era  of  Written  Prophecy— IV.  The  Poetical  Books — 13.  Their  General  Char- 
acter—The Book  of  Job — 14.  The  Book  of  Psalms— 15.  Proverbs,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  and  Canticles — Completion  of  the  Canon — 16.  Preservation  of  the  Sacred 
Books  to  the  Time  of  Ezra — The  Law  ;  the  Prophetical  Books  ;  the  Psalms 
and  other  Canonical  Writings — 17.  The  Completion  of  the  Canon  ascribed  by 
the  Jews  to  Ezra  and  his  Coadjutors — This  Tradition  True  for  Substance. 
No  Psalms  written  in  the  Maccabean  Age — 18.  Contents  of  the  Hebrew  Can- 
on—as given  by  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach,  by  Josephus,  by  Origen  and  Euse 

bins,  by  Jerome — 19.  The  Apocryphal  Books 183 

1* 


10  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Ancient  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament.  I.  The  Greek  Version  called  the 
Septuagint— Its  Antiquity ;  its  Great  Influence  on  the  Language  of  the  New 
Testament — 2.  Jewish  Account  of  its  Origin — 3.  Judgment  of  Biblical  Schol- 
ars on  this  Account — 4.  Time  occupied  in  the  Completion  of  the  Work — 2.  In* 
equalities  of  this  Version — Its  Importance  to  the  Biblical  Student — 6.  Its 
Close  Connection  with  the  New  Testament — Quotations  from  it  by  New  Tes- 
tament Writers— Their  Manner  and  Spirit — 7.  Hebrew  Text  from  which  this 
Version  was  made — 11.  Other  Greek  Versions— 8.  The  Septuagint  originally  in 
High  Esteem  among  the  Jews — Change  in  their  Feelings  in  Kegord  to  it, 
and  Kise  of  New  Versions — 9.  Aquila's  Version — 10.  Theodotion — 11.  Sym- 
machus — 12.  Origen's  Labors  on  the  Text  of  the  Septuagint — the  Tetrapla 
and  Hexapla — III.  The  Chaldee  Targums—13.  General  Kemarks  on  these — 
14.  The  Targum  of  Onkelos — Its  General  Fidelity  and  Excellence — Its  Pecu- 
liarities—Jewish Tradition  respecting  Onkelos — 15,  The  Targum  of  Jonathan 
Ben  Uzziel— 16.  Of  Pseudo-Jonathan  and  Jerusalem — 17.  Other  Targums— 
The  Samaritan  Version  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch — IV.  18.  The  Syriac  Pe- 
shito — Its  Age  and  Character - 199- 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Criticism  or  the  Saceed  Text.  1.  The  Object  to  ascertain  its  Primitive  Form — 
2.  Means  at  Our  Disposal — Ancient  Hebrew  Manuscripts — Remarks  on  their 
Quality  and  Age — 3.  Ancient  Versions — 4.  Primary  Printed  Editions — 5.  Par- 
allel Passages — 6.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New — 7.  Quota- 
tions in  the  Talmud  and  by  Rabbinical  Writers — 8.  Critical  Conjecture--  209 


SECOND  DIVISION-  PAETICTJLAB  INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER  XVIIL 

The  Books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  Whole.  1.  Province  of  Particular 
Introduction — The  Necessity  of  Understanding  the  Unity  of  Divine  Revela- 
tion— 2.  Relation  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  Whole  to  the  System  of  Revela- 
tion—It is  a  Preparatory,  Introductory  to  a  Final  Revelation,  of  which  the 
Gospel  everywhere  avails  itself — the  Unity  of  God ;  Vicarious  Sacrifice  ;  Gen- 
eral Principles  ;  Well-developed  State  of  Civilization  —  Connection  ef  the 
Hebrews  with  the  Great  World  Powers — Their  Dispersion  through  the  Nations 
at  our  Lord's  Advent — Relation  of  the  Gospel  to  Civilization — 3.  A  Knowl- 
edge of  the  Preparatory  Character  of  the  Old  Testament  Revelations  enables 
us  to  judge  correctly  concerning  them — Severity  of  the  Mosaic  Laws  ;  Their 
Burdensome  Multiplicity  ;  Objection  from  their  Exclusive  Character  answer- 
ed— 4.  Office  of  each  Division  of  the  Old  Testament  Revelations— the  Penta- 
teuch ;  the  Historical  Books  ;  the  Prophetical  Books — Character  and  Officers 
of  the  Hebrew  Prophets — Era  of  Written  Prophecj^ — The  Poetical  Books — 
.  5.  Each  Particular  Book  has  its  Office — 6.  The  Old  Testament  was  a  Revelation 
for  the  Men  of  its  Own  Age,  as  well  as  for  those  of  Future  Ages — the  Promise 


CONTENTS.  11 

made  to  Abraham  ;  the  Deliverance  from  Egypt ;  the  Mosaic  Law  ;  the  Words 
of  the  Prophets  ;  the  Psalms  of  David  ;  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon — 7.  Value  of 
the  Old  Testament  Eevelations  to  us — the  System  of  Divine  Kevelation  can  be 
understood  only  as  a  Whole ;  Constant  Keference  of  the  New  Testament  to 
the  Old  ;  the  Old  Testament  a  Record  of  God's  Dealings  with  Men  ;  the  Prin- 
ciples embodied  iu  the  Theocracy  Eternal ;  the  Manifold  Wisdom  of  God 
seen  only  when  the  Whole  System  of  Kevelation  is  studied 214 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

The  Pentateuch.  1.  Its  Unity— Its  Fivefold  Division— I,  Genesis— 2.  Its  He- 
brew Name — Its  Greek  Name — 3.  Its  Office — It  is  the  Introductory  Book  of 
the  Pentateuch — Its  Connection  with  the  Following  Books— 4.  Divisions  of 
the  Book  of  Genesis — First  Part  and  its  Contents  ;  Second  Part  and  its  Con- 
tents— 5.  Its  Mosaic  Authorship — Supposed  Traces  of  a  Later  Hand — G.  Dif- 
ficulties connected  with  the  Pentateuch — Scientific  Difficulties  :  the  Six  Days 
of  Creation  ;  the  Age  of  the  Antediluvian  Patriarchs  ;  the  Unity  of  the  Human 
Race  ;  the  Deluge— Historical  Difficulties  :  the  Two  Accounts  of  the  Crea- 
tion ;  Cain's  Wife — Chronological  Difficulties  :  Discrepancies  between  the 
Masoretic  Hebrew,  the  Samaritan  Hebrew,  and  the  Septuagint,  in  Respect  to 
(1)  the  Antediluvian  Genealogy  ;  (2)  the  Genealogy  from  Noah  to  Abraham — 
Remarks  on  these  Discrepancies — 11.  Exodus — 7.  Hebrew  Name  of  this  Book — 
Its  Unity — Its  Two  Chief  Divisions — Contents  of  the  First  Division ;  of  the 
Second  Division — 8.  Time  of  the  Sojourn  in  Egypt— Sojourn  in  the  Wilder- 
ness— III.  Leviticus — 9.  Its  Character  and  Contents — 10.  The  Priestly  Office 
and  Sacrifices  the  Central  Part  of  the  Mosaic  Law — IV.  Numbers — IL  Office 
and  Contents  of  this  Book — The  Three  Epochs  of  its  History  :  the  Depar- 
ture from  Sinai,  the  Rebellion  of  the  People  upon  the  Report  of  the  Twelve 
Spies,  the  Second  Arrival  of  Israel  at  Kadesh  witb  the  Events  that  followed — 
V.  Deuteronomy— V2.  Its  Peculiar  Character,  Divieions,  and  Contents— 13.  It 
brings  the  Whole  Pentateuch  to  a  Suitable  Close 224 


CHAPTER  XX. 

The  Histokicae  Books.  1  and  2.  Their  Office  to  Unfold  the  History  of  God's 
Dealings  with  the  Covenant  People — General  Remarks  on  the  Character  of 
this  History ^-I.  Joshua — 3.  Contents  of  this  Book.  Its  Immediate  Connec- 
tion with  the  Pentateuch — Its  Two  Divisions  with  their  Contents — 4.  Its 
Authorship— 5.  Its  Authenticity  and  Credibility — The  Miracle  of  the  Arrest 
of  the  Sun  and  Moon  in  their  Course— II.  Judges  and  Ruth — 6.  Name  of  this 
Book — Office  of  the  Judges  whose  History  it  records— -Condition  of  the 
Hebrew  Nation  during  the  Administration  of  the  Judges — Office  of  this  Book 
in  the  General  Plan  of  Redemption — 7.  Arrangement  of  its  Materials — its 
Twofold  Introduction  ;  the  Body  of  its  History  ;  its  Two  Appendixes— 8,  Ita 
Date  and  Authorship — 9.  Uncertainty  of  its  Chronology — 10,  The  Book  of 
Ruth.  Its  Place  in  the  History  of  Redemption — III.  The  Books  of  Samuel— 
11.  The  Two  Books  of  Samuel  originally  One  Work— Their  Name— 12.  Their 
Office  in  the  History  of  Redemption— Eventful  Character  of  the  Period  whose 
History  they  record— Change   to  the  Kingly   Form   of  Government —God's 


12  CONTENTS. 

Design  in  this— The  Kingly  Office  Typical  of  Christ— 13.  Contents  of  the 
Books  of  Samuel— Introductory  Division  ;  Second  Division  ;  Third  Division — 
14.  Authorship  and  Date  of  their  Composition — IV.  The  Books  of  Kings — 15. 
They  Originally  constituted  a  Single  Book— Their  Names  and  Office — Their 
Manner  of  Execution — Their  Main  Divisions— 16.  The  First  Period— 17,  The 
Second  Period — 18.  The  Third  Period— 19.  Chronology  of  the  Books  of  Kings. 
Their  Date  and  Authorship— V,  The  Books  of  Chronicles— 20.  They  originally 
constituted  One  AVork — Their  Various  Names — They  constitute  an  Indepen- 
dent V^ork— Their  Office  different  from  that  of  the  Books  of  Kings— Peculi- 
arities which  distinguish  them  from  these  Books— Particular  Attention  to  the 
Matter  of  Genealogy  ;  Fullness  of  Detail  in  Kespect  to  the  Temple  Service  ; 
Omission  of  the  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel ;  other  Omissions— 21.  Posi- 
tion of  the  Chronicles  in  the  Hebrew  Canon — Their  Authorship  and  Date — 
Their  Relation  to  the  Books  of  Kings — 22.  Difficulties  connected  with  these 
Books— VI.  Ezra  and  Nehemiah — 23.  General  Kemarks  on  these  Books — Change 
in  the  Kelation  of  the  Hebrews  to  the  Gentile  Nations — Gradual  Withdrawal  of 
Supernatural  Manifestations — 24.  While  the  Theocracy  went  steadily  forward 
to  the  Accomplishment  of  its  End — The  Jews  reclaimed  from  Idolatry  in  Con- 
nection with  the  Captivity — Establishment  of  the  Synagogue  Service  and  its 
Great  Influence — 25.  The  Book  of  Ezra — Its  Authorship — Parts  written  in 
Chaldee  —  Persian  Monarchs  mentioned  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah— 26.  The 
Book  of  Nehemiah  —  Its  Contents  and  Divisions — First  Division  ;  Second 
Division;  Third  Division  —  27.  Authorship  and  Date  of  the  Book — VII. 
Esther — 28.  Contents  of  this  Book — Feast  of  Purim — 29.  The  Ahasuerus  of 
this  Book — Remarks  on  its  History «•- 240 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

The  Poetical  Books  (including  also  Ecclesiastes  and  Canticles).  1.  Books 
reckoned  as  Poetical  by  the  Hebrews  —  Hebrew  System  of  Accentuation — 
A.  Characteristics  of  Hebrew  Poetry— Its  Spirit— Hai-mony  with  the  Spirit  of  the 
Theocracy ;  Vivid  Consciousness  of  God's  Presence  ;  Originality ;  Freshness 
and  Simplicity  of  Thought ;  Variety — Job  and  Isaiah,  David,  Solomon  ;  Diver- 
sity of  Themes  ;  Oriental  Imagery  ;  Theocratic  Imagery— i^5r?n  o/ i/e&reio  Po- 
etry—3.  Its  llhythm  that  of  Clauses — Antithetic  Parallelism  ;  Synonymous 
Parallelism  ;  Synthetic  Parallelism — Combinations  of  the  above  Forms — • 
Freedom  of  Hebrew  Poetry — Peculiarities  of  Diction — O^ce  of  Hebrew  Po- 
etry—  4.  The  Celebration  of  God's  Interpositions  in  Behalf  of  the  Cove- 
nant People  ;  Song  for  the  Sanctuary  Service  ;  Didactic  Poetry  ;  Prophetic 
Poetry — B.  The  Several  Poetical  Books  —  I.  Job— I.  Survey  of  its  Plan — 
6.  Its  Design  to  Show  the  Nature  of  God's  Providential  Government  over 
Men — 7.  Age  to  which  Job  belonged — Age  and  Authorship  of  the  Book — 
8.  Its  Historic  Character  —  II.  The  Book  of  Psalms— d.  Its  Office  —  Au- 
thors of  the  Psalms — Date  of  their  Composition — 10.  External  Division  of 
the  Psalms  into  five  Books — First  Book  ;  Second  Book  ;  Third  Book  ;  Fourth 
Book  ;  Fifth  Book — Subscription  appended  to  the  Second  Book — Principle  of 
Arrangement — Attempted  Classification  of  the  Psalms— Frequent  Quotation 
of  the  Psalms  in  the  New  Testament — 11.  Titles  of  the  Psalms— the  Dedica- 
tory Title  ;  Titles  relating  to  the  Character  of  the  Composition  to  the  Musical 


CONTENTS.  13 

Instruments,  or  the  Mode  of  Musical  Performance — These  Titles  very  Ancient, 
but  not  in  all  Cases  Original — III.  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon — 12.  Place  of  this 
Book  in  the  System  of  Divine  Kevelation — 13.  Its  Outward  Form — First 
Part ;  Second  Part ;  Third  Part ;  Fourth  Part — 14.  Arrangement  of  the  Book 
in  its  Present  Form — IV.  Ecdesiastes — 15.  Authorship  of  this  Book  and  its 
View  of  Life — 16.  Summary  of  its  Contents— V.  The  Song  of  Solomon — 17. 
Meaning  of  the  Title.  Ancient  Jewish  and  Christian  View  of  this  Song — 18. 
It  is  not  a  Drama,  but  a  Series  of  Descripture  Pictures — Its  Great  Theme — 
Caution  in  Bespect  to  the  Spiritual  Interpretation  of  it 265 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

The  Greatee  Pkophets.  1.  GeneralKemarksonthePropheticalWritings— 2.  Dif- 
ferent Offices  of  the  Prophets  under  the  Theocracy— Their  Office  as  Reprov- 
ers— 3.  As  Expounders  of  the  Mosaic  Law  in  its  Spirituality — 4.  And  of  its 
End,  which  was  Salvation  through  the  Future  Redeemer — They  wrote  in  the 
Decline  of  the  Theocracy — Their  Promises  fulfilled  only  in  Christ— I.  Isaiah — 
5.  He  is  the  First  in  Order,  but  not  the  Earliest  of  the  Prophets— His  Private 
History  almost  wholly  Unknown— Jewish  Tradition  Concerning  him — Period  of 
his  Proi^hetic  Activity — 6.  Two  Great  Divisions  of  his  Prophecies — Plans  for 
Classifying  the  Contents  of  the  First  Part — Analysis  of  these  Contents — Gen- 
eral Character  of  the  Second  Part,  and  View  of  its  Contents — 7.  Objections  to 
the  Genuineness  of  the  Last  Part  of  Isaiah  and  Certain  Other  Parts — General 
Principle  on  which  these  Objections  are  to  be  met — Previous  Preparation  for 
the  Revelations  contained  in  this  Part — True  Significance  of  the  Promises 
which  it  contains — Form  of  these  Promises — Mention  of  Cyrus  by  Name — 
Objection  from  the  Character  of  the  Style  considered — 8.  Direct  Arguments 
for  the  Genuineness  of  this  Part — External  Testimony  ;  Internal  Evidences— 

9.  Genuineness  of  the  Disputed  Passages  of  the  First  Part  —  II.  Jeremiah — 

10.  Contrast  between  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  in  Personal  Character  and  Circum- 
stances—Our Full  Knowledge  of  his  Outward  Personal  History  and  Inward 
Conflicts — 11.  His  Priestly  Descent — His  Native  Place — Period  of  his  Pro- 
phetic Activity — Degeneracy  of  the  Age — Persecutions  to  which  his  Fidelity 
subjected  him— He  is  more  occupied  than  Isaiah  with  the  Present— His  Mis- 
sion is  emphatically  to  unfold  the  Connection  between  National  Profligacy 
and  National  Ruin  ;  yet  he  sometimes  describes  the  Glory  of  the  Latter 
Days — 12.  The  Chronological  Order  not  always  followed  in  his  Prophecies — 
General  Divisions  of  them — First  Division ;  Second  Division ;  Appendix — 
Attempts  to  disprove  the  Genuineness  of  Certain  Parts  of  Jeremiah — T%e 
Book  of  Lamentations— 13.  Its  Hebrew  Name— Its  Authorship  and  the  Time 
of  its  Composition— 14,  Structure  of  its  Poetry— HI.  JEzekiel— 15.  His  Priest- 
ly Descent  and  Residence— Notices  of  his  Personal  History — Period  of  his 
Prophetic  Activity — 16.  Peculiarities  of  his  Style~17.  His  Allegoric  and 
Symbolic  Representations— General  Remarks  on  the  Nature  of  Allegories  and 
Symbols— 18.  The  Two  Divisions  of  the  Book— Contents  of  the  First  Part ;  of 
the  Second  Part— Prophecies  against  Foreign  Nations— Promises  relating  to 
the  Glory  of  the  Latter  Days— Ezekiel's  Vision  of  a  New  Jerusalem  with  its 
Temple— Meaning  of  this  Vision  and  Principles  according  to  which  it  is  to  be 
interpreted  — IV.  Daniel— 19.  Its  Place  in  the  Hebrew  Canon— Notices  of 
Daniel's  Personal  History— 20.  Arrangement  and  Contents  of  the  Book— First 


14  CONTENTS. 

Series  of  Prophecies  ;  Second  Series  —  Intimate  Connection  between  the  Book 
of  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse — 21.  Assaults  made  upon  the  Book  of  Daniel  in 
Kespect  to  its  Genuineness  and  Credibility — Grounds  on  which  it  is  received 
as  a  Part  of  the  Sacred  Canon — Its  Unity  ;  Uniform  Tradition  of  the  Jews  and 
its  Eeliability  ;  Testimony  of  Josephus  ;  of  the  Saviour ;  Language  and 
Style  ;  Intimate  Acquaintance  with  the  Historical  Kelations  and  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Age— 22.  Insufficiency  of  the  Various  Objections  urged  against 
the  Book — Chronological  and  Historical  Difficulties  ;  Difficulties  connected 
with  the  Identification  of  Belshazzar  and  Darius  the  Mede  ;  Silence  of  Jesus 
the  Son  of  Sirach  respecting  Daniel ;  Alleged  Linguistic  Difficulties ;  Com- 
mendations bestowed  upon  Daniel — The  Eeal  Objection  to  the  Book  on  the 
Part  of  its  Opponents  lies  in  the  Supernatural  Character  of  the  Events  which 
it  records — Ptemarks  on  this  Objection 294 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

The  Twelve  Minor  Pkophets — 1.  Jewish  Arrangement  of  these  Books — Their 
Order  in  the  Masoretic  Text  and  in  the  Alexandrine  Version — 2.  General 
Remarks  on  their  Character— I.  Rosea — 3.  Period  of  his  Prophecjdng  and  its 
Character — 4.  Peculiarity  of  his  Style — Contents  of  the  Book— II.  Joel — 5. 
Place  and  Date  of  his  Prophecies — 6.  Character  and  Contents  of  his  Book — 
III.  Amos — 7.  Date  of  his  Prophecies — Notices  of  his  Person — He  was  a 
Jew,  not  trained  in  any  Prophetical  School,  and  sent  to  proishesy  against 
Israel — Character  and  Contents  of  his  Writings — IV.  Obadlah — 8.  Date  and 
Contents  of  his  Prophecy — V.  Jonah — 9.  His  Age  — 10.  Bemarks  on  the 
History  of  the  Book — 11.  Authorship  and  Historic  Truth  of  the  Book — 
VI.  Micah  — 12.  His  Residence  and  the  Time  of  his  Prophetic  Activity — 
His  Prophecies  directed  against  both  Israel  and  Judah  — 13.  Divisions 
of  the  Book  with  the  Contents  of  Each — Passages  Common  to  Micah  and 
Isaiah — General  Agreement  between  the  Two  Prophets — VII.  Nalmm — 14. 
His  Prophecy  directed  against  Nineveh  —  Its  Probable  Date — 15.  Contents 
of  the  Book— Vin.  Eahakkuk—16.  Date  of  the  Book  and  its  Contents—Re- 
marks on  the  Ode  contained  in  the  Third  Chapter — IX.  Zephaniah — 17.  Date 
and  Contents  of  his  Book — X.  Eaggal — 18.  Date  and  Scope  of  the  Book — 19. 
Its  Different  Messages — XI.  Zechariah — 20.  His  Priestly  Descent — Date  of  his 
Prophecies — 21.  The  Three  Divisions  of  the  Book — First  Division  ;  Second 
Division;  Third  Division — 22.  Remarks  on  the  Character  of  Zechariah's  Proph- 
ecies— XII.  Malachi — 23.  Name  of  this  Prophet — Date  of  his  Prophecies,  and 
Condition  of  the  Jewish  People — 24  Contents  of  the  Book 332 

APPENDIX    TO    PAET    II. 

The  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  Old  Testajment — 1.  The  Term  Apocrypha  and 
its  Origin— 2.  Remarks  on  the  Date  of  the  Apocryphal  Books — Their  Re- 
ception by  the  Alexandrine  Jews — 3.  History  of  these  Books  in  the  Christian 
Church— 4.  Their  Uses— I.  T'he  Two  Books  of  Esdras—5.  Name  of  this  Book- 
Its  Contents — Its  Date— 6.  The  Second  Book  of  Esdras  found  only  in  Ver- 
sions—Remarks on  these  Versions  — 7.  Its  Contents  and  Date  — II.  Tohit — 
8.  Accoiints  of  the  Contents  of  thisBook  — 9.  Various  Texts  in  which  this  Book 


CONTENTS.  15 

is  Extant— Its  General  Scope— III.  Judith— 10.  Contents  of  the  Book— 11. 
Remarks  on  its  Character,  Date,  and  Design— IV.  Additions  to  the  Book  of 
Esther— 12.  Account  of  these— V.  The  Wisdom  of  Solo7non—13.  Its  Divisions 
and  their  Contents— 14.  Authorship  of  the  Book— Its  Merits  and  Defects— 
VI.  Eccleslasticus— 15.  Its  Titles  and  Contents— 16.  Date  of  the  Book  and  of 
its  Translation— VIL  Baruch  and  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah— 17.  Character  and 
Contents  of  the  Book  of  Baruch— 18.  Second,  or  Syriac  Book  of  Baruch— 19. 
So-called  Epistle  of  Jeremiah— VIII.  Additions  to  the  Book  of  Daniel— 20.  Enu- 
meration of  these— Their  Authorship  and  Date— IX.  Tlie  Prayer  of  Manasses^ 
21.  Remarks  on  this  Composition— X.  The  Books  of  the  31accabees— 22.  Num- 
ber of  these  Books— Remarks  on  their  Historic  Order— Origin  of  the  Name 
Maccabee— 23.  First  Book— Its  Genuineness  and  Credibility— Its  Authorship 
and  Date— Original  Language— 24.  Second  Book— Its  Character  and  Con- 
tents—25.  Third  Book— Its  Contents  and  Character— Fourth  Book— Its  Stoi- 
cal Character— Its  Contents— Fifth  Book— Its  Original  Language  and  Con- 
tents  r - • ^^^ 


PART  III. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
FIRST  DIVISION— GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Language  of  the  New  Testament— 1.  God's  Providence  as  seen  in  the  Lan- 
guages of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments— Fitness  of  the  Hebrew  for  its  Office 
in  History,  Poetry,  and  Prophecy— 2.  Adaptation  of  the  Greek  to  the  Wants 
of  the  New  Testament  Writers— 3.  Providential  Preparation  for  a  Change  in 
the  Language  of  the  Inspired  Writings— Cessation  of  the  Hebrew  as  the  Ver- 
nacular of  the  Jews,  and  Withdrawal  of  the  Spirit  of  Prophecy  Contempora- 
neous- 4.  Introduction  of  the  Greek  Language  into  Asia  and  Egypt— Its  Use 
among  the  Jews,  especially  in  Egypt— Its  General  Use  in  our  Lord's  Day— 
5.  Character  of  the  New  Testament  Greek— Its  Basis  the  Common  Hellenic 
Dialect,  with  an  Hebraic  Coloring  received  from  the  Septuagint,  and  an  Ara- 
maic Tinge  also— The  Writers  of  the  New  Testament  Jews  using  the  Language 
of  Greece  for  the  Expression  of  Christian  Ideas— Technical  Termsln  the  New 
Testament— 6.  Adaptation  of  the  New  Testament  Greek  to  its  Office 365 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

ExTEENAi  FoBM  OF  THE  New  Testaj^ient— 1.  The  Three  Main  Divisions  of  the 
New  Testament  Writings:  Historical,  Epistolary,  Prophetical— 2.  Natural 
Order  of  these  Divisions  -3.  Subdivisions— In  the  Historic  Part— In  the  Epis- 
tolary Part— Diversity  of  Arrangement  in  Manuscripts~4.  Arrangement  of 
the   New  Testament  Writings  not  Chronological— Importance  of  Knowing 


16  CONTENTS. 

this — 5.  Continuous  Writing  of  the  Ancient  Uncial  Manuscripts — Stichomet- 
rical  Mode  of  Writing — This  led  gradually  to  the  Present  System  of  Inter- 
punction  Cursive  Manuscripts — 7.  Ancient  Divisions  in  the  Contents  of  the 
Sacred  Text — Ammonian  Sections  and  Eusebian  Canons — 8.  Divisions  called 
Titles — 9.  Divisions  of  the  Other  New  Testament  Books — 10.  Chapters  and 
Verses — Church  Lessons — 11.  Remarks  on  the  above  Divisions — Paragraph 
Bibles— 12.  Titles  and  Subscriptions 371 

CHAPTEE  XXVL 

The  New  Testament  Text  and  its  History — I.  The  Manuscript  Text — 1  and  2. 
General  Eemarks — 3.  Origin  of  Various  Readings  and  their  Classification — 
Substitutions,  Insertions,  Omissions — Arising  from  Inadvertence,  or  Unskilful 
Criticism— Wilful  Falsifications  cannot  be  imputed  to  the  Copyists — 4,  Materi- 
als for  Textual  Criticism— General  Results— 5.  Notice  of  some  Manuscripts — 
The  Vatican,  Sinai,  Alexandrine,  Ephraem,  Palimpsest,  Dublin  Palimpsest, 
Beza  or  Cambridge  (Bilingual),  Purple,  Cursive  Manuscripts — II.  The  Printed 
Text  —  6.  Primary  Editions  and  their  Sources  — Complutensian  Polyglott, 
Erasmian,  Stephens',  Beza's,  Elzevir  Editions — 7.  Remarks  on  the  Re- 
ceived Text — III.  Principles  of  Textual  Criticism — 8.  Its  End—Sources  of  Evi- 
dence— Greek  Manuscripts — Their  varying  Value — 9.  Ancient  Versions  and 
their  Value  — 10.  Citations  of  the  Church  Fathers — 11.  Canons  of  Criti- 
cism  38) 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

FoEMATioN  AND  HisTOEY  OP  THE  New  TESTAMENT  Canon — 1.  General  Remarks — 

2,  Difi'erent  Periods  to  be  noticed — 3.  Apostolic  Age — 4.  Age  of  the  Apostolic 
Fathers— Remarks  on  their  Quotations — 5.  Age  of  Transition — Events  of  this 
Age  which  awakened  the  Christian  Church  to  a  Full  Consciousness  of  the 
Divine  Authority  of  the  Apostolic  Writings — Execution  of  Versions — 6.  Age 
of  the  Earlj"-  Church  Fathers — They  recognized  a  Canon,  though  not  yet  Com- 
plete— Canon  of  the  Syriac  Peshito,  Muratorian  Canon — Canon  of  the  Coun- 
cils of  Laodicea  and  Carthage— 7.  Closing  Eemarks 394 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Ancient  Versions  or  the  New  Testament — I.  Latin  Versions — 1.  Interest  at- 
taching to  these  Versions — 2.  The  Ante-Hieronymian  or  Old  Latin  Version — 

3.  Its  Canon — Remarks  on  its  Text — Manuscripts  containing  it— 4.  Jerome's 
Revision  of  the  Old  Latin  Version — 5.  Jerome's  New  Version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament— Books  left  untranslated — The  Vulgate  and  its  Diversified  Character — 
Remarks  on  the  History  of  the  Vulgate — II.  Syriac  Versions — 6.  The  Peshi- 
to— It  comprises  the  Old  and  New  Testaments — Its  Date — Its  Name — 7.  Char- 
acter of  the  Peshito — The  Curetonian  Syriac — Its  Relation  to  the  Peshito— 
Its  high  Critical  Value — 8.  The  Philoxenian  Syriac — Its  extremely  Literal 
Character — Hexaplar  Syriac — Remarks  on  these  Versions — Jerusalem  Syriac 
Lectionary — HI.  Egyptian  and  Ethiopic  Versions — MemiDhitic  Version,  The- 
baic, Bashmuric — 10.  Ethiopic  Version — IV.  Gothic  and  other  Versions — 11. 
Gothic  Version  of  Ulphilas — 12.  Palimpsest  Manuscripts  of  this  Ve^rsion — 13. 
Ancient  Armenian  Version - - 400 


CONTENTS.  17 


SECOND  DIVISION— PAETICULAR  INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

The  Histoeical  Books — 1.  The  New  Testament  a  Necessary  Sequel  to  the  Old — 
The  Two  Testaments  interpret  Each  Other,  and  can  be  truly  understood  only 
as  an  Organic  Whole — 2.  Remarks  on  the  Use  Made  of  the  Old  Testament  by 
the  Writers  of  the  New — Fundamental  Character  of  the  Gospel  Narratives — • 
I.  The  Gospel  as  a  Whole — 3.  Signification  of  the  Word  "  Gospel" — Its  Prima- 
ry and  Secondary''  Application  —  4.  General  Remarks  on  the  Relation  of  the 
Gospels  to  Each  Other — 5.  Agreements  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels— 6.  Differ- 
ences—7.  Theories  of  the  Origin  of  these  Three  Gospels:  That  of  Mutual 
Dependence;  That  of  Original  Documents;  That  of  Oral  Apostolic  Tradition — 
Remarks  on  this  Tradition — Its  Distinction  from  Tradition  in  the  Modern 
Sense— 8.  No  One  of  the  Gospels  gives  the  Entire  History  of  our  Lord,  nor 
always  observes  the  Strict  Chronological  Order  of  Events — Remarks  on  our 
Lord's  Life  before  his  Baptism — 9.  Remarks  on  the  Peculiar  Character  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel — This  and  the  other  Three  mutually  Supplementary  to  Each 
Other — 10.  Harmonies  of  the  Gospels — Relative  Size  of  the  Gospels— II.  Mat- 
ihevo — 11.  Personal  Notices  of  Matthew — 12.  Original  Language  of  his  Gos- 
pel— The  Problem  stated — 13.  Testimony  of  the  Ancients  on  this  Point — 14. 
Various  Hypotheses  considered — 15.  Primary  Design  of  this  Gospel  to  show 
that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  Promised  Messiah — 16.  He  is  also  exhibited  as 
the  Saviour  of  the  World — 17.  Fulness  of  Matthew's  Record  in  Respect  to  our 
Lord's  Discourses — 18.  He  does  not  always  follow  the  Exact  Order  of  Time — 
19.  Place  B<nd  Date — 20.  Integrity — Genuineness  of  the  First  Two  Chapters — 
III.  Mark  —  21.  Personal  Notices  of  Mark  —  Intimate  Relation  of  Mark  to 
Peter  and  Paul — 22.  Place — Date — Language — 23.  Design  of  this  Gospel  to 
exhibit  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God — He  makes  the  Works  of  Jesus  more  Promi- 
nent than  his  Discourses— 24.  Characteristics  of  Mark  as  a  Historian — 25. 
Closing  Passage  in  Mark's  Gospel — IV.  Luke — 26.  Notices  of  Luke  in  the 
New  Testament — 27.  Sources  of  his  Gospel — His  Relation  to  Paul — 28.  Date 
and  Place  of  Writing — 29.  Universal  Aspect  of  Luke's  Gospel — 30.  Its  Char- 
acter and  Plan — Comparison  of  the  Gospels  in  Respect  to  Peculiar  Matter 
and  Concordances — 31.  Integrity  of  Luke's  Gospel — The  Two  Genealogies  of 
Matthew  and  Luke — V.  John — 32.  John's  Manner  of  indicating  himself — 33. 
Personal  Notices  of  him — 34.  Late  Composition  of  his  Gospel  and  Place  of 
Writing — 35.  Peculiarity  of  this  Gospel  in  Respect  to  Subject-Matter~Its 
Relation  to  the  First  Three  Gospels— 36.  General  Design  of  this  Gospel — It  is 
peculiarly  the  Gospel  of  Christ's  Person — VI.  Acts  of  the  Apostles— 37.  Author 
of  this  Book — 38.  Plan  of  the  Book— Its  First  Division  ;  Second  Division — 
Notices  of  Antioch— 39.  Office  of  this  Book — Portraiture  of  the  Apostolic  Aga 
of  Christianity  ;  Cursory  View  of  the  Inauguration  of  the  Christian  Church  ; 
Various  Steps  by  which  the  Abolition  of  the  Middle  Wall  of  Partition  between 
Jews  and  Gentiles  was  effected — 40.  Concluding  Remarks 410 


18  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

The  Epistles  of  Paul — 1.  General  Eemarks  on  the  Epistles — 2.  Paul's  Epis- 
tles all  -written  in  tlie  Prosecution  of  liis  Work  as  the  Apostle  to  the  Gen- 
tiles—Nature of  this  Work — 3.  Paul's  Peculiar  Qualifications  for  this  Work^ 
His  Mode  of  Procedure— Union  in  him  of  Firmness  and  Flexibility— 4.  Char- 
acter of  the  Apostle's  Style— 5.  Points  to  be  noticed  in  the  Separate  Epis- 
tles— Notices  of  Paul's  Labors  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles— 6.  Present  Arrange- 
ment of  Paul's  Epistles  and  of  the  Epistles  generally — Chronological  Order  of 
Paul's  Epistles — Four  Groups  of  these  Epistles — I.  Epistle  to  the  Romans — 
7.  Date  and  Place  of  this  Epistle— 8.  Composition  of  the  Eoman  Church — 
9.  Occasion  and  Design  of  the  Epistle — Its  General  Outlines — 10,  Special 
Office  of  this  Epistle — II.  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians — First  Epistle — 11,  Place 
and  Time  of  its  Composition — 12,  Notices  of  the  Corinthian  Church — Occa- 
sion of  the  Apostle's  Writing — 13.  General  Tone  of  the  Epistle  as  contrasted 
with  that  to  the  Galatians — Second  Epistle — 14,  Place  and  Time  of  its  Compo- 
sition— 15,  Its  Occasion— Prominence  of  the  Apostle's  Personality  in  this 
Epistle  and  its  Ground — Peculiarities  of  its  Diction — Its  Office  in  the  Econo- 
my of  Eevelation — III,  EpAstle  to  the  Galatians— IQ.  Historical  Notice  of  Gala- 
tia  —  Missionary  Visits  of  the  Apostle  to  that  Province — Date  of  the  Present 
Epistle  and  Place  of  Composition — 17,  Occasion  and  Design — 18.  Outlines  of 
the  Epistle — The  Historic  Part,  the  Argumentative,  the  Practical— IV.  Epis- 
tles to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians,  and  Philemon— 19.  Contemporaneousness  of 
these  Epistles— 20,  Place  and  Date— 21.  Chronological  Order  of  the  First 
Two — Epistle  to  the  Colossians — 22,  Notices  of  Colosse  and  the  Church  there — 
Occasion  of  this  Epistle— Character  of  the  False  Teachers  at  Colosse — 23.  Out- 
lines of  the  Epistle— Its  Argumentative  Part,  its  Practical — The  Epistle  from 
Laodicea — Epistle  to  the  Ephesians — 24,  Notices  of  Ephesus — Labors  of  Paul 
at  Ephesus — Occasion  of  the  Present  Epistle — Its  General  Character — Vari- 
ous Hypotheses  respecting  it— 25,  Its  Outlines — Its  Argumentative  Part,  its 
Practical — Epistle  io  Philemon — 26.  Its  Occasion  and  Design — Y.  Epistleioihe 
Philippians — 27.  Notices  of  Philippi  and  the  Formation  of  the  Church  there — 
28.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle — Place  and  Date  of  its  Composition  —  29.  Its 
Character — General  View  of  its  Contents — VI.  Epistles  to  the  Tliessalonians^ 
30.  Notices  of  Thessalonica  and  the  Apostle's  Labors  there — First  Epistle  io  the 
Tliessalonians — 31.  DateandPlace  of  its  Composition — 32.  Its  Occasion  and  De- 
sign—Outlines  of  the  Epistle— Second  Epistle — 33,  Place  of  Writing  and  Date — 
Its  Design — Its  General  Outlines — 34.  Comparison  between  the  EjDistles  to 
the  Thessalonians  and  that  to  the  Philippians — ^VII.  The  Pastoral  Epistles — 
35,  The  Date  of  these  Epistles  and  Eelated  Questions— 36,  Character  of  the 
False  Teachers  referred  to  in  these  Epistles — 37,  Genuineness  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles— 38,  Their  Office— i^irsi  Ejnstle  io  Timothy— ?>9.  Its  Date  and  Place  of 
Composition — Its  Occasion  and  Design — Its  Contents — Scriptural  Notices  of 
Timothy — Epistle  io  Titus — 40,  Its  Agreement  with  the  Preceding  Epistle — 
The  Cretan  Church  and  Titus — Second  Epistle  io  Timothy — 41,  Its  Occasion  and 
Character  in  Contrast  with  the  Two  Preceding  Epistles — Its  Office — Epistle  io 
the  Hebrews— i2.  Question  of  its  Authorship — How  it  was  regarded  in  the 
Eastern  Church— How  in  the  Western — General  Eemark— 43.  Persons  ad- 


CONTENTS.  ly 

dressed  in  this  Epistle — Time  and  Place  of  its  Composition — Manner  of  Refer- 
ence to  the  Levitical  Priesthood  and  Temple  Services — 44.  Central  Theme  of 
this  Epistle — Dignity  of  Christ's  Person  in  Contrast  with  the  Ancient  Proph- 
ets, with  Angels,  and  with  Moses— Divine  Efficacy  of  his  Priesthood  in  Con- 
trast with  that  of  the  Sons  of  Aaron — Design  of  the  Epistle — Its  Office  in  the 
System  of  Revelation 445 

CHAPTEE  XXXI. 

The  Catholic  Epistles  —  1.  Origin  of  the  Name  "Catholic"  —  I.  Epistle  of 
James — 2.  Question  respecting  the  Person  of  James — 3.  Place  of  Writing  this 
Epistle — Persons  addressed — 4.  Question  of  its  Date — 5.  Its  Genuineness  and 
Canonical  Authority — 6.  Its  Practical  Character — Alleged  Disagreement  be- 
tween Paul  and  James  without  Foundation — II.  Epistles  of  Peter — First  Epis- 
tle—7.  Its  Canonical  Authority  always  acknowledged — 8.  Persons  addressed — 
9.  Place  of  its  Composition — Its  Occasion  and  Date — Traditions  respecting 
Peter — 10.  Outline  of  the  Epistle — Second  Epistle— 11.  Persons  addressed— 
Time  of  Writing — 12.  Question  respecting  the  Genuineness  of  this  Epistle  — 
External  Testimonies — Internal  Evidence— General  Result — 13.  Object  of  the 
Present  Epistle — Peculiar  Character  of  the  Second  Chapter — Its  Agreement 
with  the  Epistle  of  Jude — III.  Epistles  of  John— First  Ej^istle  of  John — 14.  Its 
Acknowledged  Canonicity — Time  and  Place  of  its  Composition  —  Persons 
addressed — 15.  General  View  of  its  Contents — Second  and  Third  Epistles — 
16.  Their  Common  Authorship — Their  Genuineness — 17.  The  Occasion  and 
Office  of  Each — IV.  Epistle  of  Jude— 18.  Question  respecting  Jude's  Person — 
Time  of  the  Epistle,  and  Persons  addressed — 19.  Its  Canonical  Authority — 
Its  Design 487 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

The  Apocalypse— 1.  Meaning  of  the  Word  "Apocalypse" — Abundance  of  Ex- 
ternal Testimonies  to  this  Book — 2.  Internal  Arguments  considered — Use  of 
the  Apostle's  Name,  Devotional  Views,  Spirit  of  the  Writer,  Style  and  Die* 
tion — Here  must  be  taken  into  Account  the  Difference  between  this  Book  and 
John's  other  Writings  in  Subject-Matter,  in  the  Mode  of  Divine  Revelation, 
in  the  Writer's  Mental  State  and  Circumstances  ;  also  its  Poetic  Diction — 
General  Results— 3.  Date  of  the  Apocalypse  and  Place  of  Writing— 4.  Differ- 
ent Schemes  of  Interpretation — The  Generic  —  The  Historic — 5.  Symbolic 
Import  of  the  Numbers  in  this  Book — The  number  Seven,  Half  of  Seven,  Six  ; 
The  Number  Four,  a  Third  and  Fourth  Part ;  the  Number  Twelve  ;  the  Num- 
ber Ten— 6.  Office  of  the  Apocalypse  in  the  System  of  Revelation 503 


APPENDIX    TO    PAET   III. 

Writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fatheks,  w^th  some  Notices  or  the  Apocryphal 
New  Testament  Wkitings— 1.  The  Writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  distin- 
guished from  the  Proper  New  Testament  Apocrypha — Some  Remarks  on  the 
Character  of  these  Writings r 511 


20  CONTENTS. 

I.  Writings  of  Clement  of  Rome — 2.  His  Ei^istle  to  tlie  Romans — Its  Genuineness, 
Character,  and  Age — 3.  Its  Occasion,  with  a  Notice  of  its  Contents — 4.  The 
so-called  Second  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians — Its  Genuineness  not 
admitted — Vague  and  General  Character  of  its  Contents — 5.  Notice  of  some 
Other  Writings  falsely  ascribed  to  Clement— Eecognitions  of  Clement,  and  the 
Clementines,  with  their  Plan  and  Contents  ;  Constitutions  of  Clement,  and 
their  Contents  ;  Apostolic  Canons - 511 

II.  Epistles  of  Ignatius — 6.  Notices  of  Ignatius — The  SeA^en  Genuine  Epistles  that 
bear  his  Name — Unsatisfactory  State  of  the  Text — Syriac  and  Armenian  Ver- 
sions— Enumeration  of  these  Epistles — Their  Character — Strong  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Spirit  that  pervades  them — His  Letter  to  the  Romans — The  Undue  Desire 
of  Martyrdom  which  it  manifests — His  Letter  to  Polycarp — 7.  Spurious  Epis- 
tles ascribed  to  Ignatius,  and  their  Character 514 

III.  Epistle  of  Polycarp— 8.  Notices  of  Polycarp — His  Epistle  to  the  Philippians-  - 
Its  Character  and  Contents— Time  and  Occasion  of  its  Composition 515 

IV.  Wi'itings  of  Barnabas  and  Eermas — 9.  Their  Doubtful  Authority — 10.  The 
So-called  Epistle  of  Barnabas — Tischendorf  s  Discovery  of  the  Original  Greek 
Text — The  Author  and  Date  of  the  Work — Notice  of  its  Contents — Its  Fanci- 
ful Method  of  Interpretation — 11.  The  Shepherd  of  Hermas — Outward  Form 
of  the  Work — Its  Internal  Character — Its  Author  and  Age - 51(J 

V.  The  Apostle's  Creed — 12.  In  what  Sense  it  belongs  to  the  Apostolic  Fathers — 
Apostolic  Character  of  its  Contents 517 

VI.  Apocryphal  Gospels  and  Acts— 13.  Their  Number— Their  Worthless  Charac- 
ter in  Contrast  with  that  of  the  Canonical  Gospels  and  Acts <  517 


PART  IV. 

A   DISCUSSION    OF    THE    PEINCIPLES    OF    BIBLICAL 
INTEEPEETATION. 

CHAPTER  XXXIIL 

Intkoductokt  Remaeks— 1.  Definition  of  Certain  Terms— Hermeneutics,  Exege- 
sis, Epexegesis— 2.  The  Expositor's  Office— Parallel  between  his  Work  and 
that  of  the  Textual  Critic — 3.  Qualifications  of  the  Biblical  Interpreter— A 
Supreme  Regard  for  Truth — 4.  A  Sound  Judgment  with  the  Power  of  Vivid 
Conception — Office  of  Each  of  these  Qualities  and  their  Relation  to  Each 
Other— 5.  Sympathy  with  Divine  Truth— 6.  Extensive  and  Varied  Acquire- 
ments—The Original  Languages  of  the  Bible  ;  Sacred  Geography  and  Natural 
History  ;  Biblical  Antiquities  ;  Ancient  B[istory  and  Chronology— 7.  General 
Remarks  on  the  above  Qualifications— 8.  The  Human  and  Divine  Side  to  Bib- 
lical Interpretation— The  Importance  of  observing  Both 521 


CONTENTS.  21 


FIEST  DIVISION— INTEEPEETATION  VIEWED  ON  THE  HUMAN  SIDE. 


CHAPTEE  XXXIV. 

General  Peinciples  of  Interpretation  —  1.  Signij&catiou  of  the  Terms  em- 
ployed how  ascertained,  with  some  Superadded  Remarks — 2.  On  Ascertaining 
the  Sense  of  Scripture — 3.  The  Scope  General  and  Special — Its  Supreme  Im- 
portance illustrated — How  the  Scoj)e  is  to  be  ascertained — The  Author's  State- 
ments ;  Inferential  Remarks  ;  Historical  Circumstances — Important  Help  de- 
rived from  the  Repeated  and  Careful  Perusal  of  a  Work — 4.  The  Context 
defined  and  distinguished  from  the  Scope — Indispensable  Necessity  of  attend- 
ing to  it — This  illustrated  by  Examples — Question  respecting  the  Limits  of 
the  Context — In  some  Cases  no  Context  exists — On  the  Use  of  Biblical  Texts 
as  Mottoes — Various  Applications  of  the  Principle  contained  in  a  Given  Pas- 
sage a  Legitimate  Mode  of  Exposition — 5.  Parallelisms  Verbal  and  Real — 
Help  derived  from  the  Former — Subdivision  of  Real  Parallelisms  into  Doc- 
trinal and  Historic — Importance  of  Doctrinal  Parallelisms  with  Illustrations — 
Value  of  Historic  Parallelisms  illustrated — Difficulties  arising  from  them,  and 
the  Principle  of  their  Adjustment — Illustration — 6.  External  Acquirements — 
Various  Illustrations  of  the  Importance  of  these — 7.  Sound  Judgment — Ofiice 
of  this  Quality  illustrated— Inept  Interpretations  :  Interpretations  Contrary 
to  the  Nature  of  the  Subject ;  Necessary  Limitations  of  an  Author's  Meaning  ; 
Reconciliation  of  Apparent  Contradictions  ;  Forced  and  Unnatural  Explana- 
tions and  the  Rejection  of  Well-established  Facts — 8.  Remarks  on  the  Proper 
Of&ce  of  Reason  in  Inter Dretation 527 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

Figurative  Language  of  Scripture — 1.  Figurative  Language  defined  and  illus- 
trated—General  Remarks  respecting  it — 2.  Rules  for  the  Ascertaining  of  Fig- 
urative Language — Nature  of  the  Subject ;  Scope,  Context,  and  Analogy  of 
Scripture — Error  of  understanding  Literal  Language  figuratively— Remark  on 
the  Interpretation  of  Prophecy — 3.  Different  Kinds  of  Figures — The  Trope  in 
its  Varieties  of  Metonymy,  Synecdoche,  and  Metaphor — Remarks  on  Compar- 
isons— The  Allegory — Its  Definition  and  Distinction  from  the  Metaphor — Dis- 
tinction between  True  AUegorj^  and  the  Allegorical  Interpretation  of  History — 
The  Parable — How  distinguished  from  the  Allegory — The  Fable — The  Sym- 
bol— Its  Various  Forms — The  Proverb— It  always  embodies  a  General  Truth — 
Its  Various  Forms — Signification  of  the  Word  "Myth" — It  does  not  come 
within  the  Sphere  of  Scriptural  Interpretation — 4.  General  Remarks  on  the 
Interpretation  of  the  Figurative  Language  of  Scripture — 5.  Its  Certainty  and 
Truthfulness — 6.  Key  to  the  Interpretation  of  the  Allegory — Examples  :  The 
Vine  Transplanted  from  Egypt,  Psa.  80  ;  the  two  Eagles  and  the  Cedar  Bough, 
Ezek.  17  : 3-10  ;  The  Song  of  Solomon  ;  the  Two  Allegories  of  Ezekiel,  chaps., 
16  and  23 — 7.  The  Interpretation  of  the  Parable— How  it  differs  from  that  of 
the  Allegory — Point  of  Primary  Importance— How  for  the  Details  are  signifi- 
cant—Examples :  The  Sower,  Matt.  13:3-8,19-23;  the  Tares  in  the  Field, 


22  CONTENTS. 

Matt.  13:24-30,  37-43;  the  Ten  Virgins,  Matt.  25  : 1-13— Eemark  respectiug 
the  Personages  introduced  in  Parables  with  Illustrations — The  Unforgiving 
Servant,  Matt.  IS  :  23-35  ;  the  Importunate  Friend,  Luke  11  : 5-8  ;  the  Unjust 
Judge,  Luke  18:1-8;  the  Unfaithful  Steward,  Luke  16  : 1-9— 8.  Scriptural 
Symbols— How  to  determine  whether  they  are  Keal  or  Seen  in  Prophetic  Vis- 
ion— Principles  on  which  they  are  to  be  interpreted — Examples — 9.  Eemarks 
on  the  Interpretation  of  Numerical  Symbols 546 


SECOND  DIVISION— INTERPEETATION  VIEWED  ON  THE  DIVINE 

SIDE. 

CHAPTEE  XXXVI. 

Unity  or  Eevelation — 1.  Essential  Unity  between  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment— 2.  This  Unity  one  that  coexists  with  Great  Diversity — Illustrations 
from  the  Analogy  of  God's  Works — 3.  Unity  in  Diversity  in  Eespect  to  the 
Form  of  God's  Kingdom — 4.  The  Forms  of  Public  Worship — 5.  Forms  of 
Eeligious  Labor — 6.  Spirit  of  Eevelation — 7.  Way  of  Salvation — 8.  Sternness 
of  the  Mosaic  Dispensation  explained  from  its  Preparatory  Character — 9.  In- 
ferences from  the  Unity  of  Eevelation — 9.  Each  Particular  Eevelation  Perfect 
in  its  Measure  — 10.  The  Later  Eevelations  the  Exponents  of  the  Earlier ; 
Christ  and  his  Apostles  in  a  Special  Sense  the  Expositors  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment—11.  The  Extent  of  Meaning  in  a  Given  Eevelation  that  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  intended— 12.  The  Obscure  Declarations  of  Scripture  to  be  interpreted 
from  the  Clear,  with  Illustrations — 13,  Eemarks  on  the  Analogy  of  Faith — 
The  Term  Defined— Eules  for  its  Use -  566 


CHAPTER  XXXYII. 

ScEiPTUKAii  Types— 1.  Types  distinguished  from  Analogy  —  2.  And  from  the 
Foreshadowing  of  Future  Events  by  the  Present — 3.  The  Type  defined  in  its 
Three  Essential  Characters 579 

I.  Historical  Types — 4.  In  Eespect  to  these  Two  Extremes  to  be  avoided — Typical 

History  has  a  Proper  Significance  of  its  Own — This  illustrated  by  Examples  : 
The  Kingly  Office  ;  the  Prophetical  Office ;  Typical  Transactions — Eemarks 
on  the  Inadequacy  of  All  Types 581 

II.  Bitual  Types — 5.  The  Sacrifices  the  Essential  Part  of  the  Mosaic  Eitual— 
What  is  implied  in  them— The  Sanctuary  God's  Visible  Dwelling-place  where 
alone  they  could  be  offered — 6.  The  Mosaic  Tabernacle  described — 7.  Its 
General  Typical  Import— 8.  Significance  of  its  Different  Parts  and  Appoint- 
ments— Preciousness  of  the  Materials ;  Gradation  in  this  Eespect — 9.  The 
Inner  Sanctuary  with  its  Appointments— 10.  The  Outer  Sanctuary  with  its 
Appointments—ll.  The  Brazen  Altar  with  its  Laver— The  Levitical  Priests 
typified  Christ — 12.  The  Levitical  Sacrifices  tj^pified  Christ's  Offering  of  Him- 
self for  the  Sins  of  the  World — This  shown  from  Scripture — General  Eemark 
respecting  Christ's  Propitiatory  Sacrifice— 13.  Characteristics  of  the  Types 


CONTENTS.  23 

Themselves — The  Levitical  Priests  had  a  Coinmou  Human  Nature  with  those 
for  whom  they  officiated  ;  were  appointed  to  their  Office  by  God  ;  were  Medi- 
ators between  God  and  the  People  ;  and  Mediators  through  Propitiatory 
Sacrifices — Points  of  Dissimilarity  between  the  Tj^pe  and  the  Antitype — Ke- 
marks  on  the  Central  Idea  of  Priesthood — 14.  Scriptural  Idea  of  Sacrifice  the 
Offering  of  One  Life  in  Behalf  of  Another — Classification  of  the  Levitical  Sac- 
rifices with  the  Ideas  belonging  to  Each  :  Sin  and  Trespass  Offerings  ;  Burnt 
Offerings  ;  Peace- Offerings— Sacrificial  Nature  of  the  Passover — Other  Sacri- 
fices of  a  Special  Character — All  Sacrificial  Victims  to  be  without  Blemish — 
The  Unbloody  Offerings  and  their  Signification — 15.  Typical  Transactions 
connected  with  the  Sacrifices  and  Oblations :  The  Laying  of  the  Offerer's 
Hands  on  the  Head  of  the  Victim  ;  the  Waving  and  Heaving  of  Offerings; 
the  SiDrinkling  of  the  Victim's  Blood  ;  the  Burning  of  the  Offering — 16.  Typical 
Meaning  of  the  Tabernacle  as  a  Whole — The  Several  Points  of  Adumbration 
considered  :  Adumbration  of  God's  Presence  with  Men  ;  Impossibility  of  ap- 
proaching God  without  a  Mediator ;  Adumbration  of  Christ's  Expiatory  Sacri- 
fice and  Heavenly  Intercession  on  the  Great  Day  of  Atonement ;  Burning  of 
the  Victim  without  the  Camp — 17.  Distinctions  between  Clean  and  Unclean — 
Levitical  View  of  Bodily  Infirmities 585 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

Inteepeetation  of  Peophecy — 1.  General  Kemarks 607 

I.  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Near  Future — 2.    Their  Specific  Character — Exam- 

ples  - - -   607 

II.  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Last  Days — 3.  Meaning  of  the  Term  "Last  Days," 
and  its  Equivalents— General  Character  of  this  Class  of  Prophecies— 4.  Proph- 
ecies in  which  the  Order  of  Events  is  indicated — Daniel's  Fourth  Monarchy  ; 
the  Great  Bed  Dragon  of  Eevelation,  the  Two  Beasts  that  succeeded  to  his 
Power,  and  the  Woman  riding  a  Scarlet-Colored  Beast— 5.  Prophecies  which 
give  General  Views  of  the  Puture— Examples — 6.  The  Prophets  give  an  Inward 
View  of  the  Vital  Forces  which  sustain  and  extend  God's  Kingdom— Unity  of 
the  Plan  of  Kedemption ;  its  Continual  Progress  ;  Indications  of  the  End 
towards  which  it  is  tending;  the  T:..l  Itself  the  Chief  Object  of  Interest — 
Great  Crisis  in  the  Church's  History — Spirit  that  should  actuate  the  Inter- 
preter of  Prophecy - 608 

HI.  Question  of  Double  Sense— 7.  The  Term  defined — 8.  Examples  of  Literal  and 
Typical  Sense— Melchizedek's  Priesthood  ;  the  Piest  of  Canaan— 9.  The  Mes- 
sianic Psalms  —Different  Principles  on  which  they  are  interpreted  :  Exclusive 
Application  to  Christ ;  Keference  to  an  Ideal  Personage ;  Christ  the  Head  and 
his  Body  the  Church ;  Typical  View — 10.  The  PrincijDle  of  Progressive  Ful- 
filment    - 618 

IV.  Question  of  Literal  and  Figurative  Meaning— 11.  General  Eemarks — 12.  Eep- 
resentative  Use  in  Prophecy  of  Past  Events— 13.  Of  the  Institutions  of  the 
Mosaic  Economy— 14.  The  Principle  of  Figurative  Interpretation  not  to  be 
pressed  as  Exclusive— 15.  Question  of  the  Literal  Kestoration  of  the  Jews  to 
the  Land  of  Canaan — 16.  Question  of  our  Lord's  Personal  Reign  on  Earth 
during  the  Millennium - 624 


24:  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 


Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New  —  1.  General  Kemarks  on 
the  Authority  of  the  New  Testament  Writers — 2.  Outward  Form  of  their 
Quotations— Its  very  Free  Spirit— This  illustrated  by  Example— 3.  Contents  of 
the  New  Testament  Quotations — The  So-called  Principle  of  Accommodation  ; 
in  what  Sense  True,  and  in  what  Sense  to  be  rejected— 4.  Quotations  by  Way 
of  Argument— 5.  Quotations  as  Prophecies  of  Christ  and  his  Kingdom — Ee- 
marks  on  the  Formula  :  "That  it  might  be  fulfilled"— 6.  Prophecies  referring 
immediately  to  Christ— 7.  Prophecies  referring  to  Christ  under  a  Type— Clos- 
ing Eemark C32 


PART  I 


EVIDENCES 


OF 


Revealed  Religion. 


Cornp.  lo  Bible. 


PREFATORY  REMARKS. 


Many  thousands  of  persona  have  a  full  and  joyous  convic- 
tion of  the  truth  of  Christianity  from  their  own  experience, 
who  yet  feel  a  reasonable  desire  to  examine  the  historic  evidence 
by  which  it  is  confirmed,  if  not  for  the  strengthening  of  their 
own  faith,  yet  for  the  purpose  of  silencing  gainsayers,  and 
guarding  the  young  against  the  cavils  of  infidelity.  It  is  our 
duty  to  give  to  those  who  ask  us  a  reason  of  the  hope  that  is 
in  "us ;  and  although  our  own  personal  experience  may  be  to 
ourselves  a  satisfactory  ground  of  assurance,  we  cannot  ask 
others  to  take  the  gospel  on  our  testimony  alone.  It  is  highly 
desirable  that  we  understand  and  be  able  to  set  forth  with 
clearness  and  convincing  power  the  proofs  that  this  plan  of 
salvation  has  God  for  its  author. 

Then  there  is  a  class  of  earnest  inquirers  who  find  them- 
selves perplexed  with  the  dijficulties  which  they  hear  urged 
against  the  gospel,  and  which  they  find  themselves  unable  to 
solve  in  a  satisfactory  way.  It  is  of  the  highest  importance 
that  such  persons  be  met  in  a  candid  spirit ;  that  the  immense 
mass  of  evidence  by  which  the  Christian  religion  is  sustained 
be  clearly  set  before  them ;  and  that  they  understand  that  a 
religion  thus  supported  is  not  to  be  rejected  on  the  ground  that 
there  are  difficulties  connected  with  it  which  have  not  yet  been 
solved — perhaps  never  can  be  solved  here  below. 

Are  you,  reader,  such  an  earnest  inquirer  after  truth  ?     We 


28  PllEFATOEY  EEMAEKS. 

present  to  you  in  the  following  pages  a  brief  summaiy  of  the 
historic  evidence  by  which  the  Bible,  with  the  plan  of  salva- 
tion which  it  reveals,  is  shown  to  be  the  word  of  God ;  and  we 
wish,  here  at  the  outset,  to  suggest  to  you  some  cautions 
respecting  the  state  of  mind  with  which  this  great  inquiry  is  to 
be  pursued. 

First  of  all,  we  remind  you  that,  whatever  else  may  be 
uncertain,  you  know  that  j^ou  must  soon  die,  and  try  for  your- 
self the  realities  of  the  unseen  world.  The  question  now  before 
3^ou  is,  "Whether  God  has  spoken  from  heaven,  and  made  any 
revelations  concerning  that  Avorld.  If  so,  they  are  more  pre- 
cious than  gold;  for  in  the  decisive  hour  of  death  j^ou  wdll 
wish  to  l^now  not  what  man,  the  sinner,  has  reasoned  and  con- 
jectured concerning  a  future  judgment,  forgiveness  of  sin,  and 
the  life  to  come  ;  but  what  God,  the  Judge,  has  declared. 
Now  the  Bible  claims  to  contain  such  a  message  from  God.  *  If 
its  cl-aims  are  valid,  it  will  not  flatter  you  and  speak  to  you 
smooth  things,  but  will  tell  you  the  truth.  And  3^ou  must  be 
prepared  to  receive  the  truth,  though  it  condemn  you.  Sooner 
or  later  you  must  meet  the  truth  face  to  face :  be  ready  to  do 
so  now ;  you  have  no  interest  in  error ;  falsehood  and  delusion 
cannot  help  you,  but  will  destroy  you. 

Do  not  come  to  the  examination  of  this  great  question  with 
the  idea  that  you  must  clear  away  all  mysteries  connected  with 
the  gospel  before  you  believe  it.  The  world  in  which  you  live 
is  full  of  mysteries.  One  would  think  that  if  any  thing  could 
be  fully  comprehended,  it  must  be  the  acts  of  which  we  are 
ourselves  the  authors.  By  a  volition  you  raise  your  hand  to 
your  head ;  but  lioio  is  the  act  performed  ?  True,  there  is  in 
your  body  an  apparatus  of  nerves,  muscles,  joints,  and  the 
like ;  but  in  what  way  does  the  human  will  have  power  over 
this  apparatus  ?    No  man  can  answer  this  question  :  it  is  wrap- 


PREFATORY  REMARKS.  2',) 

ped  in  deep  mjsteiy.  Why  be  offended,  then,  because  the  way 
of  salvation  revealed  in  the  Bible  has  like  mysteries — mysteries 
concerning  not  your  duty,  but  God's  secret  and  inscrutable 
methods  of  acting  ? 

And  since  the  question  now  before  you  is  not  one  of  mere 
speculation,  but  one  that  concerns  your  immediate  duty,  be  on 
3^our  guard  against  the  seductive  influence  of  sinful  passion  and 
sinful  habit.  There  is  a  deep  and  solemn  meaning  in  the  words 
of  Jesus :  "  Every  one  that  doetli  evil  hateth  the  light,  neither 
Cometh  to  the  light,  lest  his  deeds  should  be  reproved."  Cor- 
rupt feeling  in  the  heart  and  corrupt  practice  in  the  life  have  a 
terrible  power  to  blind  the  mind.  The  man  who  comes  to  the 
examination  of  the  Bible  with  a  determination  to  persist  in 
doing  what  he  knows  to  be  wrong,  or  in  omitting  what  he 
knows  to  be  right,  will  certainly  err  from  the  truth ;  for  he  is 
not  in  a  proper  state  of  mind  to  love  it  and  welcome  it  to  his 
soul. 

Bemember  also  that  it  is  not  the  grosser  passions  and 
forms  of  vice  alone  that  darken  the  understanding  and  alienate 
the  heart  from  the  truth.  Pride,  vanity,  ambition,  avarice — in 
a  word,  the  spirit  of  self-seeking  and  self-exaltation  in  every 
form — will  effectually  hinder  the  man  in  whose  bosom  they 
bear  sway  from  coming  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth ;  for  they 
will  incline  him  to  seek  a  religion  which  flatters  him  and  prom- 
ises him  impunity  in  sin,  and  will  fatally  prejudice  him  against 
a  system  of  doctrines  and  duties  so  holy  and  humbling  as  that 
contained  in  the  Bible.  Take,  as  a  comprehensive  rule  for  the 
investigation  of  this  weighty  question,  the  words  of  the  Sav- 
iour :  "If  any  man  will  do  his  will" — the  will  of  God — "he  shall 
know  of  the  doctrine,  whether  it  be  of  God,  or  whether  I  speak 
of  myself."  So  far  as  you  already  know  the  will  of  God,  do  it ; 
do  it  sincerely,  earnestly,  and  prayerfully,  and  God  will  give 


30  PEEFATORY  REMARKS. 

you  more  light.  He  loves  the  truth,  and  sympathizes  with  all 
earnest  and  sincere  inquirers  after  it.  He  never  leaves  to  fatal 
error  and  delusion  any  but  those  who  love  falsehood  rather 
than  truth,  because  they  have  pleasure  in  unrighteousness. 
Open  your  heart  to  the  light  of  heaven,  and  God  will  shine 
into  it  from  above ;  so  that,  in  the  beautiful  words  of  our 
Saviour,  "  the  whole  shall  be  full  of  light,  as  when  the  bright 
shining  of  a  candle  doth  give  thee  light." 


COMPANION"  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION. 


CHAPTER    I. 

Introductory   Remarks. 

I.  The  Christian  religion  is  not  a  mere  system  of  ideas,  like 
the  philosophy  of  Plato  or  Aristotle.  It  rests  on  a  lasts  of  his- 
toric fads.  The  great  central  fact  of  the  gospel  is  thus  expressed 
by  Jesns  himself :  "  God  so  loved  the  world  that  he  gave  his 
only  begotten  Son,  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him  should  not 
perish,  but  have  everlasting  life,"  John  3  :  16  ;  and  by  the 
apostle  Paul  thus  :  "  This  is  a  faithful  saying,  and  worthy  of 
all  acceptation,  that  Christ  Jesus  came  into  the  world  to  save 
sinners."  1  Tim.  1 :  15.  With  the  appearance  of  God's  Son  in 
human  nature  were  connected  a  series  of  mighty  works,  a  body 
of  divine  teachings,  the  appointment  of  apostles  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  visible  Christian  church ;  all  which  are  matters 
of  historic  record. 

Nor  is  this  all.  It  is  the  constant  doctrine  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles  that  he  came  in  accordance  with  the  scriptures  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  that  his  religion  is  the  fulfilment  of  the 
types  and  prophecies  therein  contained  :  "  Think  not  that  I  am 
come  to  destroy  the  law,  or  the  prophets  :  I  am  not  come  to 
destroy,  but  to  fulfil."  Matt.  5  :17.  "All  things  must  be  ful- 
filled whicli  were  written  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and  in  the  proph- 


32  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ets,  and  in  the  psalms  concerning  me."  Luke  24 :  44.  The  facts 
of  the  New  Testament  connect  themselves,  therefore,  immedi- 
ately with  those  of  the  Old,  so  that  the  whole  series  consti- 
tutes an  indivisible  whole.  The  Bible  is,  from  beginning  to  end, 
the  record  of  a  supernatural  revelation  made  by  God  to  men. 
As  such,  it  embraces  not  only  supernatural  teachings,  but 
supernatural  facts  also  ;  and  the  teachings  rest  on  the  facts  in 
such  a  w^ay  that  both  must  stand  or  fall  together. 

II.  This  basis  of  supernatural  facts,  then,  must  be  firmly 
maintained  against  unbelievers  whose  grand  aim  is  to  destroy 
the  liistoric  foundation  of  the  gospel,  at  least  so  far  as  it  con- 
tains supernatural  manifestations  of  God  to  men.  Thus  they 
would  rob  it  of  its  divine  authority,  and  reduce  it  to  a  mere 
system  of  human  doctrines,  like  the  teachings  of  Socrates  or 
Confucius,  which  men  are  at  liberty  to  receive  or  reject  as  they 
think  best.  Could  they  accomplish  this,  they  would  be  very 
willing  to  eulogize  the  character  of  Jesus,  and  extol  the  purity 
and  excellence  of  his  precepts.  Indeed,  it  is  the  fashion  of 
modern  unbelievers,  after  doing  what  lies  in  their  power  to 
make  the  gospel  a  mass  of  "cunningly-devised  fables"  of 
human  origin,  to  expatiate  on  the  majesty  and  beauty  of  the 
Saviour's  character,  the  excellence  of  his  moral  precepts,  and 
the  benign  influence  of  his  religion.  But  the  transcendent 
glory  of  our  Lord's  character  is  inseparable  from  his  being 
what  he  claimed  to  be — the  Son  of  God,  coming  from  God  to 
men  with  supreme  authority  ;  and  all  the  power  of  his  gospel 
lies  in  its  being  received  as  a  message  from  God.  To  make  the 
gospel  human,  is  to  annihilate  it,  and  with  it  the  hope  of  the 
world. 

III.  When  the  inquiry  is  concerning  a  long  series  of  events 
intimately  connected  together  so  as  to  constitute  one  insepar- 
able whole,  two  methods  of  investigation  are  open  to  us.  We 
may  look  at  the  train  of  events  in  the  order  of  time  from  begin- 
ning to  end ;  or  we  may  select  some  one' great  event  of  especial 
prominence  and  importance  as  the  central  point  of  inquiry,  and 
from  that  position  look  forward  and  backward.     The  latter  of 


EVIDENCES   OF   REVEALED  RELIGION.  33 

these  two  methods  has  some  peeuhar  advantages,  and  will  be 
followed  in  the  present  brief  treatise.  AVe  begin  with  the  great 
central  fact  of  revelation  already  referred  to,  that  "  the  Father 
sent  the  Son  to  be  the  Saviour  of  the  world."  1  John  4 :  l-I. 
When  this  is  shown  to  rest  on  a  foundation  that  cannot  be 
shaken,  the  remainder  of  the  work  is  comparatively  eas}^ 
From  the  supernatural  appearance  and  works  of  the  Son  oi 
God,  as  recorded  in  the  four  gospels,  the  supernatural  endow- 
ment and  works  of  his  apostles,  as  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  their  authoritative  teachings,  as  contained  in  their 
epistles,  follow  as  a  natural  and  even  necessary  sequel.  Since, 
moreover,  the  universal  rule  of  God's  government  and  works  is, 
"first  the  blade,  then  the  ear,  after  that  the  full  corn  in  the 
ear,"  (Mark  4  :  28,)  it  is  most  reasonable  to  suppose  that  such  a 
full  and  perfect  revelation  as  that  which  God  has  made  to  us 
by  his  Son,  which  is  certainly  "the  full  corn  in  the  ear,"  must 
have  been  preceded  by  exactly  such  preparatory  revelations  as 
we  find  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament.  Now  Jesus  of  Naza- 
reth appeared  among  the  Jews,  the  very  people  that  had  the 
scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  had  been  prepared  for  his 
advent  by  the  events  recorded  in  them  as  no  other  nation  was 
prepared.  He  came,  too,  as  he  and  his  apostles  ever  taught, 
to  carry  out  the  plan  of  redemption  begun  in  them.  From  the 
position,  then,  of  Christ's  advent,  as  the  grand  central  fact  of 
redemption,  we  look  backward  and  fot'ward  with  great  advan- 
tage upon  the  whole  line  of  revelation. 

IV.  We  cannot  too  earnestly  inculcate  upon  the  youthful 
inquirer  the  necessity  of  thus  looking  at  revelation  as  a  luTiole. 
Strong  as  are  the  evidences  for  the  truth  of  the  gospel  narra- 
tives considered  separately,  they  gain  new  strength,  on  the  one 
side,  from  the  mighty  revelations  that  preceded  them  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  advent  of  the  Son  of  God ;  and  on  the 
other,  from  the  mighty  events  that  followed  his  advent  in  the 
apostolic  age,  and  have  been  following  ever  since  in  the  history 
of  the  Christian  church.  The  divine  origin  of  the  Mosaic  insti- 
tutions can  be  shown  on  solid  grounds,  independently  of  the 


3i  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

New  Testament ;  but  on  how  mucli  broader  and  deeper  a  foun-' 
dation  are  they  seen  to  rest,  when  we  fiad  (as  will  be  shown 
hereafter,  chap.  8)  that  they  were  preparatory  to  the  incarna- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ.  As  in  a  burning  mass,  the  heat  and  flame 
of  each  separate  piece  of  fuel  are  increased  by  the  surround- 
ing fire,  so  in  the  plan  of  redemption,  each  separate  revelation 
receives  new  light  and  glory  from  the  revelations  which  precede 
and  follow  it.  It  is  only  when  we  view  the  revelations  of  the 
Bible  as  thus  progressing  "from  glory  to  glory,"  that  we  can 
estimate  aright  the  proofs  of  their  divine  origin.  If  it  were 
even  possible  to  impose  upon  men  as  miraculous  a  particular 
event,  as,  for  example,  the  giving  of  the  Mosaic  law  on  Sinai, 
or  the  scenes  of  the  day  of  Pentecost,  the  idea  that  there  could 
have  been  imposed  on  the  world  a  series  of  such  events,  extend- 
ing through  many  ages,  and  yet  so  connected  together  as  to 
constitute  a  harmonious  and  consistent  whole,  is  a  simple 
absurdity.  There  is  no  explanation  of  the  unity  that  pervades 
the  supernatural  facts  of  revelation,  but  that  of  their  divine 
origin. 

Y.  In  strong  contrast  with  this  rational  way  of  viewing  the 
facts  of  revelation  as  a  grand  whole,  is  the  fragmentary  method 
of  objectors.  A  doubt  here,  a  cavil  there,  an  insinuation  yon- 
der ;  a  difficulty  with  this  statement,  an  objection  to  that,  a  dis- 
crepancy here — this  is  their  favorite  way  of  assailing  the  gos- 
pel. If  one  chooses  to  treat  the  Bible  in  this  narrow  and 
uncandid  way,  he  will  soon  plunge  himself  into  the  mire  of 
unbelief.  Difficulties  and  objections  should  be  candidly  con- 
sidered, and  allowed  their  due  weight ;  but  they  must  not  be 
suffered  to  override  irrefragable  proof,  else  we  shall  soon  land 
in  universal  skepticism :  for  difficulties,  and  some  of  them  too 
insoluble,  can  be  urged  against  the  great  facts  of  nature  and 
natural  religion,  as  w^ell  as  of  revelation.  To  reject  a  series  of 
events  supported  by  an  overwhelming  weight  of  evidence,  on 
the  ground  of  unexplained  difficulties  connected  with  them, 
involves  the  absurdity  of  running  into  a  hundred  difficulties  for 
the  sake  of  avoiding  five.     If  we  are  willing  to  examine  the 


EVIDENCES   OF  REVEALED   EELIGION.  35 

claims  of  revelation  as  a  wliole,  its  divine  origin  will  sliine  forth 
upon  us  like  the  suiwn  the  firmament.  Our  difficulties  we  can 
then  calmly  reserve  for  further  investigation  here,  or  for  solu- 
tion in  the  world  to  come. 

YI.  When  we  institute  an  examination  concerning  the  facts 
of  revelation,  the  first  question  is  that  of  the  genuineness  and 
nncorrupt  preservation  of  the  books  in  which  they  are  record- 
ed ;  the  next,  that  of  their  authenticity  and  credibility.  We 
may  then  conveniently  consider  the  question  of  their  inspira- 
tion. In  accordance  with  the  plan  marked  out  above,  (No.  III.,) 
the  gospel  narratives  will  be  considered  first  of  all;  then  the 
remaining  books  of  the  New  Testament.  After  this  will  be 
shown  the  inseparable  connection  between  the  facts  of  revela- 
tion recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  and  those  of  the  New;  and 
finally,  the  genuineness  of  the  books  which  constitute  the  canon 
of  the  Old  Testament,  with  their  authenticity  and  inspiration. 
The  whole  treatise  will  be  closed  by  a  brief  view  of  the  internal 
and  experimental  evidences  which  commend  the  Bible  to  tho 
human  understanding  and  conscience  as  the  word  of  God. 


36  CO^irANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


OHAPTEK    II. 

Genuineness  of   the    Gospel   ]^arratiyes. 

1.  Preliminary  Remarhs.  1.  A  book  is  cjenidne  if  written  by 
the  man  whose  name  it  bears,  or  to  whom  it  is  ascribed ;  or 
when,  as  in  the  case  of  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
author  is  unknown,  it  is  genuine  if  written  in  the  age  and  coun- 
try to  which  it  is  ascribed.  A  book  is  authentic  which  is  a  rec- 
ord of  facts  as  opposed  to  what  is  false  or  fictitious ;  and  we 
call  it  credible  when  the  record  of  facts  which  it  professes  to 
give  is  worthy  of  belief.  Authenticity  and  credibility  are, 
therefore,  only  different  views  of  the  same  quality. 

In  the  case  of  a  book  that  deals  mainly  with  principles,  the  question  of 
authorship  is  of  subordinate  importance.  Thus  the  book  of  Job,  with  the 
exception  of  the  brief  narratives  with  which  it  opens  and  closes,  and  which 
may  belong  to  any  one  of  several  centuries,  is  occupied  with  the  question 
of  Divine  providence.  It  is  not  necessary  that  we  know  what  particular 
man  was  its  author,  or  at  what  precise  period  he  wrote.  We  only  need 
reasonable  evidence  (as  wall  be  shown  hereafter)  that  he  was  a  prophetical 
man,  writing  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  But  the  case  of  the 
gospel  narratives  is  wholly  different.  They  contain  a  record  of  the  super- 
natural appearance  and  works  of  the  Son  of  God,  on  the  truth  of  which 
rests  our  faith  in  the  gospel.  So  the  apostle  Paul  reasons  :  "If  Christ  be 
not  risen,  then  is  our  i)reaching  vain,  and  your  faith  is  also  vain."  1  Cor. 
15  :  14.  It  is,  then,  of  vital  importance  that  we  Iniow  the  relation  which 
the  authors  of  these  narratives  held  to  Christ.  If  they  were  not  apostles  or 
apostolic  men,  that  is,  associates  of  the  apostles,  laboring  with  them,  enjoy- 
ing their  full  confidence,  and  in  circumstances  to  obtain  their  information 
directly  from  them — but,  instead  of  this,  wrote  after  the  apostolic  age — 
their  testimony  is  not  worthy  of  the  unlimited  faith  which  the  church  in 
all  ages  has  reposed  in  it.  The  question,  then,  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
gospel  narratives  and  that  of  their  authenticity  and  credibility  must  stand 
or  fall  together. 

2.  In  respect  to  the  origin  of  the  gospels,  as  also  of  the 
other  books  of  the  New  Testament,  the  following  things  should 
be  carefully  remembered : 


EVIDENCES  OF   EEVEALED  RELIGION.  37 

First.  There  was  a  period,  extending,  perhaps,  through 
some  years  from  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  there  were  no 
written  gospels,  their  pLn^ce  being  suppHed  by  the  living  pres- 
ence and  teachings  of  the  apostles  and  other  disciples  of  our 
Lord. 

Secondly.  When  the  need  of  written  documents  began  to 
be  felt,  they  were  produced,  one  after  another,  as  occasion  sug- 
gested them.  Thus  the  composition  of  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  extended  through  a  considerable  period  of  years. 

Thirdly.  Besides  the  gospels  universally  received  by  the 
churches,  other  narratives  of  our  Lord's  life  were  attempted, 
as  we  learn  from  the  evangelist  Luke  (1 : 1) ;  but  those  never 
obtained  general  currency.  The  churches  everywhere  receiv- 
ed the  four  gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  be- 
cause of  the  clear  evidence  which  they  had  of  their  apostolic 
origin  and  trustworthiness ;  and  because,  also,  these  gospels, 
though  not  professing  to  give  a  complete  account  of  our  Lord's 
life  and  teachings,  were  nevertheless  sufficiently  full  to  answer 
the  end  for  which  they  were  composed,  being  not  fragmentary 
sketches,  but  orderly  narratives,  each  of  them  extending  over 
the  whole  course  of  our  Lord's  ministry.  The  other  narratives 
meanwhile  gradually  passed  into  oblivion.  The  general  recep^ 
tion  of  these  four  gospels  did  not,  however,  come  from  any 
formal  concert  of  action  on  the  part  of  the  churches,  (as,  for 
example,  from  the  authoritative  decision  of  a  general  council, 
since  no  such  thing  as  a  general  council  of  the  churches  was 
known  till  long  after  this  period ;)  but  simply  from  the  common 
percej)tion  everywhere  of  the  unimpeachable  evidence  by  which 
their  apostolic  authority  was  sustained. 

The  narratives  referred  to  by  Luke  were  earUer  than  his  gospel.  They 
were  not  spurious,  nor,  so  far  as  we  know,  unauthentic  ;  but  rather  imper- 
fect. They  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  apocryphal  gospels  of  a 
later  age. 

3.  In  respect  to  the  quotations  of  Scripture  by  the  early 
fathers  of  the  church,  it  is  important  to  notice  their  habit  of 


38  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

quoting  anon^^mously,  and  often  in  a  loose  and  general  way. 
TliG}^  frequently  cite  from  memoiy,  blending  together  the  words 
of  different  authors,  and  sometimes  intermingling  wdth  them 
their  own  words.  In  citing  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  an  argumentative  way,  they  are,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  more  exact,  particularly  when  addressing  Jews;  yet 
even  here  they  often  content  themselves  with  the  scope  of  the 
passages  referred  to,  without  being  particular  as  to  the  exact 
words. 

With  the  above  preliminary  remarks.  We  proceed  to  con- 
sider the  evidences,  external  and  internal,  for  the  genuineness 
of  the  gospel  narratives. 

II.  External  Evidences.  4.  Here  we  need  not  begin  at  a 
later  date  than  the  last  quarter  of  the  second  century.  This  is 
the  age  of  Irenseus  in  Gaul,  of  TertuUian  in  North  Africa,  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  and  of  some  other  writers. 
Their  testimony  to  the  apostolic  origin  and  universal  reception 
of  our  four  canonical  gospels  is  as  full  as  can  be  desired.  They 
give  the  names  of  the  authors,  two  of  them — Matthew  and 
John — apostles,  and  the  other  two — Mark  and  Luke — compan- 
ions of  apostles  and  fellow-laborers  with  them,  always  associ- 
ating Mark  wdtli  Peter,  and  Luke  with  Paul ;  they  affirm  the 
universal  and  undisputed  reception  of  these  four  gospels  from 
the  beginning  by  all  the  churches;  and  deny  the  apostolic 
authority  of  other  pretended  gospels.  In  all  this,  they  give 
not  their  individual  opinions,  but  the  common  belief  of  the 
churches.  It  is  conceded  on  all  hands  that  in  their  day  these 
four  gospels  were  universally  received  by  the  churches  as  genu- 
ine and  authoritative  records  of  our  Lord's  life  and  works,  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  others. 

Irenceics  was  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Greek  descent ;  but  the  seat  of 
liis  labors  was  Lyons  and  Vienne  in  Gaul,  of  the  former  of  which  places  he 
became  bishop  after  the  martyrdom  of  Pothinus,  about  a.  d.  177.  He 
was  born  about  a.  d.  140,  and  suffered  martyrdom  under  Septimius  Seve- 
riis  A.  D.  202.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  who  was  in  turn 
a  disciple  of  the  apostle  John.  In  a  letter  to  one  Florinus,  which  Euse- 
bius  has  preserved,  (Hist.  EccL,  5.  20,)  he  gives,  in  glowing  language,  his 


EVIDENCES  OF  KEYEALED   EELIGIOX.  39 

recollections  of  the  person  and  teachings  of  Polyearp,  and  tells  with  what 
interest  he  listened  as  this  man  related  his  intercourse  with  the  apostle 
John  and  the  others  who  had  seen  the  Lord,  ' '  how  he  recounted  their  words, 
and  the  things  which  he  had  heard  from  them  concerning  the  Lord,  and 
concerning  his  miracles  and  teaching."  And  he  adds  that  these  things 
which  Polycarj)  had  received  from  eye-witnesses  he  related  "aU  in  agree- 
ment with  the  Scriptures ;"  that  is,  obviously,  with  the  gospel  narratives. 
Pothinus,  the  loredecessor  of  Irenseus  at  Lyons,  was-  ninety  years  old  at 
the  time  of  his  martyrdom,  and  must  have  been  acquainted  with  many  who 
belonged  to  the  latter  part  of  the  apostolic  age.  Under  such  circumstances, 
it  is  inconceivable  that  Irenseus,  who  knew  the  Christian  traditions  of 
both  the  East  and  the  "West,  should  not  have  known  the  truth  respecting 
the  reception  of  the  gospels  by  the  churches,  and  the  grounds  on  w^hich 
this  reception  rested,  more  especially  in  the  case  of  the  gospel  of  John. 
Tischendorf,  after  mentioning  the  relation  of  Irenseus  to  Polyearp  the  dis- 
ciple of  John,  asks,  with  reason  :  ''Are  we,  nevertheless,  to  cherish  the 
supj)osition  that  Irenseus  never  heard  a  word  from  Polyearp  respecting  the 
gospel  of  John,  and  yet  gave  it  his  unconditional  confidence — this  man 
Irenseus,  who  in  his  controversies  with  heretics,  the  men  of  falsiiication 
and  apocryphal  works,  employs  against  them,  before  all  other  things,  the 
pure  Scripture  as  a  holy  weapon  ?"  (Essay,  When  were  Our  Gospels  Writ- 
ten, p.  8.)  The  testimony  of  Irenseus  is  justly  regarded  as  of  the  most 
weighty  character.  The  fact  that  he  gives  several  fanciful  reasons  why 
there  should  be  only  four  gospels,  (Against  Heresies,  3.  11,)  does  not  in- 
validate his  statement  of  the  fact  that  the  churches  had  always  received 
four,  and  no  more.  W^e  always  distinguish  between  men's  testimony  to 
facts  of  which  they  are  competent  witnesses,  and  their  philosophical 
explanations  of  these  facts. 

Tertullian  was  born  in  Carthage  about  a.  d.  160,  and  died  between 
A.  D.  220  and  240.  About  a.  d.  202  he  joined  the  sect  of  the  Montanists  ; 
but  this  does  not  affect  his  testimony  respecting  the  origin  and  universal 
reception  of  the  four  canonical  gospels.  His  works  are  very  numerous, 
.and  in  them  all  he  insists  with  great  earnestness  that  the  gospel  narratives, 
as  also  the  other  apostolic  writings,  have  been  received  without  corrup- 
tion, as  a  sacred  inheritance,  from  the  apostohc  churches.  His  work 
against  Marcion,  wdiom  he  accuses  of  employing  a  mutilated  gospel  of 
Luke,  is  particularly  instructive  as  showing  how  deep  and  settled  was  the 
conviction  of  the  early  Christians  that  nothing  could  be  a  gospel  which  did 
not  proceed  from  apostles  or  apostolic  men  ;  and  how  watchful  they  were 
against  all  attempts  to  mutilate  or  corrupt  the  primitive  apostolic  records. 
In  defending  the  true  gospel  of  Luke  against  the  mutilated  form  of  it 
employed  by  Marcion,  he  says  :  *' I  affirm  that  not  in  the  apostolic  churches 
alone,  but  in  all  which  are  joined  with  them  in  the  bond  of  fellowship, 


4:0  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

that  gospel  of  Luke  which  we  most  firmly  maintain,  has  been  valid  from 
its  first  publication ;  but  Marcion's  gospel  is  unknown  to  most  of  them, 
and  known  to  none,  except  to  be  condemned."  This  testimony  of  Ter- 
tullian  is  very  important,  as  showing  his  full  conviction  that  Marcion  could 
not  deny  the  universal  reception,  from  the  beginning,  of  the  genuine  gos- 
pel of  Luke.  And  a  little  afterwards  he  adds  :  "The  same  authority  of  the 
apostolic  churches  will  defend  the  other  gospels  also,  which  we  have  in  like 
manner  through  them,  and  according  to  them,"  (Against  Marcion,  4.  5.) 
Many  more  quotations  of  hke  jDurport  might  be  added. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  was  a  pupil  of  Pantsenus,  and  his  successor  as 
head  of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  He  was  of  heathen 
origin,  born  probably  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  and  died 
about  A.  D.  220.  He  had  a  philosophical  turn  of  mind,  and  after  his  con- 
version to  Christianity  made  extensive  researches  under  various  teachers, 
as  he  himself  tells  us,  in  Greece,  in  Italy,  in  Palestine,  and  other  parts  of 
the  East.  At  last  he  met  with  Pantsenus  in  Egypt,  whom  he  preferred  to 
all  his  other  guides,  and  in  whose  instructions  he  rested.  The  testimony 
of  Clement  to  the  universal  and  undisputed  reception  by  the  churches  of 
the  four  canonical  gospels  as  the  writings  of  apostles  or  apostolic  men, 
agTees  with  that  of  TertuUian.  And  it  has  the  more  weight,  not  only  on 
account  of  his  wide  investigations,  but  because,  also,  it  virtually  contains 
the  testimony  of  his  several  teachers,  some  of  whom  must  have  known,  if 
not  the  apostles  themselves,  those  who  had  listened  to  their  teachings. 

In  connection  with  the  testimony  of  the  above-named  Avriters,  we  may 
consider  that  of  the  cfnirches  of  Lyons  and  Vienne  in  Gaul,  in  a  letter 
addressed  by  them  to  "the  churches  of  Asia  andPhrygia,"  which  Eusebius 
has  preserved  for  us,  (Hist.  Eccl.,  5.  1,)  and  which  describes  a  severe  per- 
secution through  which  they  passed  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Yerus,  about 
A.  D.  177.  In  this  they  say  :  "So  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by 
our  Lord,  '  The  time  shall  come  in  which  whosoever  kiUetli  you  shall  think 
that  he  doeth  God  service.'"  In  speaking  again  of  a  certain  youthful 
martyr,  they  first  compare  him  to  Zacharias,  the  father  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, affirming,  in  the  very  words  of  Luke,  that  he  "had  walked  in  all  the^ 
commandments  and  ordinances  of  the  Lord  blameless,"  (Luke  1:6;)  and 
then  go  on  to  describe  him  as  "having  the  Comforter  in  himself,  the 
Spirit,  more  abundantly  than  Zacharias,"  where  they  apply  to  the  Holy 
Spirit  a  term  peculiar  to  the  apostle  John.  Here,  then,  we  have  indubit- 
able testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  gospel  of  John,  as  well  as  of  Luke,  was 
known  to  the  churches  of  Gaul  in  the  west  and  Asia  Minor  in  the  east  in 
the  days  of  Pothinus,  bishop  of  these  churches,  who  suffered  martyrdom 
in  this  persecution.  But  Pothinus  was  ninety  years  old,  so  that  his  knowl- 
edge of  these  gos]Dels  must  have  reached  back  to  the  first  quarter  of  the 
second  century,  when  many  who  had  known  the  apostles  were  yet  living. 


EVIDENCES  OF  KEVEALED  EELIGION.  41 

5.  These  testimonies,  let  it  be  carefully  remembered,  apply 
not  to  one  part  of  Christendom  alone,  but  to  all  its  different 
and  distant  divisions;  and  that,  too,  long  before  there  was  any 
attempt  to  bring  the  judgment  of  the  churches  into  harmony 
by  means  of  general  councils.  The  orthodox  churches  planted 
in  the  different  provinces  of  the  Eoman  empire,  though  in  sub- 
stantial harmony  with  each  other,  had  nevertheless  their  minor 
differences,  which  were  sometimes  discussed  with  much  warmth. 
In  their  relation  to  each  other,  they  were  jealous  of  their  free- 
dom and  independence.  The  history  of  the  so-called  Antilego- 
mena  (Disputed  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  chap.  6)  shows 
that  the  reception  of  a  writing  as  apostolic  in  one  division  of 
Christendom,  did  not  insure  its  reception  elsewhere.  Had  it 
been  possible  that  a  spurious  book  should  be  imposed  as  gen- 
uine on  the  churches  of  one  region,  it  would  certainly  have  met 
with  opposition  in  other  regions  ;  but  our  four  canonical  gos- 
pels were  everywhere  received  without  dispute  as  the  writings 
of  apostles  or  apostolic  men.  This  fact  admits  of  but  one 
explanation:  the  churches  had  from  their  first  appearance 
indubitable  evidence  of  their  genuineness. 

6.  Let  it  be  further  remembered  that  this  testimony  relates  not 
to  books  of  a  private  character,  that  might  have  lain  for  years 
hidden  in  some  corner;  but  to  ihopuhlic  turiUngs  of  the  churches, 
on  which  their  faith  was  founded,  of  which  they  all  had  copies, 
and  which  it  was  the  custom,  from  the  apostolic  age,  to  read  in 
their  assemblies  along  with  the  law  and  the  prophets.  (Justin 
Martyr  ApoL,  1.  67.)  Earnestness  and  sincerity  are  traits 
which  will  not  be  denied  to  the  primitive  Christians,  and  they 
were  certainly  not  wanting  in  common  discernment.  Let  any 
man  show,  if  he  can,  how  a  spurious  gospel,  suddenly  appear- 
ing somewhere  after  the  apostolic  days,  could  have  been  impos- 
ed upon  the  churches  as  genuine,  not  only  where  it  originated, 
but  everywhere  else  in  Christendom.  Tlie  difficulty  with  which 
some  of  the  genuine  books  of  the  New  Testament  gained  uni- 
versal currency  sufficiently  refutes  such  an  absurd  supposition. 

7,  We  are  now  prepared  to  consider  the  testimonies  of  an 


42  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

earlier  period.  Here  Justin  Martyr  is  a  very  weiglity  witness, 
since  he  lived  so  near  the  apostolic  age,  and  had  every  facilitj'- 
for  investigating  the  history  of  the  gospel  narratives.  He  was 
born  near  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  and  his  extant 
works  date  from  about  the  middle  of  the  same  century.  Before 
his  conversion  to  Christianity  he  was  a  heathen  philosopher 
earnestly  seeking  for  the  truth  among  the  different  systems  of 
the  age.  Of  his  undoubtedly  genuine  works,  there  remain  to 
us  two  Apologies  (defences  of  Christianity)  and  a  Dialogue 
with  Trypho  a  Jew,  designed  to  defend  the  Christian  religion 
against  its  Jewish  opponents.  In  these  he  quotes  the  gospel 
of  Matthew  very  abundantly  ;  next  in  number  are  his  quotations 
from  Luke.  His  references  to  Mark  and  John  are  much  fewer, 
but  enough  to  show  his  acquaintance  with  them.  He  never 
quotes  the  evangelists  by  name,  but  designates  their  writings 
as  "  The  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles ;"  and  more  fully,  "  The 
memoirs  which  I  affirm  to  have  been  composed  by  his" — our 
Lord's  —  "apostles  and  their  followers,"  Dialog.,  ch.  103, 
"  which,"  he  elsewhere  says,  "  are  called  gospels,"  Apol.  1.  66, 
and  in  a  collective  sense,  "the  gospel,"  Dialog.,  ch.  10.  It 
should  be  carefully  noticed  that  he  speaks  in  the  plural  num- 
ber both  of  the  apostles  who  composed  the  gospels  and  their 
followers.  This  description  applies  exactly  to  our  canonical 
gospels — two  written  by  apostles,  and  two  by  their  followers. 

The  attemi^t  has  been  made  in  modern  times  to  set  aside  Justin's  testi- 
mony, on  the  alleged  ground  that  he  quotes  not  from  our  canonical  gos- 
pels, but  from  some  other  writings.  The  groundlessness  of  this  supj)osi- 
tion  is  manifest  at  first  sight.  Justin  had  visited  the  three  principal 
churches  of  Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Ephesus.  It  is  certain  that  he  knew 
what  gospels  were  received  by  them  in  his  day  as  authentic,  and  that  these 
are  the  very  gospels  which  he  quotes,  affirming  that  they  were  the  writings 
of  ai^ostles  and  their  followers.  Now,  that  the  gospels  which  Justin  used 
should  have  been  wholly  supplanted  by  others  in  the  days  of  Irenreus,  who 
was  of  full  age  at  the  tune  of  Justin's  death,  is  incredible.  But  Irenseus, 
in  common  with  Clement,  Tertullian,  and  others,  quotes  our  four  canon- 
ical gospels  as  alone  possessing  apostolic  authority,  and  as  having  been 
always  received  by  the  churches.  It  follows  that  the  ' '  Memoirs  "  of  Justin 
must  be  the  same  gospels.     We  cannot  conceive  that  in  this  brief  period 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  43 

an  entire  change  of  gospels  sliould  liave  been  made  throngliout  all  the  dif- 
ferent and  distant  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  at  a  time  when  con- 
certed action  through  general  councils  was  unknown  ;  and  that,  too,  in  so 
silent  a  manner  that  no  record  of  it  remains  in  the  history  of  the  church. 
The  supposition  that  the  gospels  known  to  Justin  were  different  from  those 
received  by  Ireneeus  ought  not  to  be  entertained  without  irrefragable  proof. 
But  no  such  proof  exists.  ' '  An  accurate  examination  in  detail  of  his  cita- 
tions," says  Semisch,  Life  of  Justin  Martyr,  4.  1,  "has  led  to  the  result 
that  this  title" — the  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles — "designates  the  canonical 
gospels — a  result  in  no  way  less  certain  because  again  called  in  question  in 
modern  days." 

The  agreement  of  his  quotations  with  our  present  gospels  is  of  such  a 
character  and  extent  as  can  be  explained  only  from  his  use  of  them.  The 
variations  are  mainly  due  to  his  habit  of  quoting  loosely  from  memory. 
"Many  of  these  citations,"  says  Kirchhofer,  "agree,  word  for  word,  with 
the  gospels  ;  others  with  the  substance,  but  with  alterations  and  additions 
of  words,  with  transpositions  and  omissions  ;  others  give  the  thought  only 
in  a  general  way ;  others  stiU  condense  together  the  contents  of  several 
passages  and  different  sayings,  in  which  case  the  historic  quotations  are 
yet  more  free,  and  blend  together,  in  part,  the  accounts  of  Matthew  and 
Luke.  But  some  quotations  are  not  found  at  all  in  our  canonical  gos- 
pels," (see  immediately  below;)  "some,  on  the  contrary,  occur  twice  or 
thrice."  Quellensammlung,  p.  89.  note.  Two  or  three  more  important 
variations  are,  perhaps,  due  to  the  readings  in  the  manuscripts  employed 
by  Justin,  since  the  later  church  fathers,  who,  as  we  know,  employed  the 
canonical  gospels,  give  the  same  variations.  Finally,  Justin  gives  a  few 
incidents  and  sayings  not  recorded  in  our  present  gospels.  As  he  lived  so 
near  the  apostolic  times  he  may  well  have  received  these  from  tradition  ; 
but  if  in  any  case  he  took  them  from  written  documents,  there  is  no  proof 
that  he  ascribed  to  such  documents  ajDostohc  authority.  In  one  passage, 
lie  accurately  distinguishes  between  what  he  gives  from  tradition  or  other 
written  sources,  and  what  from  the  apostolic  records.  "When  Jesus 
came,"  he  says,  "to  the  river  Jordan,  where  John  was  baptizing,  as  he 
descended  to  the  water,  both  was  a  fire  kindled  in  the  Jordan,  and  as  he 
ascended  from  the  water,  the  apostles  of  this  very  Christ  of  ours  have 
^vritten  that  the  Holy  Spirit  as  a  dove  lighted  upon  him."    Dial.,  ch.  88. 

It  has  been  doubted  whether  certain  references  to  the  gospel  of  John 
can  be  found  in  Justin's  writings  ;  but  it  seems  plain  that  the  following  is 
a  free  quotation  from  chapter  3  : 3-5  :  ' '  For  Christ  said,  Excej^t  ye  be 
born  again,  ye  shall  by  no  means  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  But 
that  it  is  impossible  that  they  who  have  once  been  born  should  enter  into 
the  wombs  of  those  who  bare  them  is  manifest  to  all."  Apol.  1.  61.  To 
affirm  that  a  passage  so  peculiar  as  this  was  borrowed  by  both  the  evange- 


•i4  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

list  John  and  Justin  from  a  common  tradition,  is  to  substitute  a  very  im- 
jDi-obable  for  a  veiy  natural  explanation.  Besides,  Justin  uses  phraseology 
Xoeculiarto  John,  repeatedly  calling  our  Saviour  "the  Word  of  God,"  and 
"the  Word  made  flesh  ;"  affirming  that  he  "was  in  a  peculiar  sense  begot- 
ten the  only  Son  of  God,"  "an  only  begotten  One  to  the  Father  of  all 
things,  being  in  a  peculiar  sense  begotten  of  him  as  Word  and  Power,  and 
afterwards  made  man  through  the  Virgin;"  and  calhng  him  "the  good 
Rock  that  sends  forth  (literally,  causes  to  bubble  forth — compare  John  4  :14) 
living  waters  into  the  hearts  of  those  who  through  him  have  loved  the 
Father  of  all  things,  and  that  gives  to  aU  who  wiU  the  water  of  life  to 
drink. "  These  and  other  references  to  John  may  be  seen  in  Kirchhofer's 
Quellensammlung,  pi^.  146,  147. 

8.  Another  early  witness  is  Pajoias,  who  was  bishop  of 
Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century. 
He  wrote  "  An  Exposition  of  the  Oracles  of  the  Lord/'  in  five 
books.  This  work  has  perished ;  but  fragments  of  it,  with  no- 
tices of  its  contents,  are  preserved  to  us  by  Eusebius  and  other 
writers.  As  Papias,  according  to  his  own  express  testimony, 
gathered  his  materials,  if  not  from  apostles  themselves,  yet 
from  their  immediate  disciples,  his  statements  are  invested 
with  great  interest.  Of  Matthew  he  says,  Eusebius  Hist. 
EccL,  5.  39,  that  he  "wrote  the  oracles  in  the  Hebrew  dialect, 
and  every  one  interpreted  them  as  he  could."  He  speaks  of 
this  interpretation  by  each  one  as  he  could  as  something  past, 
impljdng  that  in  his  day  our  present  Greek  gospel  of  Matthew 
(of  the  apostolic  authority  of  which  there  was  never  any  doubt 
in  the  early  churches)  was  in  circulation,  whether  it  was  or 
was  not  originally  composed  in  Hebrew,  a  question  on  which 
learned  men  are  not  agreed.  Of  Mark  he  affirms  that,  "  hav- 
ing become  Peter's  interpreter,  he  wrote  down  accurately  as 
many  things  as  he  remembered ;  not  recording  in  order  the 
things  that  were  said  or  done  by  Christ,  since  he  was  not  a 
hearer  or  follower  of  the  Lord,  but  afterwards " — after  our 
Lord's  ascension — "of  Peter,  who  imparted  his  teachings  as 
occasion  required,  but  not  as  making  an  orderly  narrative  of 
the  Lord's  discourses."  Hist.  EccL,  3.  39.  The  fact  that 
Eusebius  gives  no  statement  of  Papias  respecting  the  other 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED   RELIGION.  45 

two  gospels  is  of  little  account,  since  his  notices  of  the  authors 
to  whom  he  refers,  and  of  their  works,  are  confessedly  im- 
perfect 

Eusebms  notices,  for  example.  Hist  EccL  4.  14,  the  fact  that  Poly- 
carp,  in  his  letter  to  the  Philippians,  ' '  has  used  certain  testimonies  from 
the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  ;"  but  says  nothing  of  his  many  references,  in 
in  the  same  letter,  to  the  ejoistles  of  Paul,  in  some  of  which  he  quotes  th-e 
apostle  by  name.  We  have,  ncTertheless,  through  Eusebius,  an  indirect 
but  valid  testimony  from  Papias  to  the  authorshix3  of  the  fourth  gospel, 
resting  upon  the  admitted  identity  of  the  author  of  this  gospel  with  the 
author  of  the  first  of  the  epistles  ascribed  to  John.  Speaking  of  Papias, 
Eusebius  says  :  "But  the  same  man  used  testimonies  from  the  First  Epis- 
tle of  John."  Hist.  EccL,  3.  39,  end.  The  ascription  to  John  of  this 
epistle,  is  virtually  the  ascription  to  him  of  the  fourth  gospel  also.  Euse- 
bius speaks  of  Papias  as  a  man  "of  very  small  mind."  The  correctness  of 
this  judgment  is  manifest  from  the  specimens  which  he  gives  of  his  writ- 
ings ;  but  it  cannot  invalidate  the  evidence  we  have  from  the*  above  -pas- 
sages of  the  existence,  in  Papias'  day,  of  the  gospels  to  which  he  refers. 
As  to  the  question  whether  these  were  our  present  canonical  gospels  of 
Matthew  and  Mark,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  neither  Eusebius  nor  any  of 
the  church  fathers  understood  them  differentl}\ 

9.  A  very  interesting  relic  of  antiquity  is  the  Epistle  to  Diog- 
netus,  of  which  the  authorship  is  uncertain.  Its  date  cannot  be 
later  than  the  age  of  Justin  Martyr,  to  whom  it  is  ascribed  by 
some.  It  is,  notwithstanding  some  erroneous  views,  a  noble 
defence  of  Christianity,  in  which  the  author  shows  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  gospel  of  John  by  the  use  of  terms  and  phrases 
peculiar  to  him.  Thus  he  calls  Christ  "the  Word,"  and  "the 
only  begotten  Son,"  whom  God  sent  to  men.  In  the  words, 
"not  to  take  thought  about  raiment  and  food,"  section  9,  there 
is  an  apparent  reference  to  Matt.  6  :  25,  31. 

In  addition  to  the  above  testimonies  might  be  adduced 
some  fragments  of  early  Christian  writers  which  have  been 
preserved  to  us  by  those  of  a  later  day ;  but  for  brevity's  sake 
they  are  omitted. 

10.  Following  up  the  stream  of  testimony,  we  come  now  to 
that  of  the  so-called  apostolic  fathers  ;  that  is,  of  men  who  were 
disciples  of  apostles,  and  wrote  in  the  age  next  following  them. 


•16  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

Holding,  as  tliej  do,  such  a  near  relation  to  the  apostles,  and 
familiar  with  the  oral  traditions  of  the  apostolic  age,  we  cannot 
expect  to  find  in  them  such  frequent  and  formal  references  to 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament  as  characterize  the  works  of 
later  writers.  They  quote,  for  the  most  part,  anonymously, 
interweaving  with  their  own  words  those  of  the  sacred  writers. 

One  of  the  earliest  among  the  ai^ostolic  fathers  is  Clement  of  Rome,  who 
died  about  a.  d.  100.  Of  the  numerous  writings  anciently  ascribed  to  him, 
his  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  admitted,  upon  good  evidence,  to  be 
genuine.  In  this  we  find  words  which  imply  a  knowledge  of  the  first  three 
gospels.  Citing  evidently  from  memory,  in  a  loose  way,  he  says :  ' '  For 
thus  he" — the  Lord  Jesus — "spake,  'Be  merciful,  that  ye  may  obtain 
mercy ;  forgive,  that  ye  may  be  forgiven ;  as  ye  do,  so  shall  it  be  done  to 
you  ;  as  ye  give,  so  shall  it  be  given  to  you ;  as  ye  judge,  so  shall  ye  receive 
judgment ;  as  ye  are  kind,  so  shall  ye  receive  kindness  ;  with  what  meas- 
ure ye  measure,  with  that  it  shall  be  measured  to  j^ou.'"  And  again  : 
"For  he  said,  'Woe  unto  that  man  ;  it  were  better  for  him  that  he  had 
not  been  born,  than  that  he  should  offend  one  of  my  elect. ' " 

Ignatius  was  bishop  of  the  church  at  Antioch,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
A.  D.  107,  or  according  to  some  accounts,  116.  In  his  epistles,  which  are 
received  as  genuine,  are  manifest  quotations  from  the  gospel  of  Matthew, 
and  some  apparent  though  not  entirely  certain  allusions  to  the  gospel 
of  John. 

Poll/carp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  was  a  disciple  of  the  apostle  John,  He 
suffered  martyrdom  about  the  year  166.  Of  his  writings,  only  one  short 
epistle,  addressed  to  the  Philippians,  remains  to  us ;  but  this  abounds  in 
references  to  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  especially  the  epistles  of 
Paul.  Of  quotations  from  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  the  following  are  exam- 
ples :  "Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged;  forgive,  and  ye  shall  be  for- 
given ;  be  merciful,  that  ye  may  obtain  mercy ;  with  what  measure  ye 
mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to  you  again."  "Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit, 
and  those  that  suffer  persecution  for  righteousness'  sake,  for  theirs  is  the 
kingdom  of  heaven."  "The  spirit  indeed  is  willing,  but  the  flesh  is 
weak."  For  the  gospel  of  John,  Polycarp's  testimony,  though  indirect,  is 
decisive.  In  his  letter  to  the  Phihppians,  he  quotes  from  the  First  Epis- 
tle of  John,  "For  every  one  who  does  not  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  has 
come  in  the  flesh,  is  antichrist."  1  John  4:3.  But  that  the  gospel  of 
John  and  this  first  epistle  both  proceeded  from  the  same  author,  is  a  con- 
ceded fact. 

The  recently  discovered  Sinai  Codex,  the  oldest  known  codex  in  the 
world,  contains  the  entire  Epistle  of  Bavyiahas  in  the  original  Greek.     In 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  47 

this  we  Unci,  among  other  references  to  tlie  first  three  gosi^els,  one  to  the 
written  gospel  of  Matthew  of  the  most  decisive  character  :  ''Let  iis  be 
mindful,  therefore,  lest  perchance  we  be  found  as  it  is  written,  '  Many  are. 
caUed,  but  few  a,re  chosen.'  "  Matt.  20  :  16 ;  22  :  14.  The  form  of  quota- 
tion, "as  it  is  written,"  is  employed  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
only  of  iiitations  from  Scripture.  In  these  words  the  writer  places  the  gos- 
l^el  of  Matthew  in  the  same  rank  as  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament. 
That  he  was  the  Barnabas  mentioned  in  the  Ncav  Testament  as  the  com- 
panion of  Paul  cannot  be  maintained  ;  but  the  composition  of  the  epistle 
is  assigned,  with  probability,  to  the  beginning  of  the  second  century, 
though  some  place  it  as  late  as  its  close. 

The  testimony  of  other  apocryphal  writings  of  early  date  might  be  ad- 
duced, but  for  the  sake  of  brevity  it  is  here  omitted.  It  may  be  seen  in 
the  essay  of  Tischendorf,  ah-eady  referred  to. 

11.  A  different  class  of  witnesses  will  next  be  considered — 
the  ancient  Sjriac  version,  the  old  Latin  version,  and  the 
Muratorian  fragment  on  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament — all 
of  which  bear  testimony  to  our  canonical  gospels. 

The  ancient  Syriac  version,  commonly  called  the  Peshito — simple,  that 
is,  expressing  simply  the  meaning  of  the  original,  without  allegorical 
additions  and  explanations,  after  the  manner  of  the  Jewish  Targums — is 
admitted  by  all  to  be  of  very  high  antiquity.  Learned  men  are  agreed 
that  this  version  cannot  well  be  referred  to  a  later  date  than  the  close  of 
the  second  century,  and  some  assign  .  it  to  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, at  which  time  the  Syrian  churches  were  in  a  very  flourishing  condi- 
tion, and  cannot  well  be  supposed  to  have  been  without  a  version  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  The  Peshito  contains  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, except  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  Second  and  Third  Epistles 
of  John,  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  and  the  Apocalypse.  It  testifies  to  the  exist- 
ence of  our  four  gospels,  not  only  when  it  was  made,  but  at  an  ear- 
lier date  ;  since  we  must,  in  all  probability,  assume  that  some  consider- 
able time  elapsed  after  the  composition,  one  by  one,  of  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  before  they  were  collected  into  a  volume,  as  in  this  Syriao 
version. 

Eespecting  the  Old  Latin  version,  (in  distinction  from  Jerome's  revision, 
commonly  called  the  Vulgate,  which  belongs  to  the  fourth  century, )  various 
opinions  have  been  maintained.  Some  have  assumed  the  existence  of  sev- 
eral independent  Latin  versions  of  the  New  Testament,  or  of  some  of  its 
books  ;  but  the  preferable  opinion  is  that  there  were  various  recensions,  all 
having  for  their  foundation  a  single  version,  namely,  the  Old  Latin;  which, 
says  "Westcott,  Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  ch.  3,  "can  be  traced  back 


4S  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

as  far  as  the  earliest  records  of  Latin  Christianity.  Every  circumstance 
connected  with  it  indicates  the  most  remote  antiquity."  It  was  current 
in  north  Africa,  at  least  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century: 
Though  it  has  not  come  down  to  us  in  a  perfect  form,  it  contains,  along 
with  most  of  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament,  our  four  canonical 
gospels  ;  and  its  testimony  is  of  the  greatest  weight. 

The  Muraiorian  Fragment  on  the  Canon  is  the  name  given  to  a  Latin 
fragment  discovered  by  the  Itahan  scholar,  Muratori,  in  the  Ambrosian 
Library  at  Milan,  in  a  manuscript  bearing  the  marks  of  great  antiquity. 
Its  date  is  determined  by  its  reference  to  the  shepherd  of  Hermas,  which, 
says  the  Fragment,  Hermas  "wrote  very  recently  in  our  times,  while  the 
bishop  Pius,  his  brother,  occupied  the  chair  of  the  church  at  Rome."  The 
later  of  the  two  dates  given  for  the  death  of  Pius  is  a.  d.  157.  The  compo- 
sition of  the  Fragment  must  have  followed  soon  afterwards.  Though 
mutilated  at  the  beginning,  as  well  as  the  end,  its  testimony  to  the  exist- 
ence of  i]\efour  canonical  gospels  is  decisive.  In  its  present  form,  it  opens 
with  the  end  of  a  sentence,  the  beginning  of  which  is  lost.  It  then  goes 
on  to  say,  "  TJie  third  gospel  according  to  Liikey  After  mentioning  various 
particulars  concerning  Luke,  as  that  he  was  a  physician  whom  Paul  had 
taken  with  him,  that  he  did  not  himself  see  the  Lord  in  the  flesh,  etc. ,  it 
adds,  "  TJie  fourth  of  the  gospels,  that  of  John,  of  the  number  of  the  disciples," 
to  which  it  appends  a  traditional  account  of  the  circumstances  of  its  com- 
position. With  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  this  account  we  have  at  present 
no  concern  ;  the  important  fact  is  that  this  very  ancient  canon  recognizes 
the  existence  of  our  four  canonical  gospels. 

12.  The  neretical  sects  of  the  second  century  fiirnisli  testi- 
mony to  the  genuineness  of  our  canonical  gospels  which  is  of 
the  most  weight}^  and  decisive  character.  Tliougli  some  of 
them  rejected  certain  books  of  the  New  Testament  and  muti- 
lated others,  it  was  on  doctrinal,  not  on  critical  grounds.  Had 
they  attempted  to  disprove  on  historic  grounds  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  rejected  portions  of  Scripture,  it  is  certain  that  the 
church  fathers,  who  wrote  against  them  at  such  length,  would 
have  noticed  their  arguments.  The  fact  that  they  did  not,  is 
conclusive  proof  that  no  such  attempt  was  made  ;  but  from  the 
position  which  the  leaders  of  these  heretical  sects  occupied,  it 
is  certain  that,  could  the  genuineness  of  the  canonical  gospels, 
or'  any  one  of  them,  have  been  denied  on  historic  grounds,  the 
denial  would  have  been  made. 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  49 

Marcion,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders  of  those  who  separated 
themselves  from  the  orthodox  church,  came  to  Rome  in  the  second  quarter 
of  the  second  century.  He  separated  Christianity  from  all  connection  with 
Judaism,  making  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old  Testament  a  different  being 
from  the  God  of  the  New  Testament.  His  gospel,  called  by  the  ancients 
the  gospel  of  Marcion,  is  admitted  to  have  been  a  mutilated  copy  of  Luke's 
gospel.  Of  course  it  became  necessary  that  he  should  reject  the  first  two 
chapters  of  this  gospel,  (which  alone  he  received,)  since  they  contain  our 
Lord's  genealogy  in  the  line  of  Abraham  and  David,  and  should  otherwise 
alter  it  to  suit  his  views.  On  the  same  grounds,  he  altered  the  epistles  of 
Paul  also.  That  Marcion  was  not  ignorant  of  the  other  three  gospels,  but 
rejected  them,  is  plain  from  the  words  of  TertuUian,  who  accuses  him, 
Against  Marcion,  4.  3,  of  attempting  "  to  destroy  the  credit  of  those  gospels 
which  are  properly  such,  and  are  published  under  the  name  of  apostles,  or 
also  of  apostolic  men  ;  that  he  may  invest  his  own  gospel  with  the  confidence 
which  he  withdraws  from  them."  His  real  ground  for  rejecting  some 
books  of  the  New  Testament  and  mutilating  others  was  that  lie  could  judge 
better  of  the  truth  than  the  writers  themselves,  whom  he  represented  to 
have  been  misled  by  the  influences  of  Jewish  prejudices.  Accordingly 
Irenseus  well  says  of  the  liberties  taken  by  Marcion,  Against  Heresies, 
1.  27  :  "He  persuaded  his  disciples  that  he  was  himself  more  trustworthy 
than  the  apostles  who  have  delivered  to  us  the  gospel ;  while  he  gave  to 
them  not  the  gospel,  but  a  fragment  of  the  gospel. " 

A  distinguished  leader  of  the  Gnostics  was  Vcdeniinus,  who  came  to 
Rome  about  a.  d.  140,  and  continued  there  till  the  time  of  Anicetus.  His 
testimony  and  that  of  his  followers  is,  if  possible,  more  weighty  than  even 
that  of  Marcion.  His  method,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Tertullian, 
was  not  to  reject  and  mutilate  the  Scriptures,  but  to  pervert  their  meaning 
by  false  interpretations.  Tertullian  says.  Against  Heretics,  ch.  38  :  "For 
though  Valentinus  seems  to  use  the  entire  instrument,  he  has  done  violence 
to  the  truth  with  a  more  artful  mind  than  Marcion."  "The  entire  instru- 
ment"— Latin,  iniegro  instrumento — includes  our  four  canonical  gospels. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Hippolytus  have  preserved  quotations  from 
Valentinus  in  which  he  refers  to  the  gospels  of  Matthew,  Luke,  and  John. 
See  "Westcott,  Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  4.  5.  Respecting  the  gos- 
pel of  John  in  particular,  Irenseus  says,  Against  Heresies,  3.  11,  that  "the 
Valentinians  make  the  most  abundant  use  of  it. "  Heracleon,  whom  Origen 
represents  as  having  been  a  familiar  friend  of  Valentinus,  wrote  a  com- 
mentaiy  on  John,  from  which  Origen  frequently  quotes  ;  but  if  Valentinus 
and  his  followers,  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  second  century,  used  "the 
entire  instrument,"  they  must  have  found  its  apostolic  authority  establish- 
ed upon  a  firm  foundation  before  their  day.  This  carries  us  back  to  the 
age  immediately  succeeding  that  of  the  apostles,  when  Polycarp  and  others 

Comp.  to  Bible,  3i 


;VJ  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

who  had  known  them  personally  were  yet  living.  The  testimony  of  the 
Valentinians,  then,  is  of  the  most  decisive  character. 

Another  prominent  man  among  the  heretical  writers  was  Tatian,  a  con- 
temporary and  pupil  of  Justin  Martyr,  who,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Eusebius,  Epiphanius,  and  Theodoret,  composed  a  Diatessar-on,  that  is,  a 
four-fold  gospel;  which  can  be  understood  only  as  a  harmony  of  the  four 
gospels  which,  as  has  been  shown,  were  used  by  Justin  ;  or  of  such  parts 
of  these  gospels  as  suited  his  purpose ;  for  Tatian,  hke  Marcion,  omitted 
all  that  relates  to  our  Lord's  human  descent.  With  this  Diatessaron,  Theo- 
doret Avas  Avell  acquainted ;  for  he  found  among  his  churches  more  than 
two  hundred  copies,  which  he  caused  to  be  removed,  and  their  places  sup- 
plied by  the  four  canonical  gospels. 

As  to  other  gospels  of  the  second  century,  which  are  occasionally  men- 
tioned by  later  writers,  as  "The  Gospel  of  Truth,"  "The  Gospel  of  Basil- 
ides,"  etc.,  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  professed  to  be  connected  his-, 
tories  of  our  Lord's  life  and  teachings.  They  were  rather,  as  Norton  has 
shown,  Genuineness  of  the  Gospels,  vol.  3,  chap.  4,  doctrinal  w^orks  em- 
bodying the  views  of  the  sectaries  that  used  them. 

13.  We  liave  seen  how  full  and  satisfactory  is  the  external 
evidence  for  our  four  canonical  gospels.  Considering  how  scan- 
ty are  the  remains  of  Christian  writings  that  have  come  down 
to  us  from  the  first  half  of  the  same  century,  we  have  all  the 
external  evidence  for  that  period  also  that  could  be  reasonably 
demanded,  and  it  is  met  by  no  rebutting  testimony  that  rests 
on  historic  grounds.  The  authorship  of  no  ancient  classical 
work  is  sustained  by  a  mass  of  evidence  so  great  and  varied, 
and  the  candid  mind  can  rest  in  it  with  entire  satisfaction. 

III.  Internal  Evidences.  14.  Here  we  may  begin  with  con- 
sidering the  relation  of  the  first  three  gospels  to  the  last,  in 
respect  to  both  time  of  composition  and  character. 

And  first,  with  respect  to  time.  The  first  three  gospels — 
frequently  called  the  synoptical  gospels,  or  the  synoptics,  because 
from  the  general  similarity  of  their  plan  and  materials  their 
contents  are  capable  of  being  summed  up  in  a  synopsis — record 
our  Lord's  prophecy  of  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem.  The  three 
records  of  this  prediction  wear  throughout  the  costume  of  a 
true  prophecy,  not  of  a  prophecy  written  after  the  event.  They 
are  occupied,   almost  exclusively,  with   the   various   signs  by 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  51 

"wliicli  tlie  approacli  of  that  great  catastroplie  might  be  kiiowu, 
and  with  admonitions  to  the  disciples  to  hold  themselves  in 
readiness  for  it,  Matthew,  for  example,  devotes  fifty  verses  to 
the  account  of  the  prophecy  and  the  admonitions  connected 
with  it.  Of  these,  only  four,  chap.  24 :  19-22,  describe  the 
calamities  of  the  scene,  and  that  in  the  most  general  terms. 
Now,  upon  the  supposition  that  the  evangelist  wrote  before  the 
event,  all  this  is  natural.  Our  Lord's  design  in  uttering  the 
prophecy  was  not  to  gratify  the  idle  curiosity  of  the  disciples, 
but  to  warn  them  beforehand  in  such  a  way  that  they  might 
escape  the  horrors  of  the  impending  catastrophe.  He  dwelt, 
therefore,  mainly  on  the  signs  of  its  approach ;  and  with  these, 
as  having  a  chief  interest  for  the  readers,  the  record  of  the  pre- 
diction is  mostly  occupied.  It  is  impossible,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  conceive  that  one  who  wrote  years  afcer  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city  and  temple  should  not  have  dwelt  in  more  de- 
tail on  the  bloody  scenes  connected  with  their  overthrow,  and 
have  given  in  other  ways  also  a  historic  coloring  to  his  account. 
We  may  safely  say  that  to  write  a  prophecy  after  the  event  in 
such  a  form  as  that  which  we  have  in  either  of  the  first  three 
gospels,  transcends  the  power  of  any  uninspired  man ;  and  as 
to  inspired  narratives,  the  objectors  with  whom  we  are  now 
dealing  deny  them  altogether. 

But  there  are,  in  the  record  of  this  prophecy,  some  special 
indications  of  the  time  when  the  evangelists  wrote.  According 
to  Matthew,  the  disciples  asked,  ver.  3  :  "When  shall  these 
things" — the  destruction  of  the  buildings  of  the  temple — "be? 
and  what  shall  be  the  sign  of  thy  coming  and  of  the  end  of  the 
Avorld?"  These  questions  our  Lord  proceeded  to  answer  in 
such  a  way  that  the  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  hearers 
(to  be  rectified  only  by  the  course  of  future  events)  must  have 
been  that  the  overthrow  of  the  temple  and  city  would  be  con- 
nected with  his  second  coming  and  the  end  of  the  world.  "Im- 
mediately after  the  tribulation  of  those  days,"  says  Matthew, 
"shall  the  sun  be  darkened,"  etc.  The  probable  explanation  of 
this  peculiar  form  of  the  prophecy  is  that  it  does  actually  in- 


52  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

elude  all  three  events ;  the  fulfilment  which  it  had  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  city  and  temple  by  the  Eomans  being  only  an 
earnest  of  a  higher  fulfilment  hereafter.  But  however  this  may 
be,  it  is  important  to  notice  that  the  evangelists,  in  their  record 
of  the  prophecy,  are  evidently  unconscious  of  any  discrepancy, 
real  or  apparent,  that  needs  explanation  ;  which  could  not  have 
been  the  case  had  they  written  years  after  the  event  predicted. 
"  It  may  be  safely  held,"  says  Professor  Fisher,  Supernatural 
Origin  of  Christianity,  p.  172,  "that  had  the  evangelist  been 
writing  at  a  later  time,  some  explanation  would  have  been 
thrown  in  to  remove  the  seeming  discrepancy  between  prophecy 
and  fulfilment." 

It  should  be  further  noticed  that  the  evangelists  Matthew 
and  Mark,  in  reference  to  "the  abomination  of  desolation" 
standing  in  the  holy  place,  throw  in  the  admonitory  words, 
"  Let  him  that  readeth  understand."  These  are  not  the  Sav- 
iour's words,  but  those  of  the  narrators  calling  the  attention  of 
believers  to  a  most  important  sign  requiring  their  immediate 
flight  to  the  mountains.  Before  the  overthrow  of  the  city  these 
words  had  a  weighty  office ;  after  its  overthrow  they  would 
have  been  utterly  superfluous.  Their  presence  in  such  a  con- 
nection is  proof  that  the  record  was  written  before  the  event  to 
which  it  refers. 

Admitting  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  book  of 
Acts,  (which  will  be  considered  hereafter,)  we  have  a  special 
proof  of  the  early  composition  of  the  gospel  according  to  Luke. 
The  book  of  Acts  ends  abruptly  with  Paul's  two  years'  residence 
at  Eome,  which  brings  us  down  to  A.  D.  65,  flve  years  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  only  natural  explanation  of  this 
fact  is  that  here  the  composition  of  the  book  of  Acts  was  brought 
to  a  close.  The  date  of  the  gospel  which  preceded,  Acts  1 : 1, 
must  therefore  be  placed  still  earlier. 

If,  now,  we  examine  the  gospel  of  John,  we  find  its  internal 
character  agreeing  with  the  ancient  tradition  that  it  was  writ- 
ten at  Ephesus  late  in  the  apostle's  life.    That  it  was  composed 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  53 

at  a  distance  from  Judea,  in  a  Gentile  region,  is  manifest  from 
his  careful  explanation  of  Jewish  terms  and  usages,  which 
among  his  countrymen  w^ould  have  needed  no  explanation. 
No  man  writing  in  Judea,  or  among  the  Galileans  wdio  habit- 
ually attended  the  national  feasts  at  Jerusalem,  w-ould  have 
Baid,  "And  the  passover,  a  feast  of  the  Jews,  was  nigh,"  6:4; 
"Now  the  Jews'  feast  of  tabernacles  was  at  hand,"  7:2,  etc. 
The  absence  of  all  reference  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish 
polity,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  may  be  naturally  explained  upon 
the  supposition  that  the  apostle  wrote  some  years  after  that 
event,  when  his  mind  had  now  become  familiar  with  the  great 
truth  that  the  Mosaic  institutions  had  forever  passed  away  to 
make  room  for  the  universal  dispensation  of  Christianity ;  and 
that  he  wrote,  too,  among  Gentiles  for  w^hom  the  abolition  of 
these  institutions  had  no  special  interest.  In  general  style  and 
spirit,  moreover,  the  gospel  of  John  is  closely  allied  to  his  first 
epistle,  and  cannot  well  be  separated  from  it  by  a  great  inter- 
val of  time  ;  but  the  epistle  undoubtedly  belongs  to  a  later 
period  of  the  apostle's  life. 

From  the  language  of  John,  chap.  5  :2,  "Now  there  is  at  Jerusalem, 
by  the  sheep-gate,  a  pool,  which  is  caUed  in  the  Hebrew  tongue,  Bethesda, 
having  five  porches," — it  has  been  argued  that,  when  John  wrote,  the  city 
must  have  been  still  standing.  But  Eusebius  speaks  of  the  pool  as  remain- 
ing in  his  day,  and  why  may  not  the  porches,  as  useful  to  the  Roman  con- 
querors, have  been  preserved,  at  least  for  a  season  ? 

We  have  seen  the  relation  of  John's  gospel  to  the  other 
three  in  respect  to  time.  It  must  have  been  written  several 
years  later  than  the  last  of  them  ;  perhaps  not  less  than,  fifteen 
years.  If,  now,  we  look  to  its  relation  in  regard  to  cJiaracter, 
we  must  say  that  it  differs  from  them  as  widely  as  it  well  could 
while  presenting  to  our  view  the  same  divine  and  loving  Sav- 
iour. Its  general  plan  is  different.  For  reasons  not  known  to 
us,  the  synoptical  gospels  are  mainly  occupied  with  our  Lord's 
ministry  in  Galilee.  They  record  only  his  last  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  momentous  incidents  connected  with  it.  John, 
on  the  contrary,  notices  his  visits  to  Jerusalem  year  by  year, 


54  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Hence  his  materials  are,  to  a  great  extent,  different  from  tlieirs ; 
and  even  where  he  records  the  same  events — as,  for  examj^^le, 
the  miracle  of  the  loaves  and  fishes,  and  the  last  supper — he 
connects  with  them  long  discourses,  which  the  other  evange- 
lists have  omitted.  Particularly  noticeable  are  our  Lord's  oft- 
repeated  discussions  with  the  unbelieving  Jews  respecting  his 
Messiahship,  and  his  confidential  intercourse  with  his  disciples, 
in  both  of  which  we  have  such  treasures  of  divine  truth  and 
love.  How  strikingly  this  gospel  differs  from  the  others  in  its 
general  style  and  manner  every  reader  feels  at  once.  It  bears 
throughout  the  impress  of  John's  individuality,  and  by  this  it 
is  immediately  connected  with  the  epistles  that  bear  his  name. 
It  should  be  added  that  in  respect  to  the  time  wdien  our  Lord 
ate  the  passover  with  his  disciples  there  is  an  apparent  dis- 
agreement with  the  other  three  gospels,  which  the  harmonists 
have  explained  in  various  ways. 

The  essential  point  of  the  above  comparison  is  this  :  Not- 
withstanding the  striking  difference  between  the  later  fourth 
gospel  and  the  earlier  three,  it  was  at  once  received  by  all  the 
churches  as  of  apostolic  authority.  Now  upon  the  supposition 
of  its  genuineness,  both  its  peculiar  character  and  its  undis- 
j)uted  reception  everj^where  are  easily  explained.  John,  the 
bosom  disciple  of  our  Lord,  wrote  with  the  full  consciousness 
of  his  apostolic  authority  and  his  competency  as  a  witness  of 
what  he  had  himself  seen  and  heard.  He  therefore  gave  his 
testimony  in  his  own  independent  and  original  way.  How  far 
lie  may  have  been  influenced  in  his  selection  of  materials  by  a 
purpose  to  supply  what  w^as  wanting  in  the  earlier  gospels, 
according  to  an  old  tradition,  it  is  not  necessary  here  to 
inquire ;  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that,  under  the  illumination  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  he  marked  out  that  particular  plan  which  ^YQ 
have  in  his  gospel,  and  carried  it  out  in  his  own  peculiar  man- 
ner, thus  opening  to  the  churches  new  mines,  so  to  speak,  of 
the  inexhaustible  fulness  of  truth  and  love  contained  in  him  in 
whom  "dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the  godhead  bodily."  And 
when  this  original  gospel,  so  different  in  its  general  plan  and 


EVIDENCES  OE  KEVEALED   RELIGION.  55 

stylo  from  those  that  preceded,  made  its  appearance,  the  apos- 
tolic authority  of  its  author  secured  its  immediate  and  uni- 
versal reception  hy  the  churches.  All  this  is  very  plain  and 
intelligible. 

But  upon  the  supposition  that  the  gospel  of  John  is  a  spuri- 
ous production  of  the  age  succeeding  that  of  the  apostles,  let 
any  one  explain,  if  he  can,  how  it  could  have  obtained  universal 
and  unquestioned  apostolic  autliorit}^  Its  very  difference  from 
the  earlier  gospels  must  have  provoked  inquiry  and  examina- 
tion, and  these  must  have  led  to  its  rejection,  especially  at  a 
time  when  some  who  had  known  the  apostle  yet  survived ;  and 
no  one  now  pretends  to  assign  to  it  a  later  period. 

15.  "We  will  next  consider  the  relation  of  the  first  three  gos- 
pels to  each  other.  Here  we  have  remarkable  agreements  Avith 
remarkable  differences.  The  general  plan  of  all  three  is  the 
same.  It  is  manifest  also,  at  first  sight,  that  there  lies  at  the 
foundation  of  each  a  basis  of  common  matter — common  not  in 
substance  alone,  but  to  a  great  extent  in  form  also.  Equal- 
\y  manifest  is  it  that  the  three  evangelists  w^rite  indepen- 
dently of  each  other.  Matthew,  for  example,  did  not  draw  his 
materials  from  Luke ;  for  there  is  his  genealogy  of  our  Lord, 
and  his  full  account  of  the  sermon  on  the  mount,  not  to  men- 
tion other  particulars.  Nor  did  Luke  take  his  materials  from 
Matthew  ;  for  there  is  his  genealogy  also,  with  large  sections  of 
matter  peculiar  to  himself.  Mark  has  but  little  matter  that  is 
absolutely  new;  but  where  he  and  the  other  two  evangelists 
record  the  same  events,  if  one  comj)ares  his  narratives  with 
theirs,  he  finds  numerous  little  incidents  peculiar  to  this  gospel 
woven  into  them  in  a'  very  vivid  and  graphic  manner.  They 
come  in  also  in  the  most  natural  and  artless  way,  as  might  be 
expected  from  one  who,  if  not  himself  an  eye-witness,  received 
his  information  immediately  from  eye-witnesses.  The  three 
writers,  ,moreover,  do  not  always  agree  as  to  the  order  in  which 
they  record  events ;  yet,  notwithstanding  the  diversities  which 
they  exhibit,  they  were  all  received  from  the  first  as  of  equal 
authority. 


56  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  natural  explanation  of  this  is  that  all  three  wrote  in  the 
apostolic  age,  and  consequently  had  access,  each  of  them  inde- 
pendently of  the  other  two,  to  the  most  authentic  sources  of 
information.  These  sources  (so  far  as  the  evangelists  w^ere  not 
themselves  eye-witnesses)  lay  partly,  perhaps,  in  written  docu- 
ments like  those  referred  to  by  Luke,  1 : 1,  partly  in  the  un- 
written traditions  current  in  the  apostolic  churches,  and  partly 
in  personal  inquiry  from  eye-witnesses,  especially,  in  the  case 
of  Mark  and  Luke,  from  apostles  themselves.  From  these 
materials  each  selected  as  suited  his  purposes,  and  the  churches 
everywhere  unhesitatingly  received  each  of  the  three  gospels, 
notwithstanding  the  above-named  variations  between  them, 
because  they  had  undoubted  evidence  of  their  apostolic  author- 
ity. We  cannot  suppose  that  after  the  apostolic  age  three 
gospels,  bearing  to  each  other  the  relation  which  these  do, 
could  have  been  imposed  upon  the  churches  as  all  of  them 
equally  authentic.  We  know  from  the  history  of  Marcion's 
gospel  how  fully  alive  they  were  to  the  character  of  their  sacred 
records.  On  apostolic  authority  they  could  receive — to  men- 
tion a  single  example — both  Matthew's  and  Luke's  account  of 
our  Lord's  genealogy ;  but  it  is  certain  that  they  would  not 
have  received  the  two  on  the  authority  of  men  who  lived  after 
the  apostolic  age. 

16.  In  the  gospel  narratives  are  numerous  incidental  allu- 
sions to  passing  events  without  the  proj)er  sphere  of  our  Lord's 
labors,  to  social  customs,  and  to  the  present  posture  of  public 
affairs,  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  In  all  these  the  severest  scru- 
tiny has  been  able  to  detect  no  trace  of  a  later  age.  This  is  a 
weighty  testimony  to  the  apostolic  origin  of  the  gospels.  Had 
their  authors  lived  in  a  later  age,  the  fact  must  have  manifested 
itself  in  some  of  these  references.  The  most  artless  writer  can 
allude  in  a  natural  and  truthful  w^ay  to  present  events,  usages, 
and  circumstances ;  but  it  transcends  the  power  of  the  most 
skilful  author  to  multiply  incidental  and  minute  references  to  a 
past  age  without  betraying  the  fact  that  he  does  not  belong 
to  it. 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  KELIGION.  57 

17.  Every  age  lias,  also,  its  peculiar  impress  of  tliouglit  and 
reasoning  in  religious,  nol  less  than  in  secular  matters.  Al- 
thougli  the  gospel  itself  remains  always  the  same,  and  those 
who  sincerely  embrace  it  have  also  substantially  the  same 
character  from  age  to  age,  there  is,  nevertheless,  continual 
progress  and  change  in  men's  apprehension  of  the  gospel  and 
its  institutions,  and  consequently  in  their  manner  of  reason- 
ing concerning  them.  No  man,  for  example,  could  write  a 
treatise  on  Christianity  at  the  present  day  without  making  it 
manifest  that  he  did  not  belong  to  the  first  quarter  of  the  pres- 
ent century.  The  primitive  age  of  Christianity  is  no  exception 
to  this  universal  law.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  apostles  it 
began  to  move  forward,  and  it  continued  to  move  after  their 
decease.  The  pastoral  epistles  of  Paul  bear  internal  marks  of 
having  been  written  in  the  later  period  of  his  life,  because  they 
are  adapted  to  the  state  of  the  Christian  church  and  its  institu- 
tions that  belonged  to  that,  and  not  to  an  earlier  period.  If, 
now,  we  examine  the  writings  of  the  so-called  apostolic  fa- 
thers— disciples  of  the  apostles,  who  wrote  after  their  death — 
we  find  in  them  circles  of  thought  and  reasoning  not  belonging 
to  the  canonical  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  least  of  all  to 
the  canonical  gospels,  though  they  are  evidently  derived  from 
hints  contained  in  these  writings,  whether  rightly  or  wi'ongly 
apprehended.  In  this  respect,  the  works  of  the  apostolic 
fathers  are  distinguished  in  a  very  marked  way  from  those 
which  bear  the  names  of  the  apostles  themselves  or  their  asso- 
ciates. 

18.  Another  decisive  argument  lies  in  the  cJiaracfer  of  the 
GreeJc  employed  by  the  evangelists,  in  common  with  the  other 
writers  of  the  New  Testament.  It  is  the  Greek  language  em- 
ployed by  Jews,  (or,  in  the  case  of  Luke,  if  his  Jewish  origin 
be  doubted — see  Col.  4 :  11,  16- — by  one  who  had  received  a 
Jewish  training  under  the  influence  of  the  Greek  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,)  and  therefore  pervaded  and  colored  by  Hebrew 
idioms.  This  peculiar  form  of  the  Greek  language  belongs  to 
the  apostolic  age,  when  the  teachers  ani  writers  of  the  church 

3* 


58  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

were  Jews.  After  tlie  overthrow  of  Jerusalem,  tlie  dispersion 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the  death  of  the  apostles  and  their 
associates,  it  rapidly  disappeared.  Thenceforward  the  writers 
of  the  church  were  of  Gentile  origin  and  training,  in  accordance 
with  the  Saviour's  memorable  words:  "The  kingdom  of  God 
shall  be  taken  from  you,  and  given  to  a  nation  bringing  forth 
the  fruits  thereof." 

These  internal  proofs,  coinciding  as  they  do  with  a  mass  of 
external  evidences  so  great  and  varied,  place  the  genuineness 
of  the  four  canonical  gospels  on  a  foundation  that  cannot  be 
shaken. 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEYEALED  RELIGION.  59 


CHAPTEK   III. 

IJncorr-Upt    Preservation    of    the     Gospel    Nar- 
ratives. 

1.  It  is  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  define  wliat  is  meant  in  the 
present  connection  by  the  micorrupt  preservation  of  the  gospel 
narratives.  When  a  man,  whose  business  it  is  to  examine  and 
compare  manuscripts  or  editions  of  a  work,  speaks  of  a  given 
text  as  corrupt,  he  means  one  thing ;  in  a  question  concerning 
the  truth  of  the  Christian  system  as  given  in  the  writings  of 
the  New  Testament,  a  corrupt  text  means  something  very  dif- 
ferent. The  collator  of  manuscripts  understands  by  a  corrupt 
text  one  that  has  been  marred  by  the  carelessness  or  bad  judg- 
ment of  transcribers,  whence  have  arisen  so  many  "various 
readings,"  though  these  do  not  change,  or  essentially  obscure 
the  facts  and  doctrines  of  Christianity,  as  has  been  most  con- 
clusively shown  by  the  results  of  modern  textual  criticism ;  but 
in  an  inquiry  whether  we  have  in  our  canonical  gospels  the 
account  of  our  Lord's  life  and  teachings  as  it  was  originally 
written  by  the  evangelists  in  all  essential  particulars,  we  have 
to  do  with  the  question,  not  of  various  readings,  such  as  are 
incident  to  all  manuscripts,  but  of  essential  additions,  altera- 
tions, or  mutilations — like  those,  for  example,  Avliich  Marcion 
attempted — by  which  the  facts  and  doctrines  themselves  are 
changed  or  obscured.  It  is  against  the  charge  of  such  essen- 
tial corruptions  that  we  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  text  in 
the  gospels,  as  in  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament. 

2.  The  most  important  materials  for  writing  in  ancient 
times  were  the  paper  made  of  the  Egyptian  ^_9«79?/r?f5  plant — 
whence  the  word  jx^y^er — and  /7arc/^??ze«f,  prepared  from  the 
Bkins  of  animals,  the  finer  kinds  of  which  are  called  vellum. 


GO  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Both  are  of  high  antiquity.  The  use  of  the  above-mentioned 
paper  was  very  common  in  the  apostoKc  age  ;  and  from  an 
incidental  notice  in  the  New  Testament,  (2  John  12  compared 
with  3  John  13,)  it  appears-to  have  been  the  material  employed 
by  the  apostles  themselves.  But  the  use  of  parchment  became 
more  common  in  the  following  centuries,  while  that  of  papyrus- 
paper  gradually  ceased.  To  this  circumstance  we*  owe,  in  a 
great  measure,  the  preservation  of  our  oldest  manuscripts ;  for 
the  papyrus-paper  was  of  a  very  perishable  nature,  and  the 
manuscripts  written  upon  it  that  have  come  down  to  us  from 
high  antiquity  have  been  kept  in  specially  favorable  circum- 
stances, as,  for  example,  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  tombs.  With 
the  disuse  of  papyrus-paper  ceased  also  the  ancient  form  of  the 
roll.  All  manuscripts  written  on  parchment  are  in  the  form  of 
books  with  leaves.  From  about  the  eleventh  century,  paper 
made  from  cotton  or  linen  came  into  common  use. 

The  costliness  of  writing  materials  gave  rise  to  a  peculiar 
usage.  From  the  leaves  of  an  ancient  work  the  original  wri- 
ting was  erased,  more  or  less  perfectly.  They  were  then  em- 
ploj^ed  as  the  material  for  another  work,  the  latter  being  written 
over  the  former.  Such  manuscripts  are  called  palimpsests — 
written  again  after  erasure.  The  original  writing,  which  is 
very  often  the  sacred  text,  can  in  general  be  deciphered,  espe- 
cially by  the  aid  of  certain  chemical  applications.  Some  of  our 
most  precious  manuscripts  are  of  this  character. 

The  existing  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  are  of  two 
kinds.  First,  the  uncial,  that  is,  those  Avritten  in  capital  letters. 
Here  belong  all  the  most  ancient  and  valuable.  The  writing  is 
generally  in  columns,  from  two  to  four  to  a  page  ;  sometimes  in 
a  single  column.  There  is  no  division  of  the  text  into  words ; 
the.  marks  of  interpunction  are  few  and  simple ;  and  till  the 
seventh  century  there  were  no  accents,  and  breathings  only  in 
special  cases.  Secondly,  the  cursive,  or  those  written  in  run- 
ning-hand, with  division  of  the  text  into  words,  capitals  only 
for  initial  letters,  accents,  breathings,  etc.,  and  often  with  many 
contractions.     This  is  the  common  form  ?f  manuscripts  after 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  61 

the  tenth  century,  the  uncial  being  retained  for  some  ages 
afterwards  only  in  books  designed  for  use  in  the  church  service. 
In  both  the  uncial  and  the  cursive  manuscripts,  each  century 
has  its  peculiar  style  of  writing.  From  this,  as  well  as  from 
the  quality  of  the  materials,  expert  judges  can  determine  the 
age  of  a  given  manuscript  with  a  good  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  details  pertaining  to  the  form  of  ancient  manuscripts,  their  num' 
ber,  character,  etc.,  belong  to  the  department  of  textual  criticism.  The 
above  brief  notices  are  given  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  statement  of  the  evi- 
dence that  we  have  the  gospel  narratives,  as  also  the  other  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  without  corruption  in  the  form  in  which  they  were 
originally  written.       See  the  PLATES  at  the  beginning  of  this  hook. 

3.  Of  the  autograph  manuscripts  proceeding  immediately 
from  the  inspired  authors  we  find  no  trace  after  the  apostolic 
age.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  wisdom  of  God  has  carefully 
guarded  the  church  against  a  superstitious  veneration  for  the 
merely  outward  instruments  of  redemption.  We  do  not  need 
the  wood  of  the  true  cross  that  we  may  have  redemption  through 
the  blood  of  Christ ;  nor  do  we  need  the  identical  manuscripts 
that  proceeded  from  the  apostles  and  their  companions,  since 
we  have  the  contents  of  these  manuscripts  handed  down  to  us 
without  corruption  in  any  essential  particular.  This  appears 
from  various  considerations. 

First.  Several  hundred  manuscripts  of  the  gospels,  or  of 
portions  of  them,  (to  confine  our  attention  at  present  to  these,) 
have  been  examined,  two  of  them  belonging  to  the  fourth  cen- 
tury and  two,  with  some  fragments,  to  the  fifth.  All  these, 
though  written  in  different  centuries  and  coming  from  \videly 
different  regions,  contain  essentially  the  same  text.  In  them, 
not  one  of  the  great  facts  or  doctrines  of  the  gospel  history  is 
mutilated  or  obscured. 

Secondly.  The  quotations  of  the  church  fathers  from  the  last 
part  of  the  second  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  are  so  copi- 
ous, that  from  them  almost  the  entire  text  of  our  present  gos- 
pels could  be  reconstructed.     These  quotations  agree  substan- 


62  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

tially  with  each  other  and  with  the  text  of  our  existing  manu- 
scripts; only  that  the  earlier  fathers,  as  already  noticed, 
chap.  2.  3,  dften  quote  loosely  from  memory,  blend  together 
different  narratives,  and  interweave  with  the  words  of  Scrip- 
ture their  own  explanatory  remarks. 

Thirdly.  We  have  two  versions  of  the  New  Testament — the 
Old  Latin  or  Italic,  and  the  Syriac  called  Peshito — which 
learned  meti  are  agreed  in  placing  somewhere  in  the  last  half 
of  the  second  century.  The  testimony  of  these  witnesses  to  the 
uncorrupt  preservation  of  the  sacred  text,  from  the  time  when 
they  first  appeared  to  the  present,  is  decisive ;  for  they  also 
agree  essentially  with  the  Greek  text  of  the  gospel  as  we  now 
possess  it.  Nor  is  this  all.  Davidson  affirms  of  the  Old  Latin 
version,  that  "the  more  ancient  the  Greek  manuscripts,  the 
closer  is  their  agreement  with  it."  And  Tischendorf  says  of 
the  oldest  known  manuscript  of  the  Bible — the  Greek  Sinai 
Codex,  brought  by  him  from  the  convent  of  St.  Catharine, 
Mount  Sinai,  in  1859 — that  its  agreement,  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment portion,  Avith  the  Old  Latin  version,  is  remarkable. 
Through  the  joint  testimony,  then,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the 
most  ancient  Greek  manuscripts,  especially  the  Sinai  Codex, 
which  is  the  oldest  of  them  all;  and  on  the  other,  of  the  Old 
Latin  version  which  belongs  to  the  last  half  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, we  are  carried  back  to  a  very  ancient  and  pure  form  of 
the  Greek  text  prevalent  before  the  execution  of  this  version, 
that  is,  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  Tischendorf 
adds  arguments  to  show  that  the  Sja-iac  Peshito  version,  the 
text  of  which  has  not  come  down  to  us  in  so  pure  a  state,  had 
for  its  basis  substantially  the  same  form  of  text  as  the  Old 
Latin  and  the  Sinai  Codex. 

The  substantial  identity  of  the  sacred  text,  as  we  now  have  it,  witli  that 
which  has  existed  since  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  is  thus 
shown  to  be  a  matter  not  of  probable  conjecture,  but  of  certain  knowledge. 
Here,  then,  we  have  a  sure  criterion  by  which  to  measure  and  interpret  the 
complaints  which  textual  critics,  ancient  or  modern,  have  made,  some- 
times in  very  strong  language,  concerning  the  corrujjtions  that  have  founvi 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  EELIGION.  63 

their  way  into  tlie  text  of  tlie  New  Testament.  These  writers  have  refer- 
ence to  what  are  called  "various  readings,"  not  to  mutilations  and  altera- 
tions, such  as  those  charged  by  the  ancients  upon  Marcion,  by  which  he 
sought  to  change  the  facts  and  doctrines  of  the  gospel.  That  this  must  be 
their  meaning  we  know  ;  for  there  are  the  manuscripts  by  hundreds  as  wit- 
nesses, all  of  which,  the  most  corrupt  as  textual  critics  would  call  them,  as 
well  as  the  purest,  give  in  the  gospel  narratives  the  same  facts  and  doc- 
trines without  essential  variation. 

Let  not  the  inexperienced  inquirer  be  misled  into  any  wrong  conclu- 
sion by  the  number  of  "various  readings,"  amounting  to  many  thousands, 
which  textual  criticism  has  brought  to  light.  The  greater  the  number  of 
manuscripts  collated,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  these  readings ; 
w^hile,  at  the  same  time,  we  are  continually  making  a  nearer  aj)proach  to 
the  purity  of  the  primitive  text.  As  a  general  rule  these  variations  relate 
to  trifling  particulars ;  as,  for  examj^le,  whether  the  conjunction  a7id  shall 
be  inserted  or  omitted ;  whether  but  or  for  is  the  true  reading ;  whether 
this  or  that  order  of  words  giving  the  same  sense  shall  have  the  preference, 
etc.  A  few  of  the  variations  are  of  a  more  important  character.  Thus,  in 
John  1  :  18,  some  manuscripts  and  fathers  instead  of  onli/  begotten  Son,  read 
onZy  begotten  God.  But  even  here  we  may  decide  either  way  without  chang- 
ing or  obscuring  the  great  truths  of  the  gospel  narratives  ;  for  these  are 
not  dependent  on  particular  words  or  phrases,  but  pervade  and  vivify  the 
New  Testament,  as  the  vital  blood  does  the  body.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  certain  i^assages  which,  on  purely  critical  grounds — that  is,  the  authority 
of  ancient  manuscripts — some  have  thought  doubtful ;  as,  for  example, 
John  5  : 4,  and  the  narrative  recorded  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  chap- 
ter of  the  same  gospel.  The  insertion  or  omission  of  the  passages  concern- 
ing which  any  reasonable  doubts  can  be  entertained  on  critical  grounds, 
will  not  affect  in  the  least  the  great  truths  of  the  gospel  narratives. 

4.  But  it  may  be  asked,  Was  the  text  fron\  wliicli  the  Old 
Latin  version  was  made,  and  with  which,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
oldest  manuscripts  have  a  close  agreement,  substantially  the. 
same  as  that  which  proceeded  from  the  inspired  authors  ?  Here 
we  must  discard  all  groundless  suppositions,  and  adhere  strictly 
to  the  known  facts  in  the  premises. 

The  first  fact  to  be  noticed  is  the  public  reading  of  the  gos- 
pels in  the  Christian  churches,  a  custom  which  prevailed  from 
the  earliest  times.  Justin  Martyr,  writing  before  the  middle  of 
the  second  century,  says  of  the  memoirs  written  by  the  apos- 
tles or  their  followers  and  called  gospels  (which  have  been 


61  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

shown  to  be  our  canonical  gospels,  chap.  2 : 7)  that  either  these 
or  the  writings  of  the  Jewish  prophets  were  read  in  the  Chris- 
tian churches  on  the  first  day  of  every  week.  This  is  a  fact  of 
the  highest  importance ;  for  it  shows  that  the  witnesses  and 
guardians  of  the  sacred  text  were  not  a  few  individuals,  but  the 
great  body  of  believers,  and  that  no  systematic  corruption  of 
their  contents  could  have  taken  place  without  their  knowledge 
and  consent,  wdiich  would  never  have  been  given. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  above  is  a  second  fact,  that 
of  the  great  multiplication  of  copies  of  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  especially  of  the  gospel  narratives,  since  these  con- 
tain the  great  facts  that  lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  Christian 
system.  Every  church  Avould,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  anx- 
ious to  possess  a  copy,  and  Christians  who  possessed  the 
requisite  means  would  furnish  themselves  with  additional  copies 
for  their  own  private  use.  If,  now,  we  suppose  one  or  more  of 
these,  copies  to  have  been  essentially  changed,  the  corruption 
would  not,  as  in  the  case  of  a  printed  work,  extend  to  many 
hundreds  of  copies.  It  would  be  confined  to  the  manuscript  or 
manuscripts  into  which  it  had  been  introduced  and  the  copies 
made  therefrom,  while  the  numerous  uncorrupt  copies  would 
remain  as  witnesses  of  the  fraud ;  for  the  supposition  of  a  very 
early  corruption  during  the  apostolic  age,  before  copies  of  the 
gospels  had  been  to  any  considerable  extent  multiplied,  is 
utterly  absurd. 

A  third  fact  is  the  high  value  attached  by  the  primitive 
churches  to  the  gospel  narratives,  and  their  consequent  zeal  for 
their  uncorrupt  preservation.  No  one  will  deny  to  them  the 
qualities  of  earnestness  and  sincerity.  To  them  the  gospels 
were  the  record  of  their  redemption  through  the  blood  of 
Christ.  For  the  truths  contained  in  them  they  steadfastly 
endured  pers>3cution  in  every  form,  and  death  itself.  Could  we 
even  suppose,  contrary  to  evidence,  that  private  transcribers 
altered  at  pleasure  their  copies  of  the  gospels,  it  is  certain  that 
the  churches  w^ould  never  have  allowed  their  public  copies  to 
be  tampered  with.     The  resistance  which  Marcion  met  with  in 


EVIDENCES  OE  EEVEALED  EELIGION.  65 

his  attempt  to  alter  the  sacred  text,  shows  how  watchful  was 
their  jealousy  for  its  uncorrupt  preservation. 

A  still  further  fact  is  the  want  of  time  for  essential  corrup- 
tions, like  those  now  under  consideration.  That  such  corrup- 
tions could  have  taken  place  during  the  apostolic  age,  no  one 
will  maintain.  Equally  certain  is  it  that  they  could  not  have 
happened  during  the  age  next  succeeding,  while  many  pres- 
byters and  private  Christians  yet  survived  who  had  listened  to 
the  apostles,  and  knew  the  history  of  the  gospels  written  by 
them  or  their  companions.  But  this  brings  us  down  into  the 
first  part  of  the  second  century. 

Leaving  oat  of  view  the  apostle  John,  wlio  probably  died  near  the  close 
of  the  first  century,  and  assuming  the  martyrdom  of  Peter  and  Paul  to 
have  taken  place  somewhere  between  a.  d.  64  and  67,  we  may  j)lace  the 
beginning  of  the  age  now  under  consideration  at  a.  d.  65.  Of  the  numer- 
ous Christians  who  were  then  thirty  years  or  less  of  age  many  must  have 
survived  till  A.  d.  110,  and  even  later.  Polycarp,  a  disciple  of  John,  suffer- 
ed martyrdom  a.  d.  167,  and  doubtless  many  others  of  his  hearers  survived 
till  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  The  time,  then,  during  which  such  a 
corruption  as  that  now  under  consideration  can  be  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  is  so  narrowed  down  that  it  amounts  to  well-nigh  nothing  ;  and  it  is, 
moreover,  the  very  time  during  which  Justin  Martyr  wrote  his  Apologies, 
and  Marcion  made  his  unsuccessful  attemjot  to  mutilate  the  gospel  history. 

Finally,  no  evidence  exists  that  the  text  of  the  gospel  nar- 
ratives has  been  essentially  corrupted.  Of  Marcion's  abortive 
attempt  we  have  abundant  notices  in  the  writings  of  the  early 
fathers.  Their  silence  in  respect  to  other  like  attempts  is  con- 
'  elusive  proof  that  they  were  never  made.  Had  we  the  auto- 
graphs of  the  evangelists,  we  should,  with  reason,  attach  to 
them  a  high  value ;  but  there  is  no  ground  for  supposing  that 
their  text  would  differ  in  any  essential  particular  from  that 
which  we  now  possess.  They  would  present  to  our  view  the 
same  Saviour  and  the  same  gospel. 

5.  What  has  been  said  respecting  the  uncorrupt  preserva- 
tion of  the  gospel  narratives  applies  essentially  to  the  other 
books  of  the  New  Testament;  so  that  iu  the  consideration  of 
them  the  above  arguments  will  not  need  to  be  repeated. 


(3G  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

Authenticity  and    Credibility  of  the   Gospel 
Narratives. 

1.  The  genuineness  and  uncorrupt  preservation  of  our  four 
canonical  gospels  Laving  been  established,  the  presumption  in 
favor  of  their  authenticity  and  credibility  is  exceedingly  strong. 
In  truth,  few  can  be  found  who,  admitting  their  apostolic  origin 
in  essentially  their  present  form,  will  venture  to  deny  that  they 
contain  an  authentic  and  reliable  record  of  facts.  We  may 
dismiss  at  once  the  modern  theory  which  converts  the  gospels 
into  myths  —  pure  ideas  embodied  in  allegorical  narratives 
which  have  no  historic  foundation.  Myths  do  not  turn  the 
world  upside  down,  as  did  the  preaching  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles.  Myths  do  not  inspire  the  souls  of  men  and  women 
by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  with  heroic  zeal  and  cour- 
age, enabling  them  steadfastly  to  endure  persecution  and  death 
for  the  truth's  sake.  It  was  love  towards  a  crucified  and  risen 
Saviour  in  deed  and  in  truth,  not  towards  the  mythical  idea  of  ' 
such  a  Saviour,  that  made  the  primitive  Christians  victorious 
alike  over  inward  sinful  affection  and  outward  persecution. 
To  every  one  who  reads  the  gospel  narratives  in  the  exercise* 
of  his  sober  judgment,  it  is  manifest  that  they  are  intended  to 
be  plain  unvarnished  statements  of  facts.  The  question  is. 
Are  these  statements  reliable?  Here  new  arguments  can 
hardly  be  expected;  the  old  are  abundantly  sufficient.  Reserv- 
ing for  another  place  those  general  arguments  which  apply  to 
the  gospel  system  as  a  whole,  let  us  here  briefly  consider  the 
character  of  the  authors  and  their  records  ;  of  the  events  which 
they  record  with  the  surrounding  circumstances;  and  espe- 
ciall}^  of  Jesus,  their  great  theme. 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  67 

2.  It  is  natural  to  ask,  in  the  first  place,  Were  these  men 
sincere  and  truthful?  Here  we  need  not  long  clelay.  Their 
sincerity,  with  that  of  their  contemporaries  who  received  their 
narratives  as  true,  shines  forth  like  the  sun  in  the  firmament. 
"With  reference  to  them,  the  Saviour's  argument  applies  in  all 
its  force:  "How  can  Satan  cast  out  Satan?"  "If  Satan  rise 
up  against  himself,  and  be  divided,  he  cannot  stand,  but  hath 
an  end."  The  life-long  work  of  the  evangelists  and  their  asso- 
ciates was  to  cast  out  of  the  world  all  fraud  and  falsehood.  If 
now  thej  attempted  to  do  this  by  the  perpetration  of  a  most 
astounding  fraud,  we  have  the  case  of  Satan  casting  out  Satan. 
But  we  need  not  argue  the  matter  at  length.  By  what  they 
did  and  suffered  in  behalf  of  their  doctrines,  as  well  as  by  the 
artless  simplicity  of  their  narratives,  they  give  full  proof  of 
their  sincerity  and  truthfulness. 

3.  We  next  inquire  :  Were  they  competent  as  men  ?  that  is, 
were  they  men  of  sober  judgment,  able  correctly  to  see  and 
record  the  facts  that  came  under  their  observation,  and  not 
visionary  enthusiasts  who  mistook  dreams  for  realities  ?  This 
question  admits  of  a  short  and  satisfactory  answer.  No  proof 
whatever  exists  that  they  were  visionary  men,  but  abundant 
proof  to  the  contrary.  Their  narratives  are  calm,  unimpas- 
sioned,  and  straightforward,  without  expatiation  on  the  great- 
ness of  Christ's  character  and  works  and  the  wickedness  of  his 
enemies,  as  is  the  way  of  all  exrited  enthusiasts.  What  Paul 
said  to  Festus  applies  in  its  lull  force  to  them  and  their  wri- 
tings :  "  I  am  not  mad,  most  noble  Festus,  but  S]Deak  forth  the 
words  of  truth  and  soberness."  If  any  one  will  condemn  them 
as  visionary,  it  must  be  on  the  sole  ground  that  all  belief  in  the 
supernatural  is  visionary — a  position  that  will  be  noticed  here- 
after. 

4.  A  further  inquiry  is.  Were  these  men  competent  as  ivit- 
nesses  ?  that  is,  had  they  the  requisite  means  of  knowing  the 
facts  which  they  record  ?  With  regard  to  the  apostles  Matthew 
and  John,  this  matter  need  not  be  argued.  With  regard  to  the 
other  two,  Luke  states  very  fairly  the  position  which  they  occu-. 


68  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

pied :  "  It  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  liad  perfect  under- 
standing of  all  tilings,"  ("having  accurately  traced  out  all 
things,"  as  the  original  signifies,)  "from  the  very  beginning,  to 
write  to  thee,  in  order,"  etc.  Luke  had  in  abundance  the  means 
of  accurately  tracing  out  all  things  relating  to  our  Lord's  life 
and  works,  for  he  was  the  companion  of  apostles  and  others 
who  "from  the  beginning  were  eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of 
the  word;"  and  from  them,  according  to  his  own  statement,  he 
drew  his  information.     The  same  is  true  of  Mark  also. 

5.  We  come  now  to  consider  the  cliaracter  of  the  tvorks  which 
they  lecord,  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  were  per- 
formed. Here  it  may  be  remarked  in  the  outset  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  examine  in  detail  all  the  miracles  recorded  in 
the  gospel  history.  Though  they  all  proceeded  alike  from  the 
direct  agency  of  God,  they  are  not  all  alike  open  to  human 
inspection.  If  upon  examination  we  find  the  supernatural  ori- 
gin of  many  of  them  raised  above  all  possibility  of  doubt,  it  is 
a  legitimate  inference  that  the  rest  of  them  had  the  same  divine 
origin.  Not  to  insist  then  upon  the  miracles  ascribed  to  our 
Lord  within  the  sphere  of  inanimate  nature,  such  as  the  con- 
version of  water  into  wine,  the  feeding  of  many  thousands  with 
a  few  loaves  and  fishes,  and  walking  upon  the  sea,  all  of  which 
were  done  in  such  circumstances  that  there  is  no  room  for 
questioning  their  reality,  let  us  examine  some  that  were  per- 
formed upon  the  persons  of  men.  Palsy,  dropsy,  withered 
limbs,  blindness,  the  want  of  hearing  and  speech,  leprosy,  con- 
firmed lunacy — all  these  were  as  well  known  in  their  outward 
symptoms  eighteen  hundred  years  ago  as  they  are  to-day.  Per- 
sons could  not  be  affiicted  with  such  maladies  in  a  corner.  The 
neighbors  must  have  known  then,  as  they  do  now,  the  particu- 
lars of  such  cases,  and  have  been  unexceptionable  witnesses  to 
their  reality.  Persons  may  feign  blindness  and  other  infirmi- 
ties among  strangers,  but  no  man  can  pass  himself  off  as  pal- 
sied, deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  (especially  blind  from  birth,)  halt, 
withered,  in  his  own  community.  The  reality  of  the  maladies 
then  is  beyond  all  question ;  and  so  is  also  the  reality  of  their 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  69 

instantaneous  remoyal  by  the  immediate  power  of  the  Saviour. 
Here  we  must  not  fail  to  take  into  account  the  immense  num- 
ber of  our  Lord's  miracles,  their  diversified  character,  and  the 
fact  that  they  were  performed  everywhere,  as  well  without  as 
with  previous  notice,  and  in  the  most  open  and  public  manner. 
Modern  pretenders  to  miraculous  power  have  a  select  circle  of 
marvellous  feats,  the  exhibition  of  which  is  restricted  to  partic- 
ular places.  No  one  of  them  would  venture  to  undertake  the 
cur-e  of  a  man  born  blind,  or  that  had  a  withered  limb,  or  that 
had  been  a  paralytic  for  thirty-eight  j^ears.  But  Jesus  of  Naz- 
areth went  about  the  cities  and  villages  of  Judea  for  the  space 
of  three  years,  healing  all  manner  of  disease.  With  him  there 
was  no  distinction  of  easy  and  difficult,  since  to  Divine  power 
nothing  is  hard.  With  the  same  w^ord  he  rebuked  a  raging 
fever,  cleansed  from  leprosy,  gave  strength  to  the  paralytic, 
healed  the  withered  limb,  gave  sight  to  the  blind,  hearing  to 
the  deaf,  and  speech  to  the  dumb,  and  raised  the  dead  to  life. 
The  same  voice  that  said  to  the  man  at  Bethesda,  "Eise,  take 
up  thy  bed,  and  walk,"  said  also  to  Lazarus,  who  had  lain  four 
days  in  the  grave,  "  Come  forth." 

6.  It  is  with  reason  that  we  lay  special  stress  upon  the  fact 
that  Christ  performed  many  of  his  greatest  miracles  in  the 
presence  of  his  enemies,  who  had  both  the  means  and  the  will 
to  institute  a  searching  investigation  concerning  them,  and  who 
w^ould  have  denied  their  reality  had  it  been  in  their  power  to 
do  so.  Sad  indeed  is  the  record  of  the  perverse  opposition 
and  calumny  which  our  Lord  encountered  on  the  part  of  the 
Jewish  rulers.  But  even  this  has  a  bright  side.  It  shows  us 
that  the  Saviour's  miracles  could  endure  the  severest  scruti- 
ny— that  after  every  means  which  power  and  wealth  and  patron- 
age and  official  influence  could  command  had  been  used  for 
their  disparagement,  their  divine  origin  still  shone  forth  like 
the  unclouded  sun  at  noon-day.  If  any  one  doubts  this,  let 
him  read  attentively  the  ninth  chapter  of  John's  gospel,  which 
records  the  investigation  instituted  by  the  Jewish  rulers  respect- 
ing the  miracle  of  healing  a  man  blind  from  his  birth.     In  no 


70  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

modern  court  of  justice  was  a  question  of  fact  ever  subjected 
to  a  severer  scrutiny.  And  the  result  was  that  they  could  not 
deny  the  miracle,  but  said  in  their  blind  hatred  of  the  Redeem- 
er, "Give  God  the  praise:  we  know  that  this  man  is  a  sinner." 
So  when  they  could  not  deny  that  Jesus  cast  out  devils,  they 
alleged  that  he  did  it  by  the  help  of  Satan ;  when  it  was  mani- 
fest that  he  had  by  a  word  healed  a  man  that  had  lain  tliirty- 
and-eight  years  a  helpless  paralytic,  they  blamed  him  for  work- 
ing on  the  Sabbath-day ;  when  Lazarus  had  been  called  out  of 
his  grave  in  the  joresence  of  all  the  people,  they  said,  "What  do 
we?  for  this  man  doeth  many  miracles."  And  then  they  con- 
sulted not  to  disprove  these  miracles,  but  to  put  both  him  and 
Lazarus  to  death.  Thus,  in  the  good  providence  of  God,  we 
have  for  the  reality  of  our  Lord's  miracles  the  testimony  of  his 
enemies  and  persecutors. 

7.  The  resurrection  of  Jesus  is  the  miracle  of  miracles,  of 
which  we  may  say  with  truth  that  it  comprehends  in  itself  all 
the  other  mighty  works  recorded  in  the  gospel  history.  We 
cannot  but  notice  the  condescending  care  with  which  our  Lord 
himself  certified  to  his  disciples  its  reality.  When  he  had  sud- 
denly appeared  in  the  midst  of  them,  "  they  were  terrified  and 
affrighted,  and  supposed  that  they  had  seen  a  spirit."  To  con- 
vince them  of  the  reality  of  his  bodily  presence,  he  said,  "Be- 
hold my  hands  and  my  feet,  that  it  is  I  myself :  handle  me  and 
see ;  for  a  spirit  hath  not  flesh  and  bones,  as  ye  see  me  have. 
And  when  he  had  thus  spoken,  he  showed  them  his  hands  and 
his  feet,"  that  they  might  see  in  them  the  prints  of  the  nails. 
Finding  them  still  incredulous,  "  believing  not  for  joy  and  won- 
dering," he  added  another  conclusive  proof  that  he  was  not 
a  spirit,  but  a  true  man:  he  asked  for  meat;  "and  they  gave 
him  a  piece  of  a  broiled  fish,  and  of  an  honeycomb;  and  he 
took  it,  and  did  eat  before  them."  Luke  24 :  36-43.  To  the 
unbelieving  Thomas  he  offered  the  further  proof  which  he  had 
demanded :  "  Reach  hither  thy  finger,  and  behold  my  hands ; 
and  reach  hither  thy  hand,  and  thrust  it  into  my  side  ;  and  be 
not  faithless,  but  believing."     The  certainty  of  this  great  event 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  71 

the  evangelist  Luke  sets  forth  in  his  introduction  to  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles:  "To  whom  also,"  (to  the  apostles,)  "he  showed 
himself  alive  after  his  passion,  by  many  infallible  proofs,  being 
seen  of  them  forty  days,  and  speaking  of  the  things  pertaining 
to  the  kingdom  of  God."  The  apostle  Peter,  in  his  address  to 
Cornelius  and  his  friends',  says:  "Him  God  raised  up  the  third 
day,  and  showed  him  openly ;  not  to  all  the  people,  but  unto 
witnesses  chosen  before  of  God,  even  to  us,  who  did  eat  and 
drink  with  him  after  he  rose  from  the  dead."  Acts  10  :  40,  41. 
The  apostle  Paul,  in  his  enumeration  of  our  Lord's  appearances 
to  his  disciples  after  his  resurrection,  1  Cor.  5-8,  mentions  that 
on  one  occasion  "he  was  seen  of  above  five  hundred  brethren 
at  once;  of  whom,"  he  says,  "the  greater  part  remain  unto 
this  present,  but  some  are  fallen  asleep." 

It  was  not  the  greatness  of  the  miracle,  considered  simply 
by  itself,  but  its  relation  to  the  gospel,  that  made  our  Lord's 
resurrection  from  the  dead  the  central  fact  of  the  apostles' 
testimony.  It  was,  so  to  speak,  the  hinge  on  which  the  whole 
work  of  redemption  turned.  Our  Lord's  expiatory  death  for 
the  sins  of  the  world  and  his  resurrection  from  the  dead  were 
both  alike  parts  of  one  indivisible  whole.  It  was  not  his  claim 
to  be  the  promised  Messiah  alone  that  was  involved  in  the  fact 
of  his  resurrection.  His  completion,  as  the  Messiah,  of  the 
work  of  man's  redemption  was  also  dependent  on  that  great 
event.  "  If  Christ  be  not  risen,"  says  the  apostle,  "then  is  our 
preaching  vain,  and  your  faith  is  also  vain;"  and  again,  "If 
Christ  be  not  raised,  ^-our  faith  is  vain;  ye  are  yet  in  your 
sins."  1  Cor.  15  :  14,  17.  We  need  not  w^onder  then  that  the 
apostles,  in  their  testimony  to  the  people,  insisted  so  earnestly 
on  this  one  great  fact  in  our  Lord's  history;  for  by  it  God 
sealed  him  as  the  Prince  of  life. 

8.  The  character  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  as  drawn  by  the  four 
evangelists,  is  the  highest  possible  proof  of  the  authenticity 
and  credibility  of  the  gospel  narratives.  Of  this  it  has  been 
justly  said,  "  The  character  is  possible  to  be  conceived,  because 
it  v/as  actualized  in  a  living  example."    (Nature  and  the  Super- 


VA  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

natural,  p.  324.)  The  inapproacliable  excellence  of  Christ's 
character  places  it  high  above  all  human  praise.  The  reverent 
mind  shrinks  instinctively  from  the  idea  of  attempting  to  eulo- 
gize it,  as  from  something  profane  and  presumptuous.  We  do 
not  eulogize  the  sun  shining  in  his  strength,  but  we  put  a  screen 
over  our  eyes  when  we  would  look  at-  him,  lest  we  should  be 
blinded  by  the  brightness  of  his  beams.  So  must  every  man 
look  at  Jesus  of  Nazareth  with  reverence  and  awe,  who  has 
any  true  sense  of  what  is  great  and  excellent.  What  is  now 
to  be  said  of  this  character  is  not  eulogy.  It  is  part  of  an 
argument  for  the  reality  of  the  events  recorded  in  the  gospel 
history.  Here  it  is  important  to  notice  not  only  the  character 
itself,  but  the  manner  of  the  portraiture,  and  its  power  over  the 
human  heart. 

The  character  of  Jesus  is  perfectly  original.  Nothing  like 
it  was  ever  conceived  of  by  the  loftiest  minds  of  antiquity. 
Nothing  like  it  has  appeared  since  his  day,  in  actual  life,  or 
even  in  the  conceptions  of  the  most  gifted  writers.  As  there 
is  one  sun  in  the  firmament,  so  there  is  one  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  His  character  has  a  human  and  a  divine 
element;  and  these  two  interpenetrate  each  other,  so  as  to 
constitute  together  one  indivisible  and  glorious  whole.  Jesus 
could  not  be,  even  in  idea,  what  he  is  as  man,  unless  he  were 
God  also.  And  what  he  is  as  God,  he  is  as  God  made  flesh, 
and  dwelling  as  man  among  men.  It  is  the  God-man  which 
the  gospel  narratives  present  to  us.  If  we  consider  the  quali- 
ties which  belong  to  our  Saviour  as  man,  we  notice  the  union 
in  full  measure  and  just  proportion  of  all  those  qualities  which 
belong  to  perfect  humanity.  In  the  case  of  mere  men,  the 
abundant  possession  of  one  quality  implies  almost  of  necessity 
deficiency  elsewhere,  and  consequently  one-sidedness  of  char- 
acter. Not  so  in  the  case  of  Jesus.  He  has  all  the  attributes 
of  a  perfect  man  in  perfect  fulness  and  in  perfect  harmony  with 
each  other.     Let  us  reverently  look  at  some  particulars. 

His  character  unites  the  deepest  tranquillity  with  the  deep- 


EVIDENCES  OE  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  73 

eai  fervor  of  spirit.  Our  Lord's  tranquillity  shines  forth  through 
the  whole  course  of  his  ministry,  and  manifests  itself  alike  in 
great  things  and  small.  It  is  evident  to  all  who  read  the  nar- 
ratives of  the  evangelists  that  he  performed  his  mighty  works 
as  one  conscious  that  divine  power  belonged  to  him  of  right, 
and  that  the  exercise  of  it,  even  in  its  highest  forms,  was  noth- 
ing new  nor  strange.  In  connection  with  his  greatest  miracles 
he  calmly  gave  directions,  as  if  they  had  been  ordinary  occur- 
rences. When  he  had  fed  many  thousands  with  a  few  loaves 
and  fishes,  he  said,  "  Gather  up  the  fragments  that  remain, 
that  nothing  be  lost."  When  he  had  raised  from  the  dead  the 
daughter  of  Jairus,  "  he  commanded  that  something  should  be 
given  her  to  eat."  When  he  had  called  out  of  the  grave  one 
who  had  lain  there  four  days,  he  directed,  "Loose  him,  and  let 
him  go."  Even  in  Gethsemane,  when  oppressed  with  agony 
too  great  for  human  endurance,  his  self-possession  remained  as 
perfect  as  his  submission  to  his  Father's  will.  That  his  seren- 
ity never  left  him  for  a  moment  during  the  process  of  his  arrest, 
trial,  sentence,  and  lingering  death  on  the  cross,  is  a  truth 
which  shines  forth  from  the  sacred  narrative  as  his  own  rai- 
ment did  on  the  mount  of  transfiguration,  "  white  and  glister- 
ing." Any  attempt  to  describe  it  would  be  but  mockery.  And 
yet  this  deep  composure  of  spirit  is  not  that  of  indifference  or 
of  a  cold  temperament.  It  is  the  composure  of  one  in  whose 
bosom  burns  a  steady  and  intense  flame  of  zeal  for  the  glory  of 
God  and  good  will  towards  men,  by  which  he  is  borne  forward 
with  untiring  energy  in  the  work  committed  to  him  from  above. 
It  is  the  composure  of  a  spirit  whose  depth  of  emotion  none 
can  measure. 

We  notice  again  the  union  in  our  Lord  of  perfect  itisdom 
with  perfect  freedom  from  guile  and  double  dealing.  That  his 
wisdom  was  never  at  fault,  all  must  admit.  He  was  surrounded 
by  crafty  adversaries,  who  contrived  all  manner  of  plans  to 
entangle  him  in  his  talk.  Yet  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  he 
turned  their  wiles  against  themselves,  and  they  found  them- 
selves taken  in  their  own  net.     Meanwhile  he  always  pursued 

Coir.p  to  BtWe.  4 


74  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  straightforward  course  of  sincerity  and  truth.  Not  the 
slightest  trace  of  deceit  or  cunning  artifice  appeared  in  his 
ministry  from  first  to  last. 

Closely  alHed  to  the  above-named  qualities  are  prudence  and 
boldness,  both  of  which  met  in  full  measure  in  our  Lord's  char- 
acter. That  he  feared  no  man,  and  shrunk  from  no  peril  when 
it  was  his  duty  to  encounter  it,  is  too  obvious  to  be  insisted  on. 
Yet  he  never  needlessly  encountered  opposition  and  danger. 
He  was  never  bold  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  show  of  bold- 
ness. When  the  Jews  sought  to  kill  him,  he  "walked  in  Gah- 
lee"  to  avoid  their  enmity.  When  his  brethren  went  up  to  the 
feast  in  Jerusalem,  he  would  not  go  up  with  them,  but  after- 
wards went  up,  "not  openly,  but  as  it  were  in  secret."  When, 
at  a  later  day,  after  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus,  the  Jews 
sought  his  life,  he  "  walked  no  more  openly  among  the  Jews ; 
but  went  thence  into  a  country  near  to  the  wilderness,  into  a 
city  called  Ephraim,  and  there  continued  with  his  disciples." 
Not  until  the  time  had  come  that  he  should  die  for  the  sins  of 
the  world  did  he  expose  himself  to  the  rage  of  his  enemies; 
and  then  he  went  boldly  into  Jerusalem  at  the  head  of  his  dis- 
ciples. His  own  precept,  "Be  ye  wise  as  serpents,  and  harm- 
less as  doves,"  he  perfectly  exemplified  throughout  his  ministry. 

We  cannot  but  notice  once  more  the  union  in  our  Lord's 
character  of  the  greatest  tenderness  with  unbending  severity, 
whenever  the  cause  of  truth  demanded  severity.  He  opened 
his  ministry  at  Nazareth  by  reading  from  the  prophet  Isaiah  a 
portraiture  of  his  own  character :  "  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  God 
is  upon  me,  because  he  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  the  gospel 
to  the  poor ;  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  broken-hearted,  to 
preach  deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  recovering  of  sight  to 
the  blind,  to  set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised,  to  preach  the 
acceptable  year  of  the  Lord."  Isa.  61 : 1,  2.  The  execution  of 
this  mission  required  a  tender  and  forbearing  spirit,  that  would 
not  break. the  bruised  reed,  or  quench  the  smoking  flax;  and 
such  was  the  spirit  of  his  whole  ministry.  For  the  penitent^ 
though  publicans  and  sinners,  he  had  only  words  of  kindness. 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  75 

Towards  the  infirmities  and  mistakes  of  his  sincere  disciples  he 
was  wonderfully  forbearing.  When  a  strife  had  arisen  among 
the  apostles  which  of  them  should  be  the  greatest,  instead  of 
denouncing  in  severe  terms  their  foolish  ambition,  he  called  to 
himself  a  little  child  and  set  him  in  the  midst,  and  from  him 
gave  them  a  lesson  on  the  duty  of  humility.  Yet  this  tender 
and  compassionate  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  who  took  little  children 
in  his  arms  and  blessed  them ;  who  stood  and  cried,  "  Come 
unto  me,  all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy-laden,  and  I  will  give 
you  rest ;"  and  who  wept  at  the  grave  of  Lazarus — this  same 
Jesus  could  say  to  Peter  when  he  would  deter  Him  from  the 
path  of  duty,  "Get  thee  behind  me,  Satan!"  and  could  denounce 
in  the  presence  of  all  the  people  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  who 
sat  in  Moses'  seat.  In  truth,  the  most  severe  denunciations  of 
hypocrisy  and  wickedness  contained  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  the  most  awful  descriptions  of  the  future  punishment  of 
the  impenitent,  fell  from  our  Saviour's  lips.  .  In  his  tenderness 
there  was  no  element  of  weakness. 

Our  Lord's  perfect  meekness  and  hiimility  need  no  human 
comment.  They  shine  forth  with  serene  brightness  through  all 
his  words  and  actions.  He  described  himself  as  "meek  and 
lowly  in  heart,"  and  his  life  was  a  perpetual  illustration  of  these 
qualities.  "  When  he  was  reviled,  he  reviled  not  again ;  when 
he  suifered,  he  threatened  not ;  but  committed  himself  to  him 
that  judgeth  righteousty."  But  the  point  to  be  particularly 
noticed  is  the  wonderful  harmony  of  this  meek  and  lowly  mind 
with  claims  more  lofty  than  were  ever  conceived  of  by  any  man 
before  him — claims  everywhere  boldly  asserted,  and  which,  as 
we  shall  see  hereafter,  implied  the  possession  of  a  divine  nature. 
It  is  not  that  he  claimed  and  exercised  power  over  nature,  or 
outward  power  over  men,  even  power  to  raise  the  dead,  that 
fills  us  with  awe  and  amazement ;  but  that  he  went  within  the 
spirit,  and  offered  inward  life,  light,  strength,  peace — in  a  word, 
life  eternal — to  all  who  would  come  to  him;  and  that  he  assert- 
ed, in  a  way  as  decisive  as  it  was  calm,  his  absolute  control 
over  the  everlasting?  destinies  of  all  men.     W^hen  we  read  the 


76  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

account  of  these  superhuman  claims,  we  have  no  feeling  that 
they  were  incongruous  or  extravagant.  On  the  contrary,  they 
seem  to  us  altogether  legitimate  and  proper.  And  yet,  as  has 
been  often  remarked,  were  any  other  person  to  advance  a  tithe 
of  these  pretensions,  he  would  be  justly  regarded  as  a  mad- 
man. The  only  possible  explanation  is,  that  this  meek  and 
lowly  Jesus  made  good  his  claim  to  be  the  Son  of  God  by  what 
he  was  and  by  what  he  did. 

Another  quality  very  conspicuous  in  our  Lord's  character  is 
his  perfect  elevation  above  this  luorld.  "  Ye  are  from  beneath," 
said  he  to  the  Jews ;  "  I  am  from  above :  ye  are  of  this  world ;  I 
am  not  of  this  world."  It  was  not  in  his  origin  alone,  but  in  his 
spirit  also,  that  he  was  from  above.  As  he  was  from  heaven, 
so  was  he  heavenly  in  all  his  affections.  His  own  precept  to 
his  disciples,  "  Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  upon  earth, 
but  lay  up  for  yourselves  treasures  in  heaven,"  was  the  law  of 
his  own  life.  He  had  no  treasures  here  below  but  the  souls 
of  men ;  and  these  are  not  earthly,  but  heavenly  treasures. 
Satan  plied  him  in  vain  with  the  offer  of  "all  the  kingdoms  of 
the  world,  and  the  glory  of  them."  In  him  "  the  lust  of  the 
flesh,  and  the  lust  of  the  eyes,  and  the  pride  of  life  "  could  find 
no  place  for  a  single  moment.  He  kept  the  world  always  and 
perfectly  under  his  feet.  Yet  this  perfect  elevation  above  the 
world  had  in  it  no  tinge  of  stoicism  or  asceticism.  He  made  no 
war  upon  the  genuine  passions  and  affections  of  human  nature, 
but  simply  subjected  them  all  to  his  higher  spiritual  nature ; 
in  other  words,  to  the  law  of  God.  Except  temporarily  for 
meditation  and  prayer,  he  never  withdrew  himself,  nor  encour- 
aged his  disciples  to  withdraw  themselves  from  the  cares  and 
temptations  of  an  active  life,  under  the  false  idea  of  thus  rising 
to  a  state  of  superhuman  communion  with  God.  He  did  not 
fast  himself  systematically,  nor  enjoin  upon  his  disciples  syste- 
matic fastings,  but  left  fastings  for  special  emergencies.  In  a 
word,  he  ate  and  drank  like  other  men.  His  heavenly  mind 
lay  not  in  the  renunciation  of  God's  gifts,  but  in  maintaining 
his  affections  constantly  raised  above  the  gifts  themselves  to 


EVIDENCES  OE  EEVEALED  EELIGION.  77 

the  divine  Giver.  It  took  on  a  human,  and  therefore  an  imita- 
ble  form. 

And  what  shall  we  say  of  our  Lord's  spotless  purity  of  heart 
and  life?  We  cannot  eulogize  it,  for  it  is  above  all  human 
praise.  But  we  can  refresh  the  eyes  of  our  understanding  by 
gazing  upon  it,  as  upon  a  glorious  sun,  until  we  feel  its  vivify- 
ing and  transforming  power  in  our  own  souls. 

In  contemplating  the  above  qualities,  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  to  notice  that,  though  they  exist  in  such  fulness  and 
perfection,  they  are  yet  human,  and  therefore  imitable.  They 
are  not  the  virtues  of  an  angel  in  heaven,  or  of  a  king  on  the 
throne,  or  of  a  philosopher  in  his  school,  or  of  a  monk  in  his 
cell ;  but  of  a  man  moving  among  men  in  the  sphere  of  common 
life,  and  filling  out  common  life  with  all  the  duties  appropriate 
to  it.  His  example  then  is  available  for  the  imitation  of  the 
lowest  not  less  than  the  highest.  It  offers  itself  to  all  classes 
of  men  as  a  model  of  all  that  is  good  in  human  nature.  "We 
may  boldly  affirm  that  such  a  character  as  this  could  never 
have  been  conceived  of,  if  it  had  not  actually  existed. 

If  now  we  look  at  our  Lord's  character  as  a  teacher,  we  find 
it  equally  original  and  wonderful.  Writers  on  the  gospel  his- 
tory have  with  reason  laid  great  stress  on  the  fact  that  he 
stood  high  above  the  errors  and  prejudices,  not  only  of  his  own 
age  and  nation,  but  of  all  ages  and  nations.  He  saw  intui- 
tively and  perfectly  what  God  is,  what  man  is,  and  what  are 
man's  relations  to  God  and  to  his  fellow-men ;  and  was  there- 
fore able  to  establish  a  religion  for  men,  as  men,  that  needs  no 
change  for  any  age,  or  nation,  or  condition  of  life.  He  has 
sometimes  been  called  a  "  Galilean  peasant."  The  phrase 
sounds  unpleasantly  in  the  ears  of  those  who  adore  him  as 
their  divine  Lord  and  Master.  Nevertheless  it  is  in  an  impor- 
tant sense  true.  He  was  educated  among  the  common  people 
of  Galilee,  and  had  no  special  human  training.  It  was  an  age 
of  narrowness  and  formalism.  The  scribes  and  Pharisees,  who 
sat  in  Moses'  seat,  had  covered  up  the  true  meaning  and  spirit 


78  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  tlie  Old  Testament  beneath  a  mass  of  litiman  traditions  that 
substituted  "  mint,  and  anise^  and  cummin  "  for  "  the  weightier 
matters  of  the  law."  Yet  in  such  an  age  Jesus  came  forth  a 
perfect  teacher  of  divine  truth.  He  swept  away  at  once  the 
glosses  of  the  Jewish  doctors,  unfolded  to  the  people  the  true 
meaning  of  the  law  and  the  prophets  as  preparatory  to  his 
coming,  and  gave  to  the  world  a  religion  that  meets  the  wants 
of  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men  in  all  ages  and  nations. 
Considered  as  the  good  leaven  which  Christ  cast  into  the  lump 
of  humanity,  the  gospel  has  continual  progress.  But  consid- 
ered as  the  plan  of  salvation  which  he  revealed,  it  cannot  have 
progress,  for  it  is  perfect.  It  needs  no  amendment  or  change, 
that  it  may  be  adapted  to  our  age  or  any  other  age.  As  air 
and  water  and  light  meet  the  wants  of  all  men  in  all  ages,  so 
the  gospel,  when  freed  from  human  additions  and  received  in 
its  original  purity,  is  all  that  fallen  humanity  needs.  Here  is  a 
great  fact  to  be  explained.  The  only  reasonable  explanation 
is  that  given  by  the  Saviour  himself.  When  the  Jews  mar- 
velled at  his  teaching,  saying,  "How  knoweth  this  man  letters, 
having  never  learned  ?"  he  answered,  "  My  doctrine  is  not 
mine,  but  his  that  sent  me."  Such  a  religion  as  that  described 
in  the  gospels  could  not  have  been  conceived  of  unless  it  had 
actually  existed ;  and  it  could  not  have  existed  without  God  for 
its  author.  Gifted  men  may  be  in  advance  of  their  own  age ; 
that  is,  they  may  see  before  others  what  is  the  next  thing  indi- 
cated by  the  present  progress  of  society.  But  mere  men  do 
not  rise  at  once  above  all  the  errors  and  prejudices  by  which 
they  are  surrounded  into  the  region  of  pure  light  and  trath. 
All  the  work  that  men  do  is  imperfect,  and  needs  emendation 
by  those  who  come  after  them.  A  religion  that  remains  from 
age  to  age  as  perfectly  adapted  to  the  wants  of  all  men  as  it 
was  at  the  beginning,  must  be  from  God,  not  from  man. 

Our  Saviour's  manner  of  teaching  was  also  as  original  as  the 
teaching  itself.  He  saw  through  the  world  of  nature  and  mind 
at  a  glance,  and  it  stood  always  ready  at  hand  to  furnish  him 
with  arguments  and  illustrations — arguments  and  illustrations 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  79 

as  simple  and  natural  as  they  were  profound^  and  by  means  of 
which  he  unfolded  the  deepest  truths  in  the  plainest  and  most 
intelligible  forms.  Take,  for  example,  the  parables  of  the  mus- 
tard-seed and  the  leaven.  They  contain  within  themselves  the 
whole  history  of  Christ's  kingdom  in  its  inward  principle.  They 
unfold  views  of  its  steady  progress  from  age  to  age,  as  a  growth 
from  an  inward  vital  force,  on  which  the  most  philosophical 
minds  especially  love  to  dwell;  and  yet  they  are  perfectly 
intelligible  to  the  most  unlettered  man.  To  teach  by  parables, 
without  any  false  analogies,  and  in  a  way  that  interested  and 
instructed  alike  the  learned  and  the  ignorant,  this  was  a  won- 
derful characteristic  of  our  Lord's  ministry.  In  this  respect  no 
one  of  his  apostles,  not  even  the  bosom  disciple,  attempted  to 
imitate  him.  Yet  in  the  great  fact  that  his  teaching  was  not 
for  a  select  few,  but  for  the  masses  of  mankind,  so  that  "  the 
common  people  heard  him  gladly,"  all  his  servants  can  and 
ought  to  imitate  him. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  mainly  the  human  side  of  our 
Lord's  character,  though  through  it  all  his  divinity  shines  forth. 
Let  us  now  look  more  particularly  at  his  divine  mission  and 
character.  On  the  fact  that  his  mission  was  from  God  we  need 
not  dwell.  Nicodemus  expressed  the  judgment  of  every  candid 
mind  when  he  said,  "  Rabbi,  we  know  that  thou  art  a  teacher 
come  from  God ;  for  no  man  can  do  these  miracles  that  thou 
doest,  except  God  be  with  him."  If  there  is  one  truth  which 
our  Lord  asserted  more  frequently  than  any  other,  it  is  that  he 
came  from  God :  "  The  works  which  the  Father  hath  given  me 
to  finish,  the  same  works  that  I  do,  bear  witness  of  me,  that 
the  Father  hath  sent  me."  "If  God  were  your  Father,  ye 
would  love  me :  for  I  proceeded  forth  and  came  from  God ;  nei- 
ther came  I  of  myself,  but  he  sent  me." 

But  Jesus  had  not  only  a  divine  mission,  but  a  divine  ])er- 
son  also ;  and  the  manner  in  which  he  manifested  his  divinity 
is,  if  possible,  more  original  than  any  thing  else  in  his  history, 
and  bears  in  itself  the  impress  of  reality.  A  company  of  men 
who  should  attempt  to  give  a  portraiture  of  a  divine  being 


80  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

simply  from  their  own  conceptions  would  doubtless  put  into  his 
lips  many  direct  assertions  of  his  deity,  and  make  his  life  abound 
in  stupendous  miracles.  But  it  is  not  in  any  such  crude  way 
that  our  Saviour's  divinity  manifests  itself  in  the  gospel  narra- 
tives. It  is  true  indeed  that  in  the  manner  of  his  miracles  he 
everywhere  makes  the  impression  that  he  performs  them  by 
virtue  of  a  power' residing  in  himself;  that  while  the  commis- 
sion to  do  them  comes  from  the  Father,  the  power  to  do  them 
belongs  to  his  own  ]person.  In  this  respect  the  contrast  is  very 
sharp  between  his  manner  and  that  of  the  prophets  before  him 
and  the  apostles  after  him.  In  their  case  the  power,  as  well  as 
the  commission,  was  wholly  from  God,  as  they  were  careful  to 
teach  the  people  :  "  In  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Nazareth, 
rise  up  and  "walk."  "Why  look  ye  so  earnestly  on  us,  as 
though  by  our  own  power  or  holiness  we  had  made  this  man 
to  walk?"  "His  name,  through  faith  in  his  name,  hath  made 
this  man  strong,  whom  ye  see  and  know."  "Eneas,  Jesus 
Christ  maketli  thee  whole."  But  not  to  dwell  on  this,  let  us 
look  at  some  very  remarkable  ways  in  which  our  Saviour  man- 
ifested his  divine  nature. 

He  called  God  his  Father  in  a  peculiar  and  incommunicable 
sense.  He  never  said,  "  Our  Father,"  by  which  he  would  have 
classed  himself  with  other  men,  but  always,  "My  Father," 
showing  that  thus  he  stood  alone  in  his  relation  to  God.  As 
the  son  has  the  same  nature  with  the  father,  and  when  acting 
under  his  authority,  the  same  prerogatives  also ;  so  Jesus,  as 
the  Son  of  God,  claimed  the  power  and  right  to  do  whatever 
his  Father  did,  and  to  receive  the  same  honor  as  his  Father: 
"  My  Father  worketh  hitherto,  and  I  work."  This  the  Jews 
rightly  understood  to  be  an.  assertion  of  equality  with  the 
Father;  for  they  "sought  the  more  to  kill  him,  because  he  not 
only  had  broken  the  Sabbath,  but  said  also  that  God  was  his 
own  Father,  (so  the  original  reads,)  making  himself  equal  with 
God."  To  this  the  Saviour  answered:  "  The  Son  can  do  noth- 
ing of  himself" — acting  in  his  own  name,  and  without  the  con- 
currence of  the  Father's  will — "  but  what  he  seeth  the  Father 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  81 

do :  for  what  things  soever  he  doeth,  these  also  doeth  the  Son 
likewise.  For  the  Father  loveth  the  Son,  and  showeth  him  all 
things  that  himself  doeth  :  and  he  will  show  him  greater  works 
than  these,  that  ye  may  marvel.  For  as  the  Father  raiseth  tip 
the  dead,  and  quickeneth  them ;  even  so  the  Son  quickeneth 
whom  he  will.  For  the  Father  jndgeth  no  man;  but  hath  com- 
mitted all  judgment  unto  the  Son :  that  all  men  should  honor 
the  Son,  even  as  they  honor  the  Father.  He  that  honoreth  not 
the  Son,  honoreth  not  the  Father  which  hath  sent  him."  John 
5  :  17-23.  Here  the  Son,  though  acting  under  the  Father's 
commission,  claims  equality  with  the  Father;  for  without  this 
he  could  neither  share  all  the  Father's  counsels,  nor  do  all  the 
Father's  works,  nor  receive  from  the  Father  authority  to  judge 
all  men — an  office  which  plainly  implies  omniscience — nor  be 
entitled  to  the  same  honor  as  the  Father.  The  point  to  be 
especially  noticed  in  the  present  connection  is  the  originality 
of  the  way  in  which  our  Lord  here  asserts  his  divine  nature. 
We  cannot  for  a  moment  suppose  that  such  a  way  would  have 
occurred  to  one  who  was  writing  from  his  own  invention.  The 
only  possible  explanation  of  the  existence  of  such  a  passage  in 
the  gospel  of  John,  (and  the  same  is  true  of  many  other  passa- 
ges,) is  that  it  is  a  true  record  of  what  actually  took  place  in 
our  Lord's  history. 

Again:  our  Lord  represents  himself  as  the  source  of  licjlit 
and  life  to  all  mankind.  To  the  Jews  he  said:  "I  am  the  light 
of  the  world :  he  that  followeth  me  shall  not  walk  in  darkness, 
but  shall  have  the  light  of  life."  John  8  :  12.  In  comparison 
with  what  he  here  claims  for  himself,  the  outward  work  of 
opening  men's  bodily  eyes  dwindles  into  nothing.  That  was 
only  the  seal  of  his  divine  mission.  But  in  these  and  other 
like  words,  he  does,  as  it  were,  draw  aside  the  veil  of  his 
humanity,  and  give  us  a  glimpse  of  the  glory  of  the  Godhead 
that  dwells  within.  So  too  he  says,  "I  am  the  living  bread 
which  came  down  from  heaven :  if  any  man  eat  of  this  bread 
he  shall  live  for  ever;  and  the  bread  that  I  will  give  is  my 
flesh,  which  I  will  give  for  the  life  of  the  world."     John  6  :  51. 

4* 


82  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  resurrection  of  Lazarus,  stupendous  as  that  miracle  was, 
does  not  fill  us  with  such  awe  and  amazement  as  the  mighty 
words  which  he  uttered  to  Martha :  "  I  am  the  resurrection  and 
the  life :  he  that  believeth  in  me,  though  he  were  dead,  yet 
shall  he  live  :  and  whosoever  liveth,  and  believeth  in  me,  shall 
never  die,"  John  11 :  25,  26 ;  for  in  these  words  he  represents 
himself  as  being  to  the  whole  human  family  the  author  of  all 
life,  natural,  spiritual,  and  eternal.  He  connects  the  particular 
act  of  giving  life  which  he  is  about  to  perform  with  the  final 
resurrection,  when  "  all  that  are  in  the  graves  shall  hear  his 
voice,  and  shall  come  forth;  they  that  have  done  good,  unto 
the  resurrection  of  life ;  and  they  that  have  done  evil,  unto  the 
resurrection  of  damnation."  John  5:28,  29.  These  utteran- 
ces, so  calm,  so  lofty,  so  original,  do  not  sound  like  the  inven- 
tions of  man.  They  wear  a  heavenly  costume.  When  we  read 
them,  we  feel  that  the  only  explanation  of  their  existence  in 
the  gospel  narrative  is  the  fact  that  they  were  actually  uttered 
by  our  Lord. 

And  the  same  is  true  of  another  kindred  class  of  passages, 
in  which  the  Saviour  asserts  his  inioard  dominion  over  tJie  human 
sioirit.  Hear  him,  as  he  stands  and  proclaims :  "  Come  unto 
me,  all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy  laden,  and  I  will  give  you 
rest."  Matt.  11:28.  "Peace  I  leave  with  you;  my  peace  I 
give  unto  you :  not  as  the  world  giveth,  give  I  unto  you." 
John  14 :  27.  The  world  gives  peace  at  best  outwardly,  and 
often  only  in  empty  words ;  but  Jesus  has  direct  access  to  the 
inmost  fountains  of  feeling.  He  gives  peace  inwardly  and  efii- 
caciously.  When  he  turned  into  songs  of  joy  the  tears  of  the 
widow  of  Nain  by  raising  her  son  to  life,  that  was  a  wonderful 
instance  of  his  giving  peace  ;  but  far  greater  and  more  glorious 
is  the  work  when,  by  his  inward  presence  in  the  soul,  he  makes 
it  victorious  over  all  "  the  sufterings  of  this  present  time."  This 
is  what  he  meant  when  he  said  to  his  disciples  :  "  These  things 
have  I  spoken  unto  you  that  in  me  ye  might  have  peace.  Li  the 
world  ye  shall  have  tribulation ;  but  be  of  good  cheer  :  I  have 
overcome  the  world."    John  16 :  33.     In  his  name,  apostles 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  83 

raised  the  dead  to  life ;  but  no  apostle — no  mere  man — would 
have  ventured  to  say,  "  In  me  ye  shall  have  peace." 

These  last  words  naturally  lead  to  the  consideration  of 
another  very  peculiar  form  of  speech  first  introduced  by  our 
Lord,  and  passing  from  him  to  the  church ;  that,  of  the 
mutual  indivelling  of  himself  and  his  disciples :  "Abide  in  me, 
and  I  in  you.  As  the  branch  cannot  bear  fruit  of  itself,  ex- 
cept it  abide  in  the  vine  ;  no  more  can  3^e,  except  ye  abide  in 
me."  John  15  : 1-7.  It  is  a  vital  union  of  the  believer's  soul 
with  Jesus,  through  which  he  receives  from  Jesus  life  and 
fruitfulness,  as  the  branch  from  its  union  with  the  vine.  Here 
is  an  assertion  of  deity.  The  Jews  regarded  Moses  with  the 
highest  reverence ;  but  no  one  of  them  ever  spoke  of  abiding 
in  Moses,  or  having  Moses  abiding  in  himself.  Had  any  Chris- 
tian disciple  represented  himself  as  dwelling  in  Peter  or  Paul, 
the  apostle  would  have  rent  his  clothes  at  the  blasphemy  of 
the  words. 

Other  peculiar  ways  in  which  our  Lord  manifested  his  deity 
could  be  specified,  but  the  above  will  sufiice  as  examples.  Let 
any  candid  man  consider  all  these  examples  in  their  connec- 
tion, each  of  them  so  original  and  so  majestic,  so  simple  and 
natural,  and  j-et  so  far  removed  from  anything  that  could  have 
occurred  to  one  sitting  down  to  draw  from  his  own  imagination 
the  picture  of  a  divine  person  ;  and  he  will  be  convinced  that 
such  a  record  as  that  contained  in  our  four  canonical  gospels 
was  possible  only  because  it  is  a  simple  and  truthful  history  of 
what  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  and  did.  Plain  men  can  give  a 
straightforward  account  of  what  they  have  seen  or  learned  from 
eye-witnesses ;  but  it  transcends  the  genius  of  any  man  to  invent 
such  narratives  of  such  a  character.  The  gospel  narratives  are 
marked  throughout  by  artless  simplicity.  Each  of  the  writers 
goes  straightforward  with  his  story,  never  thinking  for  a  mo- 
ment of  what  his  own  genius  is  to  accomplish,  but  intent  only 
on  exhibiting  his  Lord  and  Master  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world. 
The  apostle  John,  in  giving  the  design  of  his  own  gospel,  gives 
(hat  also   of  the  other  evangelists  ;   ''And  many   other  signs 


84  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

truly  did  Jesus  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples,  which  are  not 
written  in  this  book.  But  these  are  written,  that  ye  might 
believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God ;  and  that  be- 
lieving ye  might  have  life  through  his  name."     John  20 :  30,  31. 

And  because  this  glorious  and  divine  person  is  a  living  real- 
ity, he  possesses  from  age  to  age  an  undying  power  over  the 
human  heart.  Love  towards  him  is  the  mightiest  principle  on 
earth,  both  for  doing  and  for  suffering.  It  makes  the  soul  of 
which  it  has  taken  full  possession  invincible.  When  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  is  enthroned  in  the  castle  of  the  human  heart,  not  all 
the  powers  of  earth  and  hell  can  overcome  it.  See  farther, 
chap.  12 : 8. 

9.  Since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  gospel  narratives  are  an 
authentic  record  of  facts,  it  follows  that  in  the  person  and  life 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  we  have  a  supernatural  revelation  from  God 
in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  words.  That  his  origin  was  both 
superhuman  and  supernatural,  the  gospels  teach  us  in  the  most 
explicit  terms.  He  says  of  himself:  "I  came  forth  from  the 
Father,  and  am  come  into  the  world :  again,  I  leave  the  world, 
and  go  unto  the  Father."  John  16  :  28.  "And  now,  O Father, 
glorify  thou  me  with  thine  own  self,  with  the  glory  which  I  had 
with  thee  before  the  world  was."  John  17:5.  That  the 
appearance  on  earth  of  One  who  dwelt  with  the  Father  in  glory 
before  the  world  was,  and  after  the  fulfilment  of  his  mission 
returned  to  the  Fathel'  again,  was  supernatural,  is  self-evident. 
His  person  was,  as  has  been  shown,  divine.  He  was  God  mani- 
fest in  the  flesh  ;  and  wherever  he  went,  his  supernatural  power 
displayed  itself.  The  miraculous  element  is  so  interwoven  into 
the  very  substance  of  the  gospel  history,  that  there  is  no  possi- 
bility of  setting  it  aside,  except  by  rejecting  the  history  itself. 
It  is  the  fashion  with  a  certain  class  of  writers,  after  denying 
our  Lord's  divine  nature  and  explaining  away  his  supernatural 
works,  to  be  profuse  in  their  eulogies  of  his  character.  If  they 
can  first  rid  themselves  of  the  obligation  to  believe  on  him  and 
obey  him  as  their  divine  Lord,  they  are  willing  to  bestow  upon 
him,  as  a  man  like  themselves,  the  highest  commendations 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.  85 

But  the  attempt  is  hopeless.  What  will  they  do  with  the  fact 
of  his  resurrection  from  the  dead — the  most  certain  as  well  as 
the  greatest  miracle  in  his  history,  and  which  includes  in  itself 
all  the  rest  ?  Had  Jesus  not  risen  from  the  dead,  as  he  so  often 
affirmed  that  he  should,  then  he  would  have  been  what  the  Jew- 
ish rulers  called  him — a  deceiver,  and  no  Saviour ;  but  since 
the  miracle  of  his  resurrection  must  be  admitted  by  all  who  do 
not  reject  the  whole  gospel  history  as  a  fable,  why  deny  the 
lesser  miracles  connected  with  his  history?  The  assumption 
that  miracles  are  impossible  can  only  go  with  the  denial  of 
God's  personality  ;  and  this,  by  whatever  name  it  is  called,  is 
atheism.  If  there  is  a  personal  God,  who  is  before  nature, 
above  nature,  and  the  author  of  nature  in  its  inmost  essence, 
he  can  manifest  himself  within  the  sphere  of  nature  in  a  super- 
natural way,  whenever  he  chooses  to  do  so.  If  God  who  made 
us  cares  for  us,  and  is  indeed  our  Father  in  heaven,  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  he  may  reveal  himself  to  us  in  super- 
natural forms,  when  the  end  is  our  deliverance  from  the  bond- 
age of  sin,  and  our  preparation  for  an  eternity  of  holiness  and 
happiness.  To  deny  this,  would  be  to  make  nature  the  highest 
end  of  God — to  put  the  world  of  God's  intelligent  creatures 
under  nature,  instead  of  making  nature  their  servant  and 
minister. 

10.  The  objections  that  have  been  urged  against  the  gospel 
history  are  of  two  kinds.  The  first  class  relates  to  its  doctrines, 
as,  for  example,  that  of  demoniacal  possessions,  that  of  eternal 
punishment,  etc.  To  enlarge  on  this  subject  would  be  out  of 
place  here.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  only  reasonable  rule 
is  to  argue  from  the  certainty  of  the  record  to  the  truth  of  the 
doctrines  in  question.  He  who  first  assumes  that  a  certain 
doctrine  cannot  be  true,  and  then,  on  the  ground  of  this 
assumption,  sets  aside  a  history  sustained  by  overwhelming- 
evidence,  exalts  his  own  finite  understanding  to  be  the  supreme 
rule  of  faith ;  and  to  him  an  authoritative  revelation  becomes 
an  impossibility.  The  second  class  of  objections  relates  to 
alleged  contradictions  and  inconsistencies  between  the  different 


86  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

writers.  The  explanation  and  reconciliation  of  these  is  the 
work  of  the  harmonist.  We  need  not  wait,  however^  for  the 
result  of  his  labors,  that  we  may  rest  confidently  on  the  truth 
of  the  record.  These  apparent  disagreements  do  not  affect  a 
single  doctrine  or  duty  of  Christianity.  They  all  relate  to  inci- 
dental matters,  such  as  the  time  and  order  of  the  events  record- 
ed, the  accompanying  circumstances,  etc.  Had  we  all  the 
missing  links  of  the  evangelical  history,  we  might  reconcile  all 
these  differences  ;  but  without  them,  it  is  not  in  all  cases  possi- 
ble. Nor  is  it  necessary  ;  since,  where  different  writers  record 
the  same  transactions,  substantial  agreement,  with  diversity  in 
respect  to  the  details,  is  everywhere  the  characteristic  of  authen- 
tic history. 


EVIDENCES  OE  REVEALED  RELIGION.  87 


CHAPTEK    V. 

The    ^cts   of  the  ^^postles   and   the    Acknowl- 
edged Epistles. 

1.  The  genuineness,  uncorrupt  preservation,  and  credibility 
of  the  gospel  narratives  having  been  shown  to  rest  on  a  firm 
foundation,  the  principal  part  of  our  work  is  accomplished,  so 
far  as  the  New  Testament  is  concerned.  We  are  prepared 
beforehand  to  expect  some  record  of  the  labors  of  the  apostles, 
like  that  .contained  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  and  also  dis- 
cussions and  instructions  relating  to  the  doctrines  and  duties 
of  Christianity,  such  as  we  find  in  the  apostolic  epistles.  Our 
Saviour  established  his  church  only  in  its  fundamental  princi- 
ples and  ordinances.  The  work  of  publishing  his  gospel  and 
organizing  churches  among  Jews  and  Gentiles  he  committed  to 
his  apostles.  Before  his  crucifixion  he  taught  them  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  could  not  come  (that  is,  in  his  special  and  full  influ- 
ences as  the  administrator  of  the  new  covenant)  till  after  his 
departure  to  the  Father :  "  It  is  expedient  for  you  that  I  go 
away  :  for  if  I  go  not  away,  the  Comforter  will  not  come  unto 
you ;  but  if  I  depart  I  will  send  him  unto  you."  John  16  : 7. 
"  When  the  Comforter  is  come,  whom  I  will  send  unto  you 
from  the  Father,  even  the  S]3irit  of  truth  which  proceedeth  from 
the  Father,  he  shall  testify  of  me.  And  ye  also  shall  bear  wit- 
ness, because  ye  have  been  with  me  from  the  beginning."  John 
15  :  26,  27.  Now  we  have,  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  first  an 
account  of  the  fulfilment  by  the  Saviour  of  his  promise  that  he 
would  send  the  Holy  Ghost ;  then  a  record  how  the  apostles, 
thus  qualified,  obeyed  the  Saviour's  command  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  Jews  and  Gentiles — a  record  not,  indeed,  complete, 
but  sufiicient  to  show  the  manner  and  spirit  in  which  the  work 


88  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

was  performed.  Some  truths  moreover,  of  the  highest  import- 
ance the  Saviour  gave  only  in  outline,  because  the  time  for 
their  full  revelation  had  not  yet  come.  John  16  :  12,  13.  Such 
were  especially  the  doctrine  of  his  atoning  sacrifice  on  Calvary 
with  the  connected  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith ;  and  the 
divine  purpose  to  abolish  the  Mosaic  economy,  and  with  it  the 
distinction  between  Jews  and  Gentiles.  We  have,  partly  in  the 
Acts  and  partly  in  the  epistles,  an  account  of  the  unfolding  of 
these  great  truths  by  the  apostles  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  of  the  commotions  and  contentions  that  natu- 
rally accompanied  this  work.  The  practical  application  of  the 
gospel  to  the  manifold  relations  of  life,  domestic,  social,  and 
civil,  with  the  solution  of  various  difficult  questions  arising 
therefrom,  was  another  work  necessarily  devolved  on  the  apos- 
tles, and  performed  by  them  with  divine  wisdom  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  all  coming  ages.  The  book  of  Acts  and  the  epistles 
ascribed  to  the  apostles  being  such  a  natural  sequel  to  the  Re- 
deemer's work,  as  recorded  by  the  four  evangelists,  a  briefer 
statement  of  the  evidence  for  their  genuineness  and  authen- 
ticity will  be  sufficient. 

I.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  2.  According  to  Chrysostom, 
First  Homily  on  Acts,  this  book  was  not  so  abundantly  read 
by  the  early  Christians  as  the  gospels.  The  explanation  of  this 
comparative  neglect  is  found  in  the  fact  that'it  is  occupied  with 
the  doings  of  the  apostles,  not  of  the  Lord  himself.  Passing  by 
some  uncertain  allusions  to  the  work  in  the  writings  of  the 
apostolic  fathers,  the  first  explicit  quotation  from  it  is  contained 
in  the  letter  heretofore  noticed,  chap.  2  : 4,  from  the  churches 
of  Vienne  and  Lyons  in  Gaul,  written  about  A.  D.  177,  in  which 
they  say:  "Moreover  they  prayed,  after  the  example  of  Ste- 
phen the  perfect  martyr,  for  those  who  inflicted  upon  them 
cruel  torments,  '  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their  charge.'  "  Ire- 
naeus,  in  the  last  part  of  the  second  century,  Tertullian  in  the 
last  part  of  the  same  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  third, 
Clement  of  Alexandria  about  the  end  of  the  second  century 
and  onwards — all  these  bear  explicit  testimony  to  the  book  of 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  89 

Acts,  ascribing  it  to  Luke  as  its  autlior  ;  and  from  tlieir  day 
onward,  the  notices  of  the  work  are  abundant.  We  may  add 
the  concurrent  testimony  of  the  Muratorian  canon  and  the 
Syriac  version,  called  the  Peshito,  which  belong  to  the  last 
quarter  of  the  second  century,  and  the  still  earlier  testimony  of 
the  Old  Latin  version.  In  a  word,  the  book  is  placed  by  Euse- 
bius  among  those  that  were  universally  acknowledged  by  the 
churches. 

The  rejection  of  the  book  by  certain  heretical  sects,  as  the  Ebionites, 
Marcionites,  Manicliaeans,  etc. ,  is  of  no  weight,  as  their  objections  rested 
not  on  historical,  but  on  doctrinal  gxounds.  As  to  the  statement  of  Pho- 
tius  that  "some  call  Clement  of  Rome  the  author,  some  Barnabas,  and 
some  Luke  the  evangelist,"  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  he  is  giving  not  his 
own  judgment,  for  he  expressly  ascribes  it  to  Luke,  but  the  arbitrary  opin- 
ions of  certain  persons  ;  and  these  are  contradicted  by  the  obvious  fact  that 
the  third  gospel,  which  proceeded  from  the  same  hand  as  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  was  never  ascribed  to  any  other  person  than  Luke. 

3.  The  internal  testimony  to  Luke's  authorship  is  decisive. 
The  writer  himself,  in  dedicating  it  to  the  same  Theophilus. 
expressly  identifies  himself  with  the  author  of  the  third  gospel : 
"The  former  treatise  have  I  made,  O  Theophilus,  of  all  that 
Jesus  began  both  to  do  and  to  teach."  Acts  1 : 1.  Then  there 
is  a  remarkable  agreement  in  style  and  diction  between  the 
gospel  of  Luke  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  as  any  one  may 
learn  who  peruses  them  both  together  in  the  original  Greek. 
Davidson,  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  2,  p.  8,  has 
collected  forty-seven  examples  of  "terms  that  occur  in  both, 
but  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Testament."  Luke,  m^oreover,  as 
the  travelling  companion  of  Paul,  had  all  needed  facilities  for 
composing  such  a  work.  With  regard  to  the  latter  portion  of 
the  book,  this  is  denied  by  none.  His  use  of  the  first  person 
plural,  "we  endeavored,"  "the  Lord  had  called  us,"  "  we  came," 
etc. — which  first  appears  chap.  16  :  10,  and  continues,  with  cer- 
tain interruptions,  through  the  remainder  of  the  book — admits 
of  but  one  natural  and  reasonable  explanation,  namely,  that 
when  he  thus  joins  himself  with  the  apostle  he  was  actually 


90  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

in  his  company.  As  it  respects  the  first  part  of  the  book,  we 
notice  that  he  visited  Csesarea  with  Paul's  company,  and  "tar- 
ried there  many  days,"  chap.  ^1 :  8-10  ;  afterwards  he  went  up 
with  him  to  Jerusalem,  chap.  21 :  15.  We  find  him  again  with 
Paul  at  Csesarea  when  he  sets  out  for  Eome.  Chap.  27 : 1. 
Now  at  such  centres  as  Jerusalem  and  Csesarea  he  must  have 
had  abundant  opportunities  to  learn  all  the  facts  recorded  in 
the  present  book  which  could  not  be  gathered  from  Paul's  own 
lips. 

4.  For  the  credibility  of  this  book  we  have,  in  general,  the 
same  arguments  which  apply  to  the  gospel  narratives,  especially 
to  the  gospel  of  Luke.  Its  author  is  evidently  a  sincere  and 
earnest  man,  who  goes  straightforward  with  his  narrative ;  and 
where  he  does  not  write  as  an  eye-witness,  he  had,  as  we  have 
seen,  abundant  means  of  ascertaining  the  truth  concerning  the 
facts  which  he  records.  His  narrative  is,  moreover,  corrobo- 
rated in  a  very  special  way,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter — ^No.  8, 
below — by  its  many  undesigned  coincidences  with  the  events 
alluded  to  in  the  epistles  of  Paul.  To  admit  the  credibility  of 
the  gospel  of  Luke  and  to  deny  that  of  this  work  would  be 
altogether  inconsistent.  In  truth,  there  is  no  ground  for 
doubting  the  credibility  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  other  than 
that  which  lies  in  the  assumption  that  no  record  of  miraculous 
events  can  be  credible,  and  this  is  no  ground  at  all. 

To  some  modern  writers  the  narrative  of  the  gift  of  tongues  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  has  seemed  to  present  an  insuperable  difficulty.  Undoubtedly 
it  is  above  our  comprehension  how  a  man  should  suddenly  become  pos- 
sessed of  the  ability  to  s]peak  in  a  language  before  unknown  to  him  ;  but 
why  should  we  doubt  God's  power  to  bestow  such  a  gift  ?  Can  any  one 
suppose  for  a  moment  that  when  our  Saviour  met  with  a  person  deaf  and 
dumb  from  birth,  he  had,  for  the  first  time,  a  case  beyond  his  healing 
power  ?  The  gospel  narrative  plainly  indicates  the  contraiy.  Mark  7 :  32-37, 
upon  which  passage  see  Meyer  and  Alford. 

The  account  of  the  sudden  death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  chap.  5: 1-11, 
is  not  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  gospel.  They  died  by  the  immediate  act 
of  God.  His  wisdom  judged  such  an  example  of  severity  to  be  necessary 
in  the  beginning  of  the  gospel,  as  a  solemn  warning  against  hypocrisy  and 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  91 

falsehood  in  his  service.  Though  the  gospel  is  a  system  of  mercy,  it  takes, 
as  all  admit,  a  severe  attitude  towards  those  who  reject  it ;  why  not,  then, 
towards  those  who  make  a  hypocritical  profession  of  it  ?  As  Nadab  and 
Abihu  were  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven  at  the  beginning  of  the  Mosaic 
economy,  so  the  death  of  Ananias  and  his  wife  came  early  in  the  dispensa- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  a  testimony  to  all  future  ages  of  Christ's  abhor- 
rence of  hypocrisy,  and  consequently  of  the  doom  which  hypocrites  will 
receive  from  him  at  the  last  day.     Matt.  7  :  21-23. 

The  fact  that  Luke  has  omitted  some  events  in  the  history  of  Paul,  as, 
for  example,  his  journey  into  Arabia,  which  occurred  during  the  three 
years  that  intervened  between  his  conversion  and  his  first  visit  to  Jerusa- 
lem, Acts  9 :  22-26  compared  with  Gal.  1 ;  15-18,  is  no  argument  against 
the  credibility  of  his  narrative.  Difficulties  that  arise  simply  from  a 
writer's  brevity  must  not  be  allowed  to  set  aside  satisfactory  evidence  of 
his  competency  and  truthfulness.  The  historical  difficulties  connected 
with  Stephen's  address  do  not  concern  Luke's  credibility  as  a  historian, 
and  the  discussion  of  them  belongs  to  the  commentator. 

5.  The  book  of  Acts  closes  with  a  notice  that  "Paul  dwelt 
two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired  house,  and  received  all  that 
came  in  unto  him,  preaching  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  teach- 
ing those  tilings  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus,  with  all  confi- 
dence, no  man  forbidding  him."  As  it  adds  no  notice  of  the 
issue  of  his  imprisonment,  or  of  what  afterwards  befell  him,  we 
naturally  infer  that  the  book  was  written  at  Home  about  this 
time,  that  is,  about  A.  D.  63. 

II.  The  Acknoivledged  E]vfifles.  6.  It  is  well  known  that 
doubts  existed,  to  a  greater  ur  less  extent,  in  the  primitive 
churches  before  the  fourth  century,  respecting  the  apostolic  ori- 
gin and  authority  of  certain  books  which  now  constitute  a  part 
of  the  New  Testament  canon.  Hence  the  distinction  made  by 
Eusebius  between  the  achioiuledged  books,  fhomologoumenaj 
that  is,  those  that  were  universally  received  from  the  first,  and 
the  disputed  books,  (antilegomena,)  books  respecting  which  some 
entertained  doubts.  The  acknoivledged  books  are,  the  four  gos- 
pels, the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul 
which  bear  his  name  at  the  beginning,  the  first  epistle  of  Peter, 
and  the  first  epistle  of  John  ;  twenty  in  all.    The  disputed  books 


92  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

are,  tlie  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  tlie  epistle  of  James,  the  second 
epistle  of  Peter,  the  second  and  third  epistles  of  John,  the  epis- 
tle of  Jude,  and  the  book  of  Revelation  ;  seven  in  all.  The  gos- 
pels and  the  Acts  have  been  already  considered,  and  the  dispu- 
ted books  are  reserved  for  the  following  "chapter.  Some  remarks 
will  here  be  made  on  the  fifteen  acknowledged  epistles. 

7.  The  epistles  of  Paul  may  be  conveniently  distributed  into 
two  groups,  of  which  the  second  or  smaller  contains  the  three 
pastoral  epistles,  and  the  former  or  larger,  the  remaining  ten. 
Of  the  apostolic  origin  of  the  larger  group  little  needs  to  be 
said.  They  bear  throughout  the  impress  of  genuineness  and 
authenticity.  No  doubts  were  ever  entertained  concerning 
them  in  the  ancient  churches.  There  is,  indeed,  some  ground 
for  suspecting  that  a  few  ancient  copies  of  the  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  omitted  the  words  at  Eioliesus — more  literally  in 
Epliesus — chap.  1 : 1.  But  the  genuineness  of  these  words  is 
sustained  by  an  overwhelming  w^eight  of  evidence,  and  that 
Paul  was  the  author  of  the  Epistle  was  never  once  doubted 
by  the  ancient  churches.  The  arguments  of  some  modern 
writers  against  its  apostolic  origin  have  no  real  w^eight,  as  will 
be  shown  hereafter  in  the  introduction  to  the  epistle. 

Respecting  the  apostolic  authorship  of  the  three  pastoral 
epistles,  two  to  Timothy  and  one  to  Titus,  there  was  never  any 
doubt  in  the  ancient  churches.  They  are  supported  by  the 
testimony  of  the  Peshito-Syriac  version,  of  the  Muratorian 
canon,  also,  (as  appears  from  Jerome's  letter  to  Marcella  and 
the  quotations  of  the  church  fathers  before  him,)  of  the  Old 
Latin  version;  of  Irenseus,  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
and  a  multitude  of  later  writers.  There  are  also  some  allusions 
to  these  epistles  in  the  apostolic  fathers,  which  seem  to  be 
decisive. 

Such  are  the  following  :  "Let  us  therefore  approach  to  him  in  holiness 
of  soul,  lifting  up  to  him  holy  and  unpolluted  hands."  Clement  of  Rome, 
Eirst  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  chap.  29.  ' '  But  the  beginning  of  all  mis- 
chief is  the  love  of  money.  Knowing,  therefore,  that  we  brought  nothing 
into  the  world  neither  have  power  to  carry  any  thing  out,  let  us  arm  ourselves 


EVIDENCES   OF  REVEALED  RELICilON.  93 

with  tlie  armor  of  righteousness."  Polycarp,  Epistle  to  the  Philipi)ians, 
chap.  4.  The  student  may  see  other  supposed  ahusions  in  Kirchhofer, 
Quellensammlung  ;  Lardner,  2:39;  Davidson's  Introduction,  3,  p.  101  seq.; 
Alford's  New  Testament,  Introduction  to  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  etc. 

Eespecting  the  date  of  the  pastoral  epistles  very  different 
opinions  are  held.  The  whole  discussion  turns  on  the  question 
whether  they  were  written  hefore  or  after  Paul's  imprisonment 
at  Home,  which  is  recorded  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles ;  and  this  again  is  connected  with  the  further  ques- 
tion whether  he  underwent  a  second  imprisonment  at  Home, 
concerning  which  learned  men  are  not  agreed.  The  full  dis- 
cussion of  this  matter  belongs  to  the  introduction  to  the  pas- 
toral epistles.  It  may  be  simply  remarked,  however,  that  the 
internal  arguments  in  favor  of  a  late  date  are  very  strong,  and 
that  its  assumption  accounts  for  the  development  of  such  a 
state  of  things  at  Ephesus  as  appears  in  the  two  pastoral  epis- 
tles to  Timothy — a  state  very  different  from  that  which  existed 
when  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was  written,  between  a.  d. 
60  and  64,  and  which  makes  it  necessary  to  separate  the  first 
epistle  to  Timothy  from  that  to  the  Ephesians  by  a  considera- 
ble interval  of  time. 

The  theme  of  the  pastoral  epistles  is  2:)ecidiar.  It  is  the 
affectionate  counsel  of  an  aged  apostle  to  two  young  preachers 
and  rulers  in  the  church  respecting  the  duties  of  their  office. 
From  the  peculiarity  of  the  subject-matter  naturally  arises,  to 
some  extent,  a  peculiarity  in  the  diction  of  these  epistles;  yet 
the  style  and  costume  is  throughout  that  of  the  apostle  Paul. 

8.  The  testimony  of  the  ancient  church  to  the  first  epistle 
of  Peter  and  the  first  of  John  is  very  ample.  Besides  that  of 
the  Peshito-Syriac  version,  and  of  the  church  fathers  Irenseus, 
Tertullian,  and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  they  have  in  addition 
that  of  Papias  and  the  apostolic  father  Polycarp.  The  first 
epistle  of  John  is  also  included  in  the  Muratorian  canon.  It 
scarcely  needs,  however,  any  external  testimony.  The  identity 
of  its  author  with  that  of  the  fourth  gospel  is  so  manifest  from 
its  whole  tone  and  style,  that  it  has  been  always  conceded  that 


94  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

if  one  of  these  writings  came  from  the  pen  of  the  apostle  John, 
the  other  did  also. 

The  testimony  of  Papias  to  these  two  epistles,  though  indirect,  is  con- 
chisive.  Eusebius  says,  Hist.  Eccl.  3.  39,  "The  same  Papias  lias  em- 
ployed testimonies  from  the  first  epistle  of  John,  and  in  like  manner  of 
Peter."  Polycarp  says.  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  oh.  7,  "For  every  one 
who  confesseth  not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh,  is  anti- Christ,*' 
with  evident  reference  to  1  John  4  : 3.  Eusebius  says  also.  Hist.  Eccl. 
4.  14,  that  in  the  same  epistle  to  the  Philippians  Polycarp  "has  emjjloyed 
certain  testimonies  from  the  first  epistle  of  Peter  ;"  and  when  we  examine 
the  epistle  we  find  several  certain  references  to  it,  among  which  are  the 
following  :  "In  whom,  though  ye  see  him  not,  ye  believe ;  and  believing, 
ye  rejoice  with  joy  unspeakable,  and  full  of  glory."  Chap.  1  compared 
with  1  Pet.  1  :  8.  "Believing  in  him  who  raised  up  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
from  the  dead,  and  gave  him  glory,  and  a  seat  at  his  right  hand. "  Chap. 
2  compared  with  1  Pet.  1  :  21. 

9.  The  relation  of  the  gospel  history  to  the  writings  now 
tinder  consideration — the  book  of  Acts  and  the  apostolic  epis- 
tles— is  of  the  most  intimate  and  weighty  character.  The  truth 
of  the  earlier  narratives  contained  in  the  gospels  implies  the 
truth  of  these  later  works;  for,  as  already  remarked,  they  are 
the  natural  sequel  of  the  events  there  recorded.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  truth  of  these  later  writings  implies  the  truth  of  the 
gospel  history;  for  in  that  history  they  find  their  full  explana- 
tion, and  without  it  they  are,  and  must  ever  remain,  inexplica- 
ble. All  the  parts  of  the  New  Testament  constitute  one  insep- 
arable whole,  and  they  all  shed  light  upon  each  other.  Like  a 
chain  of  fortresses  in  war,  they  mutually  command  each  other. 
Unless  the  whole  can  be  overthrown,  no  one  j)art  can  be  suc- 
cessfully assailed.  But  to  overthrow  the  whole  is  beyond  the 
power  of  man ;  for  God  has  guarded  it  on  every  side  by  impreg- 
nable bulwarks  of  evidence. 

10.  A  special  argument  for  the  triith  of  the  Scripture  history 
of  the  apostle  Paul  may  be  drawn  from  the  numerous  unde- 
signed coincidences  between  the  events  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Acts  and  those  referred  to  in  the  epistles.  This  work  has 
been  accomplished  with  great  ability  and  skill  by  Paley  in  his 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  95 

Horae  Paulinse,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  The  argument 
is  very  conclusive ;  for  when  we  consider  the  "  particularity  of 
St.  Paul's  epistles,  the  perpetual  recurrence  of  names  of  per- 
sons and  places,  the  frequent  allusions  to  the  incidents  of  his 
private  life,  and  the  circumstances  of  his  condition  and  history, 
and  the  connection  and  parallelism  of  these  with  the  same  cir- 
cumstances in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  so  as  to  enable  us,  for 
the  most  part,  to  confront  them  one  with  another,"  we  must 
be  satisfied  that  the  truth  of  the  history  can  alone  explain 
such  a  multitude  of  coincidences,  many  of  them  of  a  minute 
character,  and  all  of  them  manifestly  undesigned. 


96  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

Thr  Disputed  Books. 

The  grounds  on  whicli  each  of  the  disputed  books — Antile- 
gomena,  chap.  5,  No.  6 — is  received  into  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament,  will  be  considered  in  the  introduction  to  these 
books.  In  the  present  chapter  some  general  suggestions  will 
be  made  which  apply  to  them  as  a  whole. 

1.  This  is  not  a  question  concerning  the  truth  of  Christian- 
ity, but  concerning  the  extent  of  the  canon;  a  distinction  which 
is  of  the  highest  importance.  Some  persons,  when  they  learn 
that  doubts  existed  in  the  early  churches,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  respecting  certain  books  of  the  New  Testament,  are 
troubled  in  mind,  as  if  a  shade  of  uncertainty  were  thereby 
cast  over  the  whole  collection  of  books.  But  this  is  a  very 
erroneous  view  of  the  matter.  The  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, like  those  of  the  Old,  were  written  one  after  another,  as 
occasion  required ;  and  the  churches  received  each  of  them 
separately  on  the  evidence  they  had  of  its  apostolic  origin  and 
authority.  At  length  collections  of  these  books,  that  is,  canons, 
began  to  be  formed.  Such  collections  translators  would  of 
necessity  make,  unless  they  found  them  ready  at  hand.  The 
earliest  canons  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  are  contained 
in  the  old  Latin  version,  the  Sj-riac  version  called  Peshito, 
and  the  Muratorian  canon ;  each  of  which  represented  the  pre- 
vailing judgment  of  the  churches  in  the  region  where  it  was 
formed.  As  this  judgment  differed  in  the  different  provinces 
of  Christendom  in  respect  to  the  books  in  question,  so  also  do 
these  canons.  The  Peshito  contains  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
and  that  of  James,  but  omits  the  other  five  books.  The  Mura- 
torian canon  omits  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  epistle  of 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  97 

James,  and  the  second  epistle  of  Peter ;  but  contains  tlie  epis- 
tle of  Jude,  the  book  of  Revelation,  and  apparently  also  the 
second  and  third  of  John,  though  in  respect  to  them  its  lan- 
guage is  obscure  and  of  doubtful  interpretation.  The  old  Latin 
version,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  quotations  of  the 
church  fathers,  agreed  in  general  with  the  Muratorian  canon. 
It  contained,  however,  the  epistle  of  James,  (Codex  Corbeien- 
sis,^,)  and  that  to  the  Hebrews  ;  and  if,  as  has  been  supposed, 
this  latter  was  a  later  addition,  it  was  yet  earlier  than  the  time 
of  TertuUian.  See  Westcott  on  the  Canon,  pp.  282,  283.  Now 
this  diversity  of  judgment  with  regard  to  particular  books  does 
not  affect  in  the  least  the  remaining  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
tament,  which  are  sustained  by  the  authority  of  all  the  above- 
named  witnesses,  as  well  as  by  the  undivided  testimony  of  the 
ancient  churches.  Did  the  New  Testament  claim  to  be  the 
work  of  a  single ^autJior,  the  case  would  be  different.  "We  should 
then  have  but  one  witness ;  and  if  certain  parts  of  his  testimony 
could  be  successfully  assailed,  this  would  throw  a  measure  of 
suspicion  on  the  whole.  But  now  we  have  in  the  separate 
books  of  the  New  Testament  a  large  number  of  witnesses,  most 
of  whom  are  entirely  independent  of  each  other.  Doubts 
respecting  the  testimony  of  one  do  not  affect  that  of  another. 
We  receive  the  seven  books  in  question  as  a  part  of  God's  rev- 
elation on  grounds  which  we  judge  adequate,  as  will  be  shown 
in  the  introductions  to  the  several  books.  But  if  any  one  feels 
under  the  necessity  of  suspending  his  judgment  with  respect 
to  one  or  more  of  these  books,  let  him  follow  the  teachings  of 
the  other  books,  which  are  above  all  doubt.  He  will  find  in 
them  all  the  truth  essential. to  the  salvation  of  his  soul ;  and  he 
will  then  be  in  a  position  calmly  to  investigate  the  evidence  for 
the  canonical  authority  of  the  so-called  disputed  books. 

2.  The  diversity  of  judgment  which  prevailed  in  the  early 
churches  in  respect  to  certain  books  of  the  New  Testament,  is 
in  harmony  with  all  that  we  know  of  their  character  and  spirit. 
It  was  an  age  of  free  inquiry.  General  councils  were  not  then 
known,  nor  was  there  any  central  power  to  impose  its  decisions 

Conip.  to  Bible.  FL 


98  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

on  all  the  churches.  In  the  essential  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
there  was  everywhere  an  agreement,  especially  in  receiving  the 
writings  acknowledged  to  be  apostolic,  as  the  supreme  rule  of 
faith  and  practice.  But  this  did  not  exclude  differences  on 
minor  points  in  the  different  provinces  of  Christendom;  and 
<[\dth  respect  to  these  the  churches  of  each  particular  region 
were  tenacious  then,  as  they  have  been  in  all  ages  since,  of 
their  peculiar  opinions  and  practices.  It  is  well  known,  for 
example,  that  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor  differed  from  those 
of  Eome  in  the  last  half  of  the  second  century  respecting  the 
day  on  which  the  Christian  festival  of  the  Passover,  with  the 
communion  service  connected  with  it,  should  be  celebrated; 
the  former  placing  it  on  the  fourteenth  of  the  month  Nisan,  the 
latter  on  the  anniversary  of  the  resurrection  Sunday.  Nor 
could  the  conference  between  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  Anicetus,  bishop  of  Eome,  about  A.  D.  162, 
avail  to  change  the  usage  of  either  party,  though  it  did  not  at 
that  time  break  the  bond  of  brotherhood  between  them.  We 
need  not  be  surprised  therefore  to  find  a  like  diversity  in  differ- 
ent regions  respecting  certain  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  unanimous  belief  of  the  Eastern  and  Alexandrine  churches 
ascribed  to  Paul  the  authorship  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews; 
but  in  the  Western  churches  its  Pauline  authorship  was  not 
generally  admitted  till  the  fourth  century.  The  Apocalypse, 
on  the  contrary,  found  most  favor  with  the  Western  or  Latin 
churches.  It  has  in  its  favor  the  testimony  of  the  Muratorian 
canon,  which  is  of  Latin  origin,  and  also — as  appears  from  the 
citations  contained  in  the  commentaries  of  Primasius — that  of 
the  old  Latin  version.     Other  examples  see  above.  No.  1. 

3.  Although  we  cannot  account  for  the  universal  and  undis- 
puted reception  of  the  acknowledged  books  by  all  the  churches, 
except  on  the  assumption  of  their  genuineness,  the  non-recep- 
tion of  a  given  book  by  some  of  the  early  churches  is  no  con- 
clusive argument  against  its  apostolic  origin.  From  the  influ- 
ence of  circumstances  unknown  to  us,  it  may  have  remained 
for  a  considerable  period  of  time  in  comparative   obscurity, 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  EELIGION.  99 

We  have"  good  ground  for  believing  that  some  apostolic  wri- 
tings are  utterly  lost.  To  deny  the  possibility  of  this  would 
be  to  prejudge  the  wdsdom  of  God.  As  the  apostles  delivered 
many  inspired  discourses  which  it  did  not  please  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  have  recorded,  so  they  may  have  written  letters  which 
he  did  not  judge  needful  to  make  the  sacred  volume  complete. 
The  question  is  one  of  fact,  not  of  theory.  The  most  obvious 
interj)retation  of  1  Cor.  5  :  9  and  Col.  4 :  16  is  that  Paul  refers  in 
each  case  to  an  epistle  which  has  not  come  down  to  us.  And 
if  an  inspired  epistle  might  be  lost,  much  more  might  the 
knowledge  and  use  of  it  be  restricted  for  a  time  to  a  narrow 
circle  of  churches.  When  such  an  epistle — for  example,  the 
second  of  Peter — began  to  be  more  extensively  known,  the  gen- 
eral reception  and  use  of  it  would  be  a  slow  process,  not  only 
from  the  difficulty  of  communication  in  ancient  as  compared 
with  modern  times,  but  also  from  the  slowness  with  which  the 
churches  of  one  region  received  any  thing  new  from  those  of 
other  regions. 

Then  again,  if  a  book  were  known,  there  might  be  in  some 
regions  hesitancy  in  respect  to  receiving  it,  from  doubts  in 
regard  to  its  author,  as  in  the  case  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
and  the  Apocalypse;  or  from  the  peculiarity  of  its  contents 
also,  as  in  the  case  of  the  latter  book.  In  the  influence  of 
causes  like  the  above  named,  we  find  a  reasonable  explanation 
of  the  fact  that  some  books,  which  the  mature  judgment  of  the 
churches  received  into  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament,  did 
not  find  at  first  a  universal  reception. 

4.  In  the  caution  and  hesitation  of  the  early  churches  with 
respect  to  the  books  in  question,  we  have  satisfactory  evidence 
that,  in  settling  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament,  they  acted 
with  great  deliberation  and  conscientiousness,  their  rule  being 
that  no  book  should  be  received  whose  apostolic  origin  could 
not  be  established  on  solid  grounds.  Did  the  early  history  of 
the  Christian  church  present  no  such  phenomenon  as  that  of 
the  distinction  between  acknowledged  and  disputed  books,  wo 
might  naturally  infer  that  all  books  that  professed  to  have  ema- 


100  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Bated  from  the  apostles,  or  to  have  had  their  sanction,  were 
received  without  discrimination.  But  now  the  mature  and  final 
judgment  of  the  churches  is  entitled  to  great  consideration. 
This  judgment,  let  it  be  remembered,  was  not  affirmative  only, 
but  also  negative.  While  it  admitted  to  the  canon  the  seven 
books  now  under  consideration,  it  excluded  others  which  w^ere 
highly  valued  and  publicly  read  in  many  of  the  churches.  On 
this  ground  it  is  entitled  to  still  higher  regard.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, of  binding  authority,  for  it  is  not  the  decision  of  inspired 
men.  We  have  a  right  to  go  behind  it,  and  to  examine  the 
facts  on  which  it  is  based,  so  far  as  they  can  be  ascertained 
from  existing  documents.  But  this  work  belongs  to  the  intro- 
duction to  the  several  books. 

Three  books  alone  "obtained  a  partial  ecclesiastical  currency,  through 
which  they  were  not  clearly  separated  at  first  from  the  disj^uted  writings 
of  th4  New  Testament."  Westcott  on  the  Canon,  Appendix  B,  -p.  550. 
This  was  on  the  ground  that  they  were  written,  or  supposed  to  be  written, 
by  the  immediate  successors  of  the  apostles.  The  oldest  known  codex  of 
the  Bible  is  the  Sinaitic,  discovered  at  mount  Sinai  by  Tischendorf  in  1859, 
and  which  belongs  to  the  fourth  century.  This  contains  the  whole  of  the 
epistle  of  Barnabas,  and  the  first  part  of  the  work  called  the  Shepherd  of 
Hermas.  The  Alexandrine  codex,  belonging  to  the  fifth  century,  has 
appended  to  it  the  first  epistle  of  Clement  of  Home  to  the  Corinthians,  the 
genuineness  of  which  is  admitted,  and  also  a  portion  of  the  second  or 
apocryphal  epistle,  the  remainder  of  it  being  lost.  The  explanation  is, 
that  these  three  books  were  read  in  some  at  least  of  the  churches  when 
these  codices  were  formed.  But  they  never  obtained  any  permanent 
authority  as  canonical  writings,  and  were  excluded  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment "by  every  council  of  the  churches,  catholic  or  schismatic."  Tertul- 
lian,  as  quoted  by  Westcott,  p.  551. 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.         101 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

Inspiration  and  the   Canon, 

By  the  word  iiisijiration,  when  used  in  a  theological  sense, 
we  understand  such  an  illumination  and  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  as  raises  a  speaker  or  writer  above  error,  and  thus  gives 
to  his  teachings  a  divine  authority.  If  we  attempt  to  investi- 
gate the  interior  nature  of  this  superhuman  influence,  its  differ- 
ent degrees  and  modes  of  operation,  and  the  relation  which 
the  human  mind  holds  to  the  divine  in  the  case  of  those  who 
receive  it,  we  find  ourselves  involved  in  many  difficulties,  some 
of  which  at  least  are  to  our  finite  minds  insuperable.  But  if 
we  look  at  it  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  restricting  our 
inquiries  to  the  end  proposed  by  God  in  inspiration,  which  is  to 
furnish  his  church  with  an  infallible  and  sufficient  rule  of  faith 
and  practice,  we  find  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  subject 
so  far  as  our  duty  and  welfare  are  concerned.  From  such  a 
practical  position  the  question  of  inspiration  will  now  be  dis- 
cussed; and  the  inquiry  will  be,  at  present,  restricted  to  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament.  In  connection  with  this  dis- 
cussion will  also  be  considered  the  subject  of  the  canon,  not  in 
its  particular  extent,  but  in  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  formed. 

1.  It  is  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  find  a  sure  rule  by  which 
we  can  try  the  claims  of  a  given  book  to  be  inspired,  and  con- 
sequently to  be  admitted  into  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  cannot  be  simply  the  writer's  own  declaration.  It  will  bo 
shown  hereafter  that,  in  connection  with  other  evidence,  his 
testimony  concerning  himself  is  of  the  highest  importance. 
But  the  point  now  is,  that  no  man's  inspiration  is  to  be  acknowl- 
edged simply  on  his  own  word.      Nor  can  we  decide  simply 


102  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

from  the  contents  of  tlie  book.  Yeiy  important  indeed  is  the 
question  concerning  the  contents  of  any  book  Avhich  claims  to 
be  a  revelation  from  God.  Yet  we  cannot  take  the  naked 
ground  that  a  given  book  is  inspired  because  its  contents  are 
of  a  given  character.  This  would  be  virtually  to  set  up  our 
own  reason  as  the  supreme  arbiter  of  divine  truth,  which  is  the 
very  position  of  rationalism.  Nor  can  we  receive  a  book  as 
inspired  on  the  so-called  authority  of  the  church,  whether  this 
mean  the  authority  of  a  man  who  claims  to  be  its  infallible 
head,  or  the  authority  of  a  general  council  of  the  churches. 
Admitting  for  a  moment  the  Komish  doctrine  of  the  infallibil- 
ity of  the  church,  we  could  know  this  infallibility  not  from  the 
declaration  of  any  man  or  body  of  men  in  the  church,  but 
from  Scripture  alone.  But  this  is  assuming  at  the  outset  the 
infallibility  of  Scripture,  and  therefore  its  insi^iration,  which  is 
the  very  point  at  issue.  Looking  at  the  question  on  all  sides, 
we  shall  find  for  a  given  book  of  the  New  Testament  no  valid 
test  of  the  writer's  inspiration  except  ids  relation  to  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  This  presupposes  our  Lord's  divine  mission  and 
character,  and  his  supreme  authority  in  the  church.  It  is 
necessary  therefore  to  begin  with  the  great  central  fact  of  the 
gospel,  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  Son  of  God,  and  that 
through  him  God  has  made  to  men  a  revelation  of  his  own 
character  and  will  for  their  salvation.  This  fact  is  to  be  first 
established  according  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  human  evidence, 
as  has  been  attempted  in  the  preceding  chapters.  After  that 
we  come  naturally  to  the  inspiration  of  the  record,  and  can 
establish  it  also  on  a  sure  foundation. 

2.  The  great  fundamental  truth  that  Jesus  is  the  Son  of 
God,  who  dwelt  from  eternity  with  the  Father,  knew  all  his 
counsels,  and  was  sent  by  him  to  this  fallen  world  on  a  mission 
of  love  and  mercy,  being  established  on  an  immovable  founda- 
tion, we  have  a  sure  point  of  departure  from  which  to  proceed 
in  our  inquiries  respecting  inspiration.  It  becomes  at  once  a 
self-evident  proposition — the  great  axiom  of  Christianity,  we 
may  call  itT-that  the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ,  when  lie  was  on 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  EELIGION.         103 

earth,  was  truth  unmixed  with  error.  This  he  himself  asserted 
in  the  most  explicit  terms :  "  The  Father  loveth  the  Sou,  and 
showeth  him  all  things  that  himself  doeth."  John  5  :  20.  "I 
am  the  light  of  the  world :  he  that  followeth  me  shall  not  walk 
in  darkness,  but  shall  have  the  light  of  life."  John  8  :  12.  "  He 
that  sent  me  is  true ;  and  I  speak  to  the  world  those  things 
which  I  have  heard  of  him."  John  8  :  26.  "I  have  not  spoken 
of  myself ;  but  the  Father  which  sent  me,  he  gave  me  a  com- 
mandment, what  I  should  say,  and  what  I  should  speak.  And 
I  know  that  his  commandment  is  life  everlasting:  whatsoever  I 
speak  therefore,  even  as  the  Father  said  unto  me,  so  I  speak." 
John  12 :  49,  50.  Proceeding  then  from  the  position  of  our  Lord's 
infallibility,  let  us  inquire  whether  any  of  his  disciples,  and  if 
so,  who  among  them,  were  divinely  qualified  to  teach,  and  con- 
sequently to  record,  without  error,  the  facts  and  doctrines  of 
his  gospel.  There  are  but  two  grades  of  relationship  to  Christ 
with  which  we  can  connect  such  a  high  endowment :  that  of 
apostles,  and  that  of  their  companions  and  fellow-laborers.  Let 
us  consider  each  of  these  in  order. 

3.  Early  in  our  Lord's  ministry  he  chose  tivelve  apostles, 
"  that  they  should  be  with  him,  and  that  he  might  send  them 
forth  to  preach,  and  to  have  j^ower  to  heal  sicknesses,  and  to 
cast  out  devils."  Mark  3  :  14,  15.  In  this  brief  notice  we  have 
all  the  distinguishing  marks  of  an  apostle.  He  was  chosen 
that  he  might  be  with  Christ  from  the  beginning,  and  thus  be 
to  the  people  an  eye-witness  of  his  whole  public  life.  When  an 
apostle  was  to  be  chosen  in  the  place  of  Judas,  Peter  laid  par- 
ticular stress  on  this  qualification :  "  Wherefore  of  these  men 
which  have  companied  with  us  all  the  time  that  the  Lord  Jesus 
went  in  and  out  among  us,  beginning  from  the  baptism  of  John, 
unto  that  same  day  that  he  was  taken  up  from  us,  must  one  be 
ordained  to  be  a  witness  with  us  of  his  resurrection."  Acts 
1 :  21,  22.  In  the  case  of  Paul  alone  was  this  condition  of 
apostleship  wanting ;  and  this  want  was  made  up  to  him  by  the 
special  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ.  Gal.  1 :  11,  12.  An  apos- 
tle, again,  was  one  who  received  his  commission  to  preach 


104  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

immediately  from  the  Saviour,  a  qualification  wliich  Paul  stren- 
uously asserted  in  his  own  behalf:  "Paul  an  apostle,  not  of 
men,  neither  by  man,  but  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father, 
who  raised  him  from  the  dead."  Gal.  1 : 1.  An  apostle,  once 
more,  was  one  who  received  directly  from  Christ  the  power  of 
working  miracles.  This  was  the  seal  of  his  apostleship  before 
the  world.  In  the  three  particulars  that  have  been  named  the 
apostles  held  to  Christ  the  nearest  possible  relation,  and  were 
by  this  relation  distinguished  from  all  other  men.  Have  we 
evidence  that  they  were  divinely  qualified,  through  the  indwell- 
ing of  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  preach  and  record  the  facts  and  doc- 
trines of  the  gospel  without  error  ? 

That  they  must  have  been  thus  qualified,  we  have,  in  the 
first  place,  a  strong  presumption  from  the  necessity  of  the  case. 
Though  our  Lord  finished  the  work  w^hich  the  Father  gave  him 
to  do  on  earth,  he  did  not  finish  the  revelation  of  his  gospel. 
On  the  contrary,  he  said  to  his  disciples  just  before  his  cruci- 
fixion, "  I  have  yet  many  things  to  say  unto  you,  but  ye  cannot 
bear  them  now.  Howbeit  when  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth  is  come, 
he  will  guide  you  into  all  truth."  John  16 :  12, 13.  Let  us  look 
at  some  of  these  things  which  were  reserved  for  future  revela- 
tion. The  purely  spiritual  nature  of  Christ's  kingdom  was  not 
understood  by  the  apostles  till  after  the  day  of  Pentecost,  for 
we  find  them  asking,  just  before  his  ascension,  "Lord,  wilt  thou 
at  this  time  restore  the  kingdom  to  Israel  ?"  a  question  which 
he  did  not  answer,  but  referred  them  to  the  promised  gift  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Acts  1  :  6-8.  Another  of  the  things  which 
they  could  not  bear  was  the  abolition,  through  Christ's  propi- 
tiatory sacrifice,  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  with  it,  of  the  middle 
wall  of  partition  between  Jews  and  Gentiles.  This  great  truth 
was  reserved  to  be  revealed  practically  in  the  progress  of  the 
gospel,  as  recorded  in  the  book  of  Acts,  and  doctrinally  in  tho 
epistles  of  Paul.  Then  what  a  rich  unfolding  we  have  in  tho 
apostolic  epistles  of  the  meaning  of  our  Lord's  death  on  Cal- 
vary, and  in  connection  with  this,  of  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith — faith  not  simply  in  Christ,  but  in  Christ  crucified. 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  105 

Faith  in  Christ's  person  the  disciples  had  before  his  death; 
but  faith  in  him  as  crucified  for  the  sins  of  the  world  they  could 
not  have  till  after  his  resurrection  and  exaltation  to  the  right 
hand  of  God.  The  abovenamed  truths — not  to  specify  others, 
as,  for  example,  what  Paul  says  of  the  resurrection,  1  Cor.,  ch. 
15 ;  1  Thess.  4 :  13-18 — enter  into  the  very  substance  of  the 
gospel.  They  are,  in  fact,  integral  parts  of  it.  Can  we  sup- 
pose that  our  Lord  began  the  revelation  of  his  gospel  by  his 
own  infallible  wisdom,  and  then  left  it  to  be  completed  by  the 
fallible  wisdom  of  men  ?  If  Augustine  and  Jerome  in  the  lat- 
ter period  of  the  Koman  empire,  if  Anselm  and  Bernard  in  the 
middle  ages,  if  Luther  and  Calvin  at  the  era  of  the  Eeforma- 
tion,  if  V^esley  and  Edwards  in  later  da3^s,  commit  errors,  the 
mischief  is  comparatively  small ;  for,  upon  the  supposition  that 
the  apostles  were  qualified  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  teach  and 
write  without  error,  we  have  in  their'writings  an  infallible  stand- 
ard by  which  to  try  the  doctrines  of  later  uninspired  men.  But 
if  the  apostles  whom  Christ  himself  appointed  to  finish  the 
revelation  which  he  had  begun,  and  whom  he  endowed  with 
miraculous  powers,  as  the  seal  of  their  commission,  had  been 
left  without  a  sure  guarantee  against  error,  then  there  would 
be  no  standard  of  truth  to  which  the  church  in  later  ages  could 
appeal.  No  man  who  believes  that  Jesus  is  the  Son  of  God, 
and  that  he  came  into  the  world  to  make  to  men  a  perfect  rev- 
elation of  the  way  of  life,  can  admit  such  an  absurd  suppo- 
sition. 

In  the  second  place,  we  have  Christ's  express  promises  to  his 
apostles  that  they  should  be  divinely  qualified  for  their  work 
through  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost :  "  But  when  they  deliver 
you  up,  take  no  thought" — be  not  solicitous,  as  the  original 
signifies — "how  or  what  ye  shall  speak,  for  it  shall  be  given 
3'ou  in  that  same  hour  what  ye  shall  speak.  For  it  is  not  yo 
that  speak,  but  the  Spirit  of  your  Father  which  speaketh  in 
you.'*  Matt.  10  :  19,  20.  "  But  when  they  shall  lead  you,  and 
deliver  you  up,  take  no  thought  beforehand  what  ye  shall  speak, 
neither  do  ye  premeditate :  but  whatsoever  shall  be  given  you 


106  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

in  that  hour,  that  speak  ye :  for  it  is  not  ye  that  speak,  but  the 
Holy  Ghost."  Mark  13  :  11.  "And  when  they  bring  you  unto 
the  synagogues,  and  unto  magistrates,'  and  powers,  take  ye  no 
thought  how  or  what  thing  ye  shall  answer,  or  what  ye  shall 
say :  for  the  Holy  Ghost  shall  teach  you  in  the  same  hour  what 
ye  ought  to  say."  Luke  12 :  11,  12.  ''  Settle  it  therefore  in 
your  hearts  not  to  meditate  before  what  ye  shall  answer :  for  I 
will  give  you  a  mouth  and  wisdom,  which  all  your  adversaries 
shall  not  be  able  to  gainsay  nor  resist."  Luke  21 :  14, 15.  The 
above  promises  are  perfectly  explicit ;  and  although  they  refer 
primarily  to  a  particular  emergency,  in  which  the  apostles 
•vould  especially  feel  their  need  of  divine  guidance,  they  cover, 
in  their  spirit,  all  other  emergencies.  We  cannot  read  them 
without  the  conviction  that  they  contain  the  promise  to  the 
apostles  of  all  needed  help  and  guidance  in  the  work  commit- 
ted to  them.  If  they  were  divinely  qualified  to  defend  the  gos- 
pel before  their  adversaries  without  error — "I  will  give  you  a 
mouth  and  wisdom  which  all  your  adversaries  shall  not  be  able 
to  gainsay  nor  resist" — so  were  they  also  to  record  the  facts  of 
the  gospel,  and  to  unfold  in  their  epistles  its  doctrines. 

The  promises  recorded  in  the  gospel  of  John  are  more  gen- 
eral and  comprehensive  in  their  character.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  adduce  two  of  them :  "  These  things  have  I  spoken  unto  you 
being  yet  present  with  you.  But  the  Comforter,  which  is  the 
Holy  Ghost,  whom  the  Father  will  send  in  my  name,  he  shall 
teach  you  all  things,  and  bring  all  things  to  your  remembrance, 
whatsoever  I  have  said  unto  you."  John  14  :  25,  26.  "I  have 
yet  many  things  to  say  unto  you,  but  ye  cannot  bear  them 
now.  Howbeit  when  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will 
guide  you  into  all  truth:  for  he  shall  not  speak  of  himself;  but 
whatsoever  he  shall  hear,  that  shall  he  speak :  and  he  will  show 
you  things  to  come.  He  shall  glorify  me  :  for  he  shall  receive 
of  mine,  and  shall  show  it  unto  you.  All  things  that  the 
Father  hath  are  mine:  therefore  said  I  that  he  shall  take  of 
mine,  and  shall  show  it  unto  you."  John  16:12-15.  In  the 
former  of  these  passages  the  special  promise  is  that  the  Holy 


EVIDENCES  OF  KEVEALED  RELIGION.  107 

Spirit  shall  bring  to  the  remembrance  of  the  apostles  and 
unfold  to  their  understanding  all  Christ's  personal  teachings; 
so  that  they  shall  thus  have  a  fuller  apprehension  of  their 
meaning  than  they  could  while  he  was  yet  with  them.  The 
second  promise  is  introduced  with  the  declaration  that  the 
Saviour  has  yet  many  things  to  say  to  his  apostles  which  they 
cannot  now  bear.  Of  course  these  things  are  reserved  for  the 
ministration  of  the  Spirit,  as  he  immediately  proceeds  to  show : 
*'  When  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you  into 
all  truth."  The  Spirit  shall  glorify  Christ;  for  he  shall  take  of 
the  things  which  are  Christ's,  and  reveal  them  to  the  apostles. 
And  what  are  the  things  which  are  Christ's?  "All  that  the 
Father  hath;"  for  the  Father  has  given  all  things  into  the 
hands  of  the  Son.  John  13  : 3.  Among  these  "  all  things  " 
are  included  all  the  Father's  counsels  pertaining  to  the  way  of 
salvation  through  the  Son.  These  are  given  to  the  Son;  and 
the  Holy  Ghost  shall  take  of  them  and  reveal  to  the  church, 
through  the  apostles,  as  much  as  it  is  needful  for  the  church 
to  know.  In  these  remarkable  words  we  have  at  once  a  proof 
of  our  Lord's  deity,  and  a  sure  guarantee  to  the  apostles  of 
supernatural  illumination  and  guidance  in  the  work  committed 
to  them — all  the  illumination  and  guidance  which  they  needed, 
that  they  might  be  qualified  to  finish  without  error  the  revela- 
tion of  the  gospel  which  Christ  had  begun. 


The  question  is  often  asked  :  Were  these  promises  given  to  the  apostles 
alone,  or  through  them  to  the  church  at  large  ?  The  answer  is  at  hand. 
They  were  given  primarily  and  in  a  special  sense  to  the  apostles  ;  for  they 
had  reference  to  a  special  work  committed  to  them,  which  required  for  its 
performance  special  divine  illumination  and  guidance.  They  were  also 
given,  in  an  important  sense,  to  the  church  at  large ;  since  all  behevers 
enjoy,  through  the  teaching  of  the  apostles,  the  benefit  of  these  revelations 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  They  are  not,  however,  made  to  all  believers  person- 
ally ;  but  were  given,  once  for  all,  through  the  apostles  to  the  churcJi, 
The  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  indeed  made  to  all  believers  personally  ; 
through  liis  enlightening  and  sanctifying  power  they  have  all  needed  help 
and  guidance.  But  they  are  not  called,  as  were  the  apostles,  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  have  therefor^  no  promise  of  new 


108  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

revelations  from  the  Spirit  or  of  elevation  above  all  error,  any  more  than 
they  have  of  miraculous  gifts. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  consider,  in  the  third  place,  the 
claims  which  the  apostles  themselves  made  to  speak  and  write 
with  divine  authority.  Although  their  simple  word  as  men 
could  avail  nothing,  yet  this  same  word,  taken  in  connection 
with  their  known  relation  to  Christ,  with  the  work  committed 
to  them,  and  with  the  jjromises  made  to  them,  is  of  the  most 
weighty  import.  It  was  not  indeed  their  custom  to  assert  gra- 
tuitously their  superhuman  guidance  and  authority.  Yet  when 
occasions  arose,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject  under  discus- 
sion, or  from  the  opposition  of  false  teachers,  they  did  so  in 
unambiguous  terms.  Thus  the  apostle  Paul,  writing  to  the 
"Corinthians,  says,  "  Now  we  have  received  not  the  spirit  of  the 
world,  but  the  Spirit  which  is  of  God ;  that  we  might  know  the 
things  that  are  freely  given  to  us  of  God.  Which  things  also 
we  speak,  not  in  the  words  which  man's  wisdom  teacheth,  but 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  teacheth;  comparing  spiritual  things 
with  spiritual,"  1  Cor.  2 :  12,  13 :  and  writing  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians  concerning  the  resurrection,  "  For  this  we  say  unto  you 
by  the  word  of  the  Lord,  that  we  which  are  alive  and  remain 
unto  the  coming  of  the  Lord  shall  not  prevent  them  which  are 
asleep,"  etc.  1  Thess.  4  :  15.  And  again,  in  writing  to  the 
Galatians,  among  whom  his  apostolic  standing  had  been  called 
in  question  by  certain  Judaizing  teachers,  he  says,  "I  certify 
you,  brethren,  that  the  gospel  which  was  preached  of  me  is 
not  after  man:  for  I  neither  received  it  of  man,  neither  was  I 
taught  it,  but  by  the  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ."  Gal.  1 :  11, 
12.  This  language  is  explicit  enough.  It  could  have  been 
used  only  by  one  who  was  conscious  of  having  been  divinely 
qualified  to  teach  the  gospel  without  error.  Accordingly,  in 
the  same  epistle,  he  opposes  his  apostolic  authority  to  these 
false  teachers :  "  Behold,  I  Paul  say  unto  you,  that  if  ye  be 
circumcised  Christ  shall  profit  you  nothing."  Gal.  5  : 2.  In 
the  memorable  letter  of  the  apostles  and  elders  to  the  Gentile 
churches,  Acts  15 :  23-29,  they  say,  "  It  seemed  good  to  the 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.         109 

Holy  Ghost  and  to  us,  to  lay  upon  you  no  greater  burden  than 
these  necessary  things."  "  To  the  Holy  Ghost  and  to  us"  can 
mean  only,  to  us  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Be- 
sides such  explicit  assertions  as  the  above,  there  is  a  tone  of 
authority  running  through  the  apostolic  writings  which  can  be 
explained  only  from  their  claim  to  speak  with  divine  authority. 
They  assert  the  weightiest  truths  and  make  the  weightest  rev- 
elations concerning  the  future,  as  men  who  know  that  they 
have  a  right  to  be  implicitly  believed  and  obeyed.  AVhat 
majesty  of  authority,  for  example,  shines  through  Paul's  dis- 
cussion of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  1  Cor.,  ch.  15,  where 
he  announces  truths  that  lie  wholly  beyond  the  ken  of  human 
reason.  "  Behold,"  says  he,  "  I  show  you  a  mystery  ;  we  shall 
not  all  sleep,  but  we  shall  all  be  changed,"  as  one  who  has  per- 
fect assurance  that  he  speaks  from  God.  The  same  tone  of 
certainty  runs  through  all  the  remarks  which  the  apostle  John 
interweaves  into  his  gospel,  as  well  as  through  his  epistles,  and 
through  the  other  apostolic  writings. 

To  sum  up  in  a  single  sentence  what  has  been  said  respect- 
ing the  apostles :  When  we  consider  the  strong  presumption, 
arising  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  that  they  must  have 
been  divinely  qualified  to  teach  and  write  without  error,  the 
explicit  promises  of  Christ  that  they  should  be  thus  qualified, 
and  their  explicit  claims  under  these  promises,  we  have  full 
evidence  that  they  wrote,  as  well  as  spoke,  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  consequently  that  their  writings 
are  of  divine  authority. 

4.  In  the  second  grade  of  relationship  to  Christ  stand  men 
who,  like  Mark  and  Luke,  were  not  themselves  apostles,  but 
were  the  companions  of  apostles^  and  their  associates  in  the 
work  of  preaching  the  gospel.  We  are  not  authorized  to  place 
tliem  in  the  same  rank  with  the  apostles.  Yet  they  had  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  was  always  given  in  connection 
with  ordination  at  the  hands  of  the  apostles.  If,  in  addition 
to  this,  their  connection  with  some  of  the  apostles  was  of  such 
an  intimate  nature  that  we  cannot  suppose  them  to  have  writ- 


110  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ten  without  their  knowledge  and  approbation,  we  have  for  their 
writings  all  the  apostolic  authority  that  is  needed.  The  inti- 
mate relation  of  Luke  to  the  apostle  Paul  has  been  already  suf- 
ficiently shown.  We  have  good  ground  for  believing  that  he 
was  with  him  when  he  wrote  both  the  gospel  and  the  book  of 
Acts.  The  intimate  connection  of  Mark  with  the  apostle  Peter 
is  shown  by  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  primitive  churches, 
and  is  confirmed,  moreover,  by  an  examination  of  the  peculi- 
arities of  his  gospel.  In  entire  harmony  with  the  position  of 
these  two  evangelists  is  the  character  of  their  writings.  They 
never  assume  the  office  of  independent  teachers,  but  restrict 
themselves  to  a  careful  record  of  the  works  and  words  of  Christ 
and  his  apostles. 

5.  A  final  argument  for  the  inspiration  of  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  whether  written  by  apostles  or  their  compan- 
ions, may  be  drawn  from  their  general  character,  as  contrasted 
with  that  of  the  writings  which  remain  to  us  from  the  age  next 
succeeding  that  of  the  apostles.  The  more  one  studies  the  two 
classes  of  writings  in  connection,  the  deeper  will  be  his  con- 
viction of  the  distance  by  which  they  are  separated  from  each 
other.  The  descent  from  the  majesty  and  power  of  the  apos- 
tolic writings  to  the  best  of  those  which  belong  to  the  following 
age  is  sudden  and  very  great.  Only  by  a  slow  process  did 
Christian  literature  afterwards  rise  to  a  higher  position  through 
the  leavening  influence  of  the  gospel  upon  Christian  society, 
and  especially  upon  Christian  education.  The  contrast  now 
under  consideration  is  particularly  important  in  our  judgment 
of  those  books  which,  like  the  second  epistle  of  Peter,  are  sus- 
tained by  a  less  amount  of  external  evidence.  Though  we 
cannot  decide  on  the  inspiration  of  a  book  simply  from  the 
character  of  its  contents,  we  may  be  helped  in  our  judgment  by 
comparing  these,  on  the  one  hand,  with  writings  acknowledged 
to  be  apostolic,  and  on  the  other,  with  writings  which  we  know 
to  be  of  the  following  age.  ' 

6.  The  inspiration  of  the  sacred  writers  was  plenanj  in  tho 
sense  that  they  received  from  the  Holy  Spirit  all  the  illumina- 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.         Ill 

tion  and  guidance  which  they  needed  to  preserve  them  from 
error  in  the  work  committed  to  them.  With  regard  to  the 
degree  and  mode  of  this  influence  in  the  case  of  different  books, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  raise  any  abstract  questions.  That  Paul 
might  make  to  the  Galatians  a  statement  of  his  visits  to  Jeru- 
salem and  the  discussions  connected  with  them,  Galatians, 
chaps.  1,  2,  or  might  give  an  account  of  his  conversion  before 
king  Agrippa,  Acts,  ch.  26,  it  was  not  necessary  that  he  should 
receive  the  same  kind  and  measure  of  divine  help  as  when  he 
unfolded  to  the  Corinthians  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection, 
1  Cor.,  ch.  15.  And  so  in  regard  to  the  other  inspired  penmen. 
"Whatever  assistance  each  of  them  needed,  he  received.  If  his 
judgment  needed  divine  illumination  for  the  selection  of  his 
materials,  it  was  given  him.  If  he  needed  to  be  raised  above 
narrowness  and  prejudice,  or  to  have  the  Saviour's  instructions 
unfolded  to  his  understanding,  or  to  receive  new  revelations 
concerning  the  way  of  salvation  or  the  future  history  of  Christ's 
kingdom — whatever  divine  aid  was  necessary  in  all  these  cases, 
was  granted.  Thus  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  being 
written  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  become  to  the 
Christian  church  an  infallible  rule  of  faith  and  practice. 

If  there  be  any  Hmitation  connected  with  the  inspiration  of  the  sacred 
writers,  it  is  one  of  which  the  Holy  Spirit  is  himself  the  author,  and  which 
cannot  therefore  injuriously  affect  their  testimony.  It  did  not  jjlease  God, 
for  example,  that  the  exact  order  of  time  should  always  be  kept  in  the  gos- 
pel narratives ;  nor  that  the  identical  forms  of  expression  emx3loyed  by  the 
Saviour  on  given  occasions  should  always  be  iDreserved;  nor  that  the  accom- 
IDanying  circumstances  should  in  all  cases  be  fully  stated ;  for  in  all  these 
respects  the  evangelists  frequently  differ  among  themselves.  Had  the  wis- 
dom of  God  judged  it  best,  minute  accuracy  in  these  particulars  might 
have  been  secured.  But  the  result  would  probably  have  been  injurious,  by 
leading  men  to  exalt  the  letter  above  the  spirit  of  the  gospel.  We  should 
be  glad  to  know  with  certainty  which,  if  any,  of  the  different  ways  that 
have  been  proposed  for  reconciling  John's  narrative  with  those  of  the  other 
evangelists  in  respect  to  the  day  of  the  month  on  which  our  Lord  ate  his 
last  passover  with  his  disciples,  is  the  true  one.  It  would  give  us  j^leasuro 
were  we  able  to  arrange  all  the  incidents  connected  with  our  Lord's  resur- 
rection, as  recorded  bv  the  four  evangolists,  in  the  exact  order  of  their 


112  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

occurrence.  Had  we  a  full  record  of  all  the  circumstances  pertaining  to 
these  two  transactions,  this  might  be  accomplished.  But  it  would  not 
make  any  essential  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  the  gospel.  We  should 
have,  in  every  jot  and  tittle,  the  same  way  of  salvation  that  we  have  now, 
and  the  same  duties  in  respect  to  it.  To  all  who,  on  grounds  like  these, 
find  diflQculty  with  the  doctrine  of  plenary  inspiration,  we  may  say,  in  the 
words  of  the  apostle,  "Brethren,  be  not  children  in  understanding ;  how- 
beit,  in  malice  be  ye  children,  but  in  understanding  be  men." 

7.  The  extent  of  the  canon  is  determined  by  the  extent  of  inspi- 
ration. The  question  to  be  settled  respecting  each  book  of  the 
New  Testament  is,  "Was  it  written  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  ?  or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  Has  it 
apostolic  authority?  If  it  has,  it  is  to  be  received;  if  not,  it 
is  to  be  rejected.  There  is  no  middle  ground— no  division  of 
the  canon  into  books  of  primary  and  of  secondary  authority. 


EVIDENCES  OF  KEVEALED  RELIGION.         113 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

Jnsbparable    Connection   between   the    Old   and 
THE  New  Testament. 

Although  the  great  central  truth  of  redemption,  that  "  the 
Father  sent  the  Son  to  be  the  Saviour  of  the  world,"  and  that 
we  have  in  the  New  Testament  a  true  record  of  this  mission, 
rests,  as  has  been  shown,  upon  an  immovable  foundation,  we 
have  as  yet  seen  the  argument  in  only  half  its  strength.  Not 
until  we  consider  the  advent  of  Christ  in  connection  with  the 
bright  train  of  revelations  that  preceded  and  prepared  the  way 
for  his  coming,  do  we  see  it  in  its  full  glory,  or  comprehend  the 
amount  of  divine  testimony  by  which  it  is  certified  to  us.  We 
have  already  seen,  chap.  5.  1,  how  the  events  recorded  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  follow,  as  a  natural  sequel,  from  the  truth 
of  the  gospel  history ;  how,  if  we  admit  the  former,  we  ought, 
for  very  consistency,  to  admit  the  latter  also,  since  the  two 
cling  together  as  inseparable  parts  of  one  great  plan.  It  is 
now  proposed  to  look  backward  from  the  Saviour's  advent  to 
the  preceding  series  of  revelations,  and  show  how  naturally  in 
the  plan  of  God  they  preceded  that  great  event,  and  how  insep- 
arably they  were  connected-  with  it  as  parts  of  one  great  whole. 

1.  The  supernatural  mission  of  Christ  furnishes,  in  and  of 
itself,  a  very  strong  presumption  in  favor  of  previous  super- 
natural revelations.  That  such  a  mighty  event  as  this  should 
have  burst  upon  the  world  abruptly,  without  any  previous 
preparation,  is  contrary  to  the  whole  order  of  providence  as 
well  as  of  nature,  which  is,  "first  the  blade,  then  the  ear,  after 
that  the  full  corn  in  the  ear."  And  since  the  advent  of  Christ 
was  miraculous  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term,  why  should  not 
the  way  for  it  have  been  prepared  by  miraculous  revelations  as 


114  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

well  as  by  providential  movements  ?  The  natural  sun  does  not 
emerge  suddenly  from  tlie  darkness  of  niglit :  his  approach  is 
preceded  by  the  day-star  and  the  dawn.  So  were  the  revela- 
tions which  God  made  to  men  from  Adam  to  Malachi,  with  the 
mighty  movements  of  his  providence  that  accompanied  them, 
the  day-star  and  the  dawn  that  ushered  in  upon  the  world  the 
glorious  sun  of  righteousness. 

2.  We  have  the  great  fact  that  the  Jewish  people,  among 
whom  our  Lord  appeared,  and  from  among  whom  he  chose  the 
primitive  preachers  of  the  gospel,  possessed  a  firm  and  deeply- 
rooted  belief  in  the  unity  of  God  and  his  infinite  perfections. 
That  such  a  belief  was  a  necessary  foundation  for  the  peculiar 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  all  of  which  are  underlaid  by  that  of 
trinity  in  unity,  is  self-evident.  Now,  this  belief  was  peculiar 
to  the  Jews,  as  contrasted  with  other  nations  ;  and  it  was  held, 
moreover,  not  simply  by  a  few  philosojDhers  and  learned  men 
among  them,  but  by  the  mass  of  the  people.  No  other  exam- 
ple of  a  whole  nation  receiving  and  holding  firmly  this  funda- 
mental doctrine  of  religion  existed  then,  or  had  ever  existed ; 
and  no  adequate  exjDlanation  of  this  great  fact  has  ever  been 
given,  except  that  contained  in  the  revelation  of  God  to  this 
people  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  was  not  by  chance, 
but  in  accordance  with  the  eternal  plan  of  redemption,  that  the 
Messiah  appeared  where  as  well  as  when  he  did ;  not  in  Egypt 
in  the  days  of  Pharaoh,  nor  in  Nineveh,  or  Babylon,  or  Greece, 
or  Rome;  but  among  the  Jewish  people,  when  now  "the  ful- 
ness of  time  was  come." 

3.  The  impossibility  of  any  attempt  to  dissever  the  revela- 
tions of  the  Old  Testament  from  those  of  the  New  appears  most 
clearly  when  we  consider  the  explicit  declarations  of  our  Saviour, 
and  after  him  the  apostles,  on  this  point.  If  we  know  any  thing 
whatever  concerning  the  doctrines  of  our  Lord  Jesus,  we  know 
that  he  constantly  taught  his  disciples  that  he  had  come  in 
accordance  with  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament.  If  there 
were  found  in  his  discourses  only  one  or  two  remote  allusions 
to  these  prophecies,  there  would  be  more  show  of  reason  in  the 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  EELIGION.         115 

favorite  hypothesis  of  rationalists,  that  the  disciples  misappre- 
hended their  Lord's  meaning.  But  his  teachings  are  so  numer- 
ous and  explicit  on  this  point  that,  even  aside  from  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  writers,  such  an  explanation  is  not  to  be  thought  of 
for  a  moment.  It  was  with  two  of  them  a  matter  of  personal 
knowledge  that  "  beginning  at  Moses  and  all  the  prophets,  he 
expounded  unto  them  in  all  the  Scriptures  the  things  concern- 
ing himself,"  Luke  24 :  27 ;  and  with  all  of  them  that  he  said, 
after  his  resurrection,  in  reference  to  his  past  teachings :  "  These 
are  the  words  which  I  spake  unto  you,  while  I  was  yet  with 
you,  that  all  things  must  be  fulfilled  which  were  written  in  the 
law  of  Moses,  and  in  the  prophets,  and  in  the  psalms  concern- 
ing me."  Luke  24  :  44.  That  in  Christ  were  fulfilled  the  proph- 
ecies of  the  Old  Testament,  appears  in  every  variety  of  form 
in  the  gospel  narratives.  It  constituted,  so  to  speak,  the  warp 
into  which  the  Saviour  wove  his  web  of  daily  instruction.  Now 
if  a  single  thread,  unlike  all  the  rest  in  substance  and  color, 
had  found  its  way  into  this  warp,  we  might,  perhaps,  regard  it 
as  foreign  and  accidental ;  but  to  dissever  from  our  Lord's 
words  all  his  references  to  the  prophecies  concerning  himself 
in  the  Old  Testament,  would  be  to  take  out  of  the  web  all  the 
threads  of  the  warp,  and  then  the  web  itself  would  be  gone. 
No  unbiased  reader  ever  did,  or  ever  could  gain  from  the 
w^ords  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  any  other  idea  than  that  Jesus 
of  Nazareth  came  in  accordance  with  a  bright  train  of  super- 
natural revelations  going  befoie  and  preparing  the  way  for  his 
advent.  This  idea  is  so  incorporated  into  the  very  substance 
of  the  New  Testament  that  it  must  stand  or  fall  with  it. 

4.  Having  contemplated  the  indivisible  nature  of  revelation 
from  the  position  of  the  New  Testament,  we  are  now  prepared 
to  go  back  and  look  at  it  from  the  platform  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. We  shall  find  this  thickly  sown  with  those  great  princi- 
ples which  underlie  the  plan  of  redemption,  and  bind  it  together 
as  one  glorious  whole. 

First  of  all,  we  have  in  the  narrative  of  Adam's  fall  and  the 
consequences  thence  proceeding  to  the  race;  the  substratum,  so 


116  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

to  speak,  on  which  the  plan  of  redemption  is  built.  From  this 
we  learn  that  alienation  from  God  and  wickedness  is  not  the 
original  condition  of  the  race.  Man  was  made  upright  and 
placed  in  communion  with  God.  From  that  condition  he  fell, 
in  the  manner  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament ;  and  to  restore 
him,  through  Christ,  to  his  primitive  state  is  the  work  which 
the  gospel  proposes  to  accomplish.  The  great  historic  event 
of  redemption  is  that  "the  Son  of  God  was  manifested  that  he 
might  destroy  the  works  of  the  devil ;"  and  these  are  the  very 
works  described  in  the  narrative  now  under  consideration, 
namely,  the  seduction  of  man  from  his  allegiance  to  God,  with 
the  misery  and  death  that  followed.  The  primitive  history  of 
man's  apostacy  contains,  then,  the  very  key  to  the  plan  of 
redemption.  So  it  is  plainly  regarded  by  the  apostle  Paul. 
He  builds  upon  it  arguments  relating  not  to  the  outworks  of 
redemption,  but  to  its  inward  nature.  He  makes  the  univer- 
sality of  man's  fallen  condition  through  the  sin  of  Adam  the 
platform  on  which  is  built  the  universality  of  the  provisions  of 
salvation  through  Christ.  "As  by  the  offence  of  one  judgment 
came  upon  all  men  to  condemnation,  even  so  by  the  righteous- 
ness of  one  the  free  gift  came  upon  all  men  unto  justification. 
For  as  by  one  man's  disobedience  many  were  made  sitiners,  so 
by  the  obedience  of  one  shall  many  be  made  righteous."  Kom. 
5  :  18,  19.  "  Since  by  man  came  death,  by  man  came  also  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead.  For  as  in  Adam  all  die,  even  so  in 
Christ  shall  all  be  made  alive."  1  Cor.  15  :  21,  22.  How  could 
the  original  transaction  of  the  fall,  through  the  wiles  of  the 
devil,  and  the  manifestation  of  God's  Son  to  destroy  the  works 
of  tlie  devil,  be  more  indissolubly  bound  together  as  parts  of 
one  great  whole  than  in  these  words  of  an  inspired  apostle  ? 

Secondly,  the  Abrahamic  covenant  connects  itself  immedi- 
ately with  the  mission  and  work  of  Christ.  It  was  made  with 
Abraham,  not  for  himself  and  his  posterity  alone,  but  for  all 
mankind  :  "  In  thy  seed  shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be 
blessed."  Oen.  22  :  18.  And  if  the  Abrahamic  covenant  had 
respect  to  the  whole  human  family,  the  same  must  be  true  of 


EVIDENCES  OE  REVEALED  RELIGION.  117 

tlie  Mosaic  economy  in  its  ultimate  design;  since  this  did  not 
abrogate  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham,  as  the  apostle  Paul 
expressly  shows,  Gal.  3:17,  but  rather  came  in  as  subordinate 
to  it,  and  with  a  view  of  preparing  the  way  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  rich  provisions  of  mercy  for  "  all  families  of  the 
earth."  The  Mosaic  economy  was  then  a  partial  subservient 
to  a  universal  dispensation. 

The  Abrahamic  covenant  was  also  purely  spiritual  in  its 
character,  the  condition  of  its  blessings  being  nothing  else 
than  faith.  The  apostle  Paul  urges  the  fact  that  this  covenant 
was  made  with  Abraham  before  his  circumcision,  lest  any 
should  say  that  it  was  conditioned  wholly  or  in  part  upon  a 
carnal  ordinance  :  "  He  received  the  sign  of  circumcision,  a 
seal  of  the  righteousness  of  the  faith  which  he  had  yet  being 
uncircumcised."  Rom.  4  :  11.  The  seal  of  circumcision,  then, 
did  not  make  the  covenant  valid,  for  the  covenant  existed  many 
years  before  the  rite  of  circumcision  was  instituted.  Faith  was 
the  only  condition  of  Abraham's  justification.  "  He  believed 
in  the  Lord,  and  he  counted  it  to  him  for  righteousness." 
Gen.  15 : 6. 

And  if  we  look  at  the  promise  contained  in  the  Abrahamic 
covenant,  "  In  thee  shall  all  the  families  of  the  earth  be  bless- 
ed," we  find  it  to  be  the  very  substance  of  the  gospel,  as  the 
apostle  Paul  says  :  "  The  Scripture,  foreseeing  that  God  would 
justify  the  heathen  through  faith,  preached  before  the  gospel 
unto  Abraham,  saying,  In  thee  shall  all  nations  be  blessed." 
Gal.  3  : 8.  The  incarnation  and  work  of  Christ  are,  according 
to  the  uniform  representation  of  the  New  Testament,  nothing 
else  but  the  carrying  out  of  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham , 
for  this  covenant  was  made  for  all  mankind,  was  purely  spirit- 
ual, being  conditioned  on  faith  alone,  and  its  substance  is  Christ, 
in  whom  all  nations  are  blessed. 

And  while  God  has  thus  indissolubly  linked  to  the  incarna- 
tion of  his  Son  this  high  transaction  with  Abraham,  we  see 
how  he  has  at  the  same  time  connected  it  with  the  first  prom- 
ise made  in  Eden,  and  thus  with  the  fall  of  man  through  the 


118  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

subtiltj  of  Satan.  The  promise  in  Eden  is  that  the  seed  of  the 
woman  shall  brnise  the  serpent's  head.  The  promise  to  Abra- 
ham is  that  in  his  seed,  which  is  also  the  seed  of  the  woman, 
all  the  families  of  the  earth  shall  be  blessed.  Now  it  is  by  the 
bruising  of  the  serpent's  head,  or,  in  New  Testament  language, 
by  destroying  the  works  of  the  devil,  that  Abraham's  seed 
blesses  all  the  families  of  the  earth.  The  two  promises,  then, 
are  in  their  inmost  nature  one  and  the  same,  and  their  fulfil- 
ment constitutes  the  work  of  Christ. 

Thirdly,  the  end  of  the  Mosaic  economy  is  Christ.  Its  gen- 
eral scope  is  thus  briefly  summed  up  by  Paul :  "  The  law  was 
our  schoolmaster  to  bring  us  unto  Christ,  that  we  might  be 
justified  by  faith."  Gal.  3  :  25.  But  not  to  insist  on  this,  let 
us  contemplate  its  three  great  institutions — the  i^rophetic,  the 
kingly,  and  the  priestly  order. 

The  mode  of  communication  which  God  employed  on  Sinai 
the  peo]Dle  could  not  endure,  and  they  besought  him,  through 
Moses,  that  it  might  be  discontinued :  "  Speak  thou  with  us," 
they  said,  "  and  we  will  hear :  but  let  not  God  speak  with  us, 
lest  we  die."  Ex.  20  :  19.  Of  this  request  God  approved,  and 
promised :  "  I  will  raise  them  up  a  Prophet  from  among  their 
brethren  like  unto  thee."  Dent.  18  :  18.  The  point  of  special 
emphasis  is,  that  the  great  Prophet  here  promised,  who  is 
Christ,  should  be  one  of  their  brethren,  as  Moses  was.  His  per- 
sonal advent  was  for  many  ages  delayed;  but  in  the  meantime 
his  office  was  foreshadowed  by  the  prophetical  order  in  Israel, 
consisting  of  men  sent  by  God  to  address  their  brethren.  Thus 
the  old  dispensation  and  the  new  are  linked  together  by  the 
great  fundamental  principle — that  God  should  address  man 
through  man — which  runs  through  both.  The  whole  series  of 
Old  Testament  prophecies,  moreover,  point  to  Christ  as  their 
end  and  fulfilment ;  "  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the  spirit  of 
prophecy."     Rev.  19  :  10. 

The  kingly  office  of  the  Old  Testament  connects  itself  with 
that  of  Christ  in  a  special  way.  Not  only  did  the  headship 
given  to  David  and  his  successors  over  the  covenant  people  of 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  EELIGION.         119 

God  adumbrate  tlie  higher  headship  of  Christ,  but  David  had 
from  God  the  promise  :  "  Thine  house  and  thy  kingdom  shall 
be  established  for  ever  before  thee :  thy  throne  shall  be  estab- 
lished for  ever."  2  Sam.  7 :  16.  This  promise  is  fulfilled  in 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  "  the  seed  of  David  according  to  the  flesh," 
according  to  the  express  declaration  of  the  New  Testament ; 
"  The  Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the  throne  of  his  father 
David,  and  he  shall  reign  over  the  house  of  Jacob  for  ever, 
and  of  his  kingdom  there  shall  be  no  end."     Luke  1 :  32,  33. 

The  priestly  office,  with  the  blood  of  the  sacrifices  connect- 
ed with  it,  prefigured  Christ,  '•  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh 
awaj^  the  sin  of  the  world."  By  the  stream  of  sacrificial  blood 
that  flow^ed  for  so  many  ages  was  set  forth  that  great  funda- 
mental truth  of  redemption,  that  "  without  shedding  of  blood 
is  no  remission."  Heb.  9  :  22.  The  sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic 
law  were  continually  repeated,  because  "  it  is  not  possible  that 
the  blood  of  bulls  and  of  goats  should  take  away  sins."  Heb. 
10  : 4.  But  when  Christ  had  offered  his  own  blood  on  Calvary 
for  the  sins  of  the  world,  the  typical  sacrifices  of  the  law  ceased 
for  ever,  having  been  fulfilled  in  the  great  Antitype,.  "  in  whom 
we  have  redemption  through  his  blood,  the  forgiveness  of  sins." 
Ephes.  1:7. 

5.  Since  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  are  thus  insepara- 
bly connected  as  parts  of  one  grand  system  of  revelation,  of 
which  the  end  is  Christ,  it  follows  that  the  later  revelations  of 
the  New  Testament  are  the  true  interpreters  of  the  earlier, 
which  are  contained  in  the  Old.  This  is  only  sajdng  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  the  true  and  proper  expositor  of  his  own  com- 
munications to  man.  From  the  interpretations  of  Christ  and 
Lis  apostles,  fairly  ascertained,  there  is  no  appeal.  And  they 
are  fairly  ascertained  w^hen  we  have  learned  in  what  sense  they 
must  have  been  understood  by  their  hearers.  All  expositions 
of  the  Old  Testament  that  set  aside,  either  openly  or  in  a  covert 
way,  the  supreme  authority  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  are  false, 
and  only  lead  men  away  from  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus. 


120  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

Authorship  of  the  Pentateuch. 

The  term  Pentateuch  is  composed  of  the  two  Greek  words, 
•pente^five,  and  teuclios,  which  in  later  Alexandrine  usage  signi- 
fied hook.  It  denotes,  therefore,  the  collection  of  five  books ; 
or,  the  five  books  of  the  law  considered  as  a  whole. 

1.  In  our  inquiries  respecting  the  authorship  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, we  begin  with  the  undisputed  fact  that  it  existed  in  its 
present  form  in  the  days  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  had  so 
existed  from  the  time  of  Ezra.  When  the  translators  of  the 
Greek  version,  called  the  Septuagint,  began  their  work,  about 
280  B.  c,  they  found  the  Pentateuch  as  we  now  have  it,  and  no 
one  pretends  that  it  had  undergone  any  change  between  their 
day  and  that  of  Ezra,  about  460  B.  c.  It  was  universally 
ascribed  to  Moses  as  its  author,  and  was  called  in  common 
usage  the  laiv,  or  the  laiu  of  Moses. 

2.  That  the  authorship  of  the  law  in  its  written  form  is 
ascribed  to  Moses  in  the  New  Testament  every  one  knows. 
"The  law  was  given  by  Moses;"  "Did  not  Moses  give  you  the 
law?"  "Had  ye  believed  Moses,  ye  would  have  believed  me; 
for  he  wrote  of  me;"  "For  the  hardness  of  your  heart  he," 
Moses,  "wrote  you  this  precept;"  "Master,  Moses  wrote  unto 
us;"  "What  is  written  in  the  law?  how  readest  thou?"  etc. 
Since  now  the  whole  collection  of  books  was  familiarly  known 
to  the  people  as  the  laiv,  or  the  law  of  Moses,  it  is  reasonable  to 
infer  that  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles  use  these  terms  in  the 

.  same  comprehensive  sense,  unless  there  is  a  limitation  given  in 
the  context.  Such  a  limitation  the  apostle  Paul  makes  when 
he  opposes  to  the  Mosaic  law  the  previous  promise  to  Abra- 
ham :  "  The  covenant  that  was  confirmed  before  of  God  in 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.         121 

Christj  the  law,  wliicli  was  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  after, 
cannot  disannul,  that  it  should  make  the  promise  of  none 
effect."  Gal.  3  :  17,  and  compare  the  following  verses.  But  in 
the  following  chapter  Paul  manifestly  employs  the  words  the  law 
of  the  whole  Pentateuch,  to  every  part  of  which  he,  in  common 
■with  the  Jewish  people,  ascribed  equal  and  divine  authority : 
"  Tell  me,  ye  that  desire  to  be  under  law'' — under  a  system  of 
law,  the  article  being  wanting  in  the  original — "do  ye  not  hear 
ilie  law?  For  it  is  written,  that  Abraham  had  two  sons;  the 
one  by  a  bond-maid,  the  other  by  a  free  woman,"  etc..  Gal. 
4:21,  seq.,  where  the  reference  is  to  the  narrative  recorded.in 
Genesis,  as  a  part  of  the  law.  So  also  in  the  following  pas- 
sage :  "  Moses  of  old  time  hath  in  every  city  them  that  preach 
him,  being  read  in  the  synagogues  every  sabbath-day,"  Acts 
15  :  21 ;  the  term.  Moses  necessarily  means  the  law  of  Moses,  as 
comprehending  the  whole  Pentateuch,  for  it  was  that  which 
was  read  in  the  synagogues.  Compare  the  words  of  Luke : 
"  After  the  reading  of  the  law  and  the  prophets,"  Acts  13 :  15. 
And  in  general,  when  Christ  and  his  apostles  speak  of  Moses 
or  the  law,  without  any  limitation  arising  from  the  context, 
thus,  "The  law  was  given  by  Moses;"  "  They  have  Moses  and 
the  prophets,"  etc.,  we  are  to  understand  them  as  referring  to 
the  Pentateuch  as  a  whole,  for  such  was  the  common  usage  of 
the  Jewish  people,  and  such  must  have  been  their  apprehen- 
sion of  the  meaning  of  the  terms. 

3.  But  it  may  be  said,  Christ  and  his  apostles  did  not  speak 
as  critics,  but  only  in  a  popular  way.  That  they  did  not  speak 
of  the  Pentateuch  as  critics,  is  certain.  They  had  no  occasion 
for  doing  so,  since  no  Jew  doubted  either  its  divine  authority  or 
its  Mosaic  authorship.  But  when  we  consider,  on  the  one  side, 
with  what  unsparing  severity  our  Lord  set  aside  the  traditions 
of  the  Pharisees  as  "  the  commandments  of  men,"  and  on  the 
other,  how  he  and  his  apostles  ascribed  equal  divine  authority 
to  every  part  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next 
chapter,  and  how  unequivocally  they  sanctioned  the  universal 
belief  that  Moses  was  its  author,  we  must  acknowledge  that  we 

Comp.  f(.  Bible-.  6 


122  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

have  the  entire  authority  of  the  New  Testament  for  its  Mosaic 
authorship  in  every  essential  respect.  This  is  entirely  consist- 
ent with  the  belief  that  inspired  men,  like  Ezra,  and  perhaps 
also  prophetical  men  of  an  earlier  age,  in  setting  forth  revised 
copies  of  the  Pentateuch,  that  is,  copies  which  aimed  to  give 
the  true  text  with  as  much  accuracy  as  possible,  may  have 
added  here  and  there  explanatory  clauses  for  the  benefit  of  the 
readers  of  their  day.  Such  incidental  clauses,  added  by  men 
of  God  under  the  guidance  of  his  Spirit,  would  not  affect  in  the 
least  the  substance  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  would  still  remain  in 
every  practical  sense  the  work  of  Moses,  and  be  so  regarded  in 
the  New  Testament. 

Whether  there  are,  or  are  not,  in  the  Pentateuch,  such  clauses  added 
by  a  later  hand,  and  not  affecting  either  its  essential  contents  or  its  Mosaic 
authorship,  is  an  open  question  to  be  determined  by  impartial  criticism. 
At  the  present  day  editors  carefully  indicate  their  explanatory  notes  ;  but 
this  was  not  the  usage  of  high  antiquity.  At  the  close  of  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy,  for  example,  there  is  immediately  added,  without  any  ex- 
planatory remark,  a  notice  of  Moses'  death.  We  are  at  liberty  to  assume, 
if  we  have  cogent  reasons  for  so  doing,  that  brief  explanatory  clauses  were 
sometimes  interwoven  into  the  Mosaic  text ;  as,  for  example,  the  remark 
in  Gen.  36  :31,  which  is  repeated  in  1  Chron.  1 :4:3,  a  book  ascribed  to 
Ezra  ;    Exod.  16  :  35,  36,  etc. 

4.  Going  back  now  to  the  days  of  the  Restoration  under 
Zerubbabel  and  his  associates,  about  536  B.  c,  we  find  that  the 
very  first  act  of  the  restored  captives  was  to  set  up  "  the  altar 
of  the  God  of  Israel,  to  offer  burnt-offerings  thereon,  as  it  is 
written  in  the  law  of  Moses  the  man  of  God."  The  narrative 
goes  on  to  specify  that  "  they  offered  burnt-offerings  thereon 
unto  the  Lord,  even  burnt-offerings  morning  and  evening. 
They  kept  also  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  as  it  is  written,  and 
offered  the  daily  burnt-offerings  by  number,  according  to  the 
custom,  as  the  duty  of  every  day  required;  and  afterwards 
offered  the  continual  burnt-offering,  both  of  the  new  moons, 
and  of  all  the  set  feasts  of  the  Lord  that  were  consecrated, 
and  of  every  one  that  willingly  offered  a  free-will  offering  unto 
the  Lord."    Ezra  3  : 1-5.    About  ninety  years  afterwards,  upon 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGIOX.  123 

the  completion  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  tinder  Nehemiah, 
about  445  b.  c,  we  find  Ezra  the  priest — "a  ready  scribe  in  the 
law  of  Moses,  which  the  Lord  God  of  Israel  had  given,"  Ezra 
7  :  6 — on  the  occasion  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles  bringing  forth 
"  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses,  which  the  Lord  had  command- 
ed to  Israel,"  and  reading  in  it  "  from  the  morning  unto  mid- 
day, before  the  men  and  the  women,  and  those  that  could 
understand."  In  this  work  he  was  assisted  by  a  body  of  men, 
who  "caused  the  people  to  understand  the  laAv;"  and  the  read- 
ing was  continued  through  the  seven  days  of  the  feast :  "  day 
by  day,  from  the  first  day  unto  the  last  day,  he  read  in  the 
book  of  the  law  of  God."  Neh.  ch.  8.  It  was  not  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy  alone  that  they  read.  We  might  infer  this  from 
the  extent  of  the  reading,  which  was  sufiicient  for  all  the  pre- 
ceptive parts  of  the  Pentateuch.  But  here  we  are  not  left  to 
mere  inference.  On  the  second  day  "  they  found  written  in 
the  law  which  the  Lord  had  commanded  by  Moses,  that  the 
children  of  Israel  should  dwell  in  booths  in  the  feast  of  the 
seventh  month;"  and  that  they  should  "fetch  olive-branches, 
and  pine-branches,  and  myrtle-branches,  and  palm-branches, 
and  branches  of  thick  trees,  to  make  booths,  as  it  is  written." 
Neh.  8  :  13-17.  The  precept  concerning  booths  with  boughs 
of  trees  occurs  in  Lev.  23  :  40-43,  a  passage  which  they  might 
naturally  enough  reach  on  the  second  day. 

Ezra's  assistants  gave  the  sense  not  by  labored  expositions,  but  by 
interpreting  the  Hebrew  in  the  Chaldee  vernacular  of  the  people.  This 
would  about  douT)le  the  time  devoted  to  a  given  section.  All  that  per- 
tained to  the  structure  of  the  tabernacle  was  superseded  by  the  first  tem- 
ple, which  served  the  returned  captives  as  their  model  in  the  erection  of 
the  second.  We  may  well  suppose  that  this  was  omitted.  There  would 
then  remain  only  four  or  five  chapters  in  the  book  of  Exodus.  Thus  the 
passage  in  question  would  naturally  fall  on  the  second  day. 

5.  Jewish  tradition  ascribes  to  Ezra  the  work  of  setthng 
the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  setting  forth  a  corrected 
edition  of  the  same.  Though  some  things  included  in  this  tra- 
dition are  fabulous,  the  part  of  it  now  under  consideration  is 


124  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

corroborated  by  all  the  scriptural  statements  concerning  him, 
nor  is  there  any  reasonable  ground  for  doubting  its  correctness. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  admitted  that  from  Ezra's  day  onward 
the  Pentateuch  existed  in  its  present  form.  We  are  sure,  there- 
fore, that  "  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses,"  out  of  which  he  read 
to  the  people,  was  the  book  as  we  now  have  it — the  whole  Pen- 
tateuch, written,  according  to  uniform  Jewish  usage,  on  a  sin- 
gle roll.  Ezra  belonged  to  the  priestly  order  that  had  in 
charge  the  keeping  of  the  sacred  books,  Deut.  31 :  25,  26,  com- 
pared with  2  Kings  22  : 8,  and  was  moreover  "  a  ready  scribe 
in  the  law  of  Moses."  His  zeal  for  the  reestablishment  of  the 
Mosaic  law  in  its  purity  shines  forth  in  his  whole  history.  In 
his  competency  and  fidelity  we  have  satisfactory  evidence  that 
the  law  of  Moses  which  he  set  forth  was  the  very  law  which 
had  been  handed  down  from  ancient  times,  and  of  which  we 
have  frequent  notices  in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  Ezra  himself  wrote  the  books  of  Chroni- 
cles. They  were  certainly  composed  about  his  time.  To  admit,  as  all  do, 
that  in  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  the  law  of  Moses  means  the 
Pentateuch  as  a  whole,  and  to  deny  that  it  has  the  same  meaning  in  the 
books  of  Chronicles,  is  very  inconsistent.  Certainly  the  book  which  Ezra 
set  forth  was  the  book  which  he  found  ready  at  hand,  and  therefore  the 
book  referred  to  in  the  Chronicles,  and  the  Kings  also.  Any  explanatory 
additions  which  he  may  have  made  did  not  affect  its  substance.  It  remains 
for  the  objector  to  show  why  it  was  not,  in  all  essential  respects,  the  book 
which  Hilkiah  found  in  the  temple,  2  Chron.  34  :  14,  and  to  which  David 
referred  in  his  dying  charge  to  Solomon,  1  Kings  2  : 3. 

6.  Passing  by,  for  the  present,  the  notices  of  the  law  of 
Moses  contained  in  the  book  of  Joshua,  we  come  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy.  We  have  seen  that  the 
Mosaic  authorship  of  the  book,  as  a  part  of  the  Pentateuch,  is 
everywhere  assumed  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament. 
But,  in  addition  to  this,  they  make  quotations  from  it  under 
the  forms,  "  Moses  wrote,"  "  Moses  truly  said  unto  the  fathers," 
etc.  Mark  10  :  3-5  ;  Acts  3  :  22  ;  Eom.  10  :  19.  If  we  examine 
the  book  itself,  its  own  testimony  is  equally  explicit.     In  chap. 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  KELIGION.  125 

17  :  24  Moses  directs  that  when  the  Israelites  shall  appoint  a 
king,  "  he  shall  write  him  a  copy  of  this  law  in  a  book  ont  of 
that  which  is  before  the  priests  the  Levites."  In  the  opinion 
of  some,  this  language  refers  to  the  whole  law  of  Moses,  while 
others  would  restrict  it  to  the  book  of  Deuteronomy;  but  all 
are  agreed  that  it  includes  the  whole  of  the  latter  work,  with 
the  exception  of  the  closing  sections.  By  a  comparison  of 
this  passage  with  chaps.  28 :  58 ;  31 : 9,  24-26,  the  evidence  is 
complete  that  Moses  wrote  this  law,  and  delivered  it  to  the 
priests,  to  be  laid  up  by  the  side  of  the  ark  in  the  tabernacle. 
If  this  testimony  needed  any  corroboration,  we  should  have  it 
in  the  character  of  the  work  itself.  It  is  the  solemn  farewell 
of  the  aged  lawgiver  to  the  people  whose  leader  he  had  been 
for  the  space  of  forty  years.  In  perfect  harmony  with  this  are 
the  grandeur  and  dignity  of  its  style,  its  hortatory  character, 
and  the  exquisite  tenderness  and  pathos  that  pervade  every 
part  of  it.  It  is  every  way  worthy  of  Moses ;'  nor  can  we  con- 
ceive of  any  other  Hebrew  who  was  in  a  position  to  write  such 
a  book. 

7.  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  contains  a  renewal  of  the  cove- 
nant which  God  made  with  the  children  of  Israel  at  Sinai. 
Chap.  29  :  10-15.  Moses  himself  distinguishes  between  the  for- 
mer and  the  latter  covenant.  "These  are  the  words  of  the 
covenant  which  the  Lord  commanded  Moses  to  make  with  the 
children  of  Israel  in  the  land  of  Moab,  besides  the  covenant 
which  he  made  with  them  in  Horeb."  Chap.  29  : 1.  W^ith  each 
covenant  was  connected  a  series  of  laws ;  those  belonging  to 
the  latter  being  mainly,  but  not  entirely,  a  repetition  of  laws 
given  with  the  first  covenant.  We  have  seen  that  Moses  wrote 
the  second  covenant,  and  all  the  laws  connected  with  it.  From 
Exodus,  ch.  24,  we  learn  that  he  wrote  also  the  book  of  the  first 
covenant  containing,  we  may  reasonably  suppose,  all  of  God's 
legislation  up  to  that  time.  The  inference  is  irresistible  that 
he  wrote  also  the  laws  that  followed  in  connection  with  the 
first  covenant.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  these  laws  under- 
lie the  whole  constitution  of  the  Israelitish  nation,  religious, 


126  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

civil,  and  social.  They  cannot,  then,  have  been  the  invention 
of  a  later  age ;  for  no  such  fraud  can  be  imposed,  or  was  ever 
imposed  upon  a  whole  people.  They  are  their  own  witness 
also  that  they  were  given  by  the  hand  of  Moses,  for  they  are 
all  prefaced  by  the  words,  "And  the  Lord  spake  unto  Moses, 
saying."  When  we  consider  their  fundamental  character,  their 
extent,  and  the  number  and  minuteness  of  their  details,  we  can- 
not for  a  moment  suppose  that  they  were  left  unwritten  by  such 
a  man  as  Moses,  who  had  all  the  qualifications  for  writing  them. 
Why  should  not  the  man  who  received  them  from  the  Lord 
have  also  recorded  them — this  man  educated  at  the  court  of 
Egypt,  and  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  who 
had  already  written  "the  book  of  the  covenant,"  and  afterwards 
wrote  the  journeyings  of  the  Israelites,  Numb.  ch.  23,  and  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy  ?  An  express  statement  from  Moses  him- 
self is  not  needed.  The  fact  is  to  be  understood  from  the  nature 
of  the  case,  and  to  call  it  in  question  is  gratuitous  skepticism. 

8.  The  form  of  the  Mosaic  laws  that  precede  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  assumption  that 
Moses  himself  not  only  received  them,  but  wrote  them.  They 
bear  the  impress  of  having  been  recorded  not  continuously,  but 
from  time  to  time,  as  they  were  communicated  to  him.  In  this 
way  the  historical  notices  which  are  woven  into  them — the 
matter  of  the  golden  calf.  Exodus,  ch.  32,  the  death  of  Nadab 
and  Abihu,  Leviticus,  ch.  10,  the  blasphemy  of  Shelomith's 
son,  Leviticus,  ch.  24,  and  the  numerous  incidents  recorded  in 
the  book  of  Numbers — all  these  narratives  find  a  perfectly  nat- 
ural explanation.  Some  of  these  incidents — as,  for  example, 
the  blasphemy  of  Shelomith's  son — come  in  abruptly,  without 
any  connection  in  the-  context;  and  their  position  can  be 
accounted  for  only  upon  the  assumption  that  they  were  record- 
ed as  they  happened.  In  this  peculiar  feature  of  the  Mosaic 
code  before  Deuteronomy,  we  have  at  once  a  proof  that  Moses 
was  the  writer,  and  that  the  historical  notices  connected  v/ith 
it  were  also  recorded  by  him.  The  result  at  which  we  arrive 
is  that  the  whole  record  from  God's  appearance  to  Moses  and 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  127 

bis  mission  to  Pharaoh  has  Moses  himself  for  its  author.  The 
authorship  of  the  preceding  part  of  the  Pentateuch  will  be  con- 
sidered separately. 

9.  The  above  result  in  reference  to  that  part  of  the  law 
which  precedes  Deuteronomy,  is  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of 
the  Ne-w  Testament.  In  disputing  with  the  Sadducees,  our  Lord 
appealed  to  the  writings  of  Moses,  which  they  acknowledged : 
"Now  that  the  dead  are  raised,  even  Moses  showed  at  the 
bush,  when  he  calleth  the  Lord  the  God  of  Abrahaim,  and  the 
God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob."  Luke  20 :  37.  It  was 
by  recording  the  words  of  God,  as  given  in  Exodus  3  :  (5,  that 
Moses  called  the  Lord  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 
The  apostle  Paul,  again,  referring  to  Lev.  18  :  5,  says  :  "  Moses 
describeth" — literally,  writetli — "the  righteousness  which  is  of 
the  law.  That  the  man  which  doeth  those  things  shall  live  by 
them."  Eom.  10  : 5.  Here  also  belong  certain  passages  that 
speak  of  precepts  in  "the  law  of  Moses,"  as  Luke  2:22-24, 
where  the  reference  is  to  various  precepts  in  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
and  Numbers— Exod.  13  :  2  ;  22  :  29  ;  34  :  19  ;  Lev.  12  :  2,  seq. ; 
Numb.  3  :  13  ;  8  :  17;  18  :  15— John  7  :22,  23,  where  the  refer- 
ence is  to  Lev.  12  :  2  ;  for  with  the  New  Testament  writers  "  the 
law  of  Moses  "  means  the  law  written  by  Moses.  In  like  man- 
ner we  find  references  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  books  of  the 
law  of  Moses  that  precede  Deuteronomy — 2  Chron.  23  :  18  com- 
pared with  Numb.  28 : 2,  seq.;  2  Chron.  24: 6  compared  with  Exod. 
30:12,  seq.;  Ezra  3  :2-5  compared  with  Numb.  28:2,  seq.,  and 
29 :  12,  seq. ;  Neh.  8 :  15  compared  with  Lev.  23  :  40. 

10.  The  relation  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  to  the  earlier 
portions  of  the  law  deserves  a  careful  consideration.  And, 
first,  in  regard  to  time.  All  that  portion  of  the  law  which  pre- 
cedes the  sixteenth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Numbers  was  given 
in  the  first  and  second  years  after  the  exodus ;  consequently 
thirty-eight  years  before  the  composition  of  the  book  of  Deu- 
teronomy. The  four  chapters  of  Numbers  that  follow,  chaps. 
16-19,  are  generally  dated  about  twenty  years  later — that  is, 
about  eighteen  years  before  the  composition  of  Deuteronomy. 


128  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Only  the  last  seventeen  chapters  of  Numbers,  which  are  mostly 
occupied  with  historical  notices,  were  written  in  the  preceding 
year. 

Then,  as  it  respects  general  design.  At  Horeb  the  entke 
constitution  of  the  theocracy  was  to  be  established.  This  part 
of  the  law  is,  therefore,  more  formal  and  circumstantial.  It 
gives  minute  directions  for  the  celebration  of  the  passover ;  for 
the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture ;  for  the 
dress,  consecration,  duties,  and  perquisites  of  the  priesthood 
and  Levitical  order ;  for  the  entire  system  of  sacrifices  ;  for  the 
distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  animals ;  for  all  those 
duties  that  were  especially  of  a  priestly  character,  as  judgment 
in  the  case  of  leprosy,  and  purification  from  ceremonial  un- 
cleanness ;  for  the  order  of  journeying  and  encamping  in  the 
wilderness,  etc.  In  a  w^ord,  it  gives  more  prominence  to  the 
forms  of  the  law,  and  the  duties  of  those  to  whom  its  adminis- 
tration was  committed.  Not  so  on  the  plains  of  Moab.  The 
theocracy  had  then  been  long  in  operation.  The  details  of  its 
service  were  well  understood,  and  there  w^as  no  need  of  formal 
and  circumstantial  repetition.  The  work  of  Moses  now  was  not 
to  give  a  new  law,  but  to  enforce  the  law  of  Horeb,  with  such 
subordinate  modifications  and  additions  as  were  required  by 
the  new  circumstances  of  the  people,  now  about  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  promised  land  and  change  their  wandering  life 
for  fixed  abodes.  He  had  to  do,  therefore,  more  prominently 
not  with  the  administrators  of  law,  but  with  the  people ;  and 
accordingly  his  precepts  assume  a  hortatory  character,  and  his 
style  becomes  more  diffuse  and  flowing. 

The  2^ersonal  relation  of  Moses  to  the  people  was  also  greatly 
changed.  At  Horeb  he  had  the  great  work  of  his  life  before 
him,  but  now  it  is  behind  him..  He  is  about  to  leave  his  be- 
loved Israel,  whom  he  has  borne  on  his  heart  and  guided  by 
his  counsels  for  forty  years.  .  Hence  the  inimitable  tenderness 
and  pathos  that  pervade  the  book  of  Deuteronomy. 

When  now  we  take  into  account  all  these  altered  circum- 
stances, we  have  a  fi^ll  explanation  of  the  peculiarities  w^hich 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  EELIGION.         129 

mark  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  as  compared  with  the  prece- 
ding books.  Were  these  peculiarities  wanting,  we  should  miss 
a  main  proof  of  its  genuineness.  Nevertheless  the  book  is 
thoroughly  Mosaic  in  its  style,  and  the  scholar  who  reads  it  in 
the  original  Hebrew  can  detect  peculiar  forms  of  expression 
belonging  only  to  the  Pentateuch.  As  to  alleged  disagree- 
ments between  some  of  its  statements  and  those  of  the  earlier 
books,  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  upon  a  candid  examina- 
tion they  mostly  disappear;  and  even  where  we  cannot  fully 
explain  them,  this  furnishes  no  valid  ground  for  denying  the 
genuineness  of  either  portion  of  the  law.  Such  seeming  dis- 
crepancies are  not  uncommon  when  a  writer  of  acknowledged 
credibility  repeats  what  he  has  before  written.  Compare,  for 
example,  the  three  narratives  of  the  apostle  Paul's  conversion 
which  are  recorded  in  the  book  of  Acts. 

The  question  as  to  the  extent  of  meaning  which  should  be 
given  in  Deuteronomy  to  the  expressions,  "  a  copy  of  this  law," 
"  the  words  of  this  law,"  "  this  book  of  the  law,"  is  one  upon 
which  expositors  are  not  agreed,  nor  is  it  essential;  since,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  former  part  of  the 
law  rests  upon  broader  grounds. 

In  Dent.  27  :  3,  8,  it  seems  necessary  to  understand  the  exiDression,  ''aU 
the  words  of  this  law,"  which  were  to  be  written  upon  tables  of  stone  set 
up  on  mount  Ebal,  of  the  blessings  and  curses — ver.  12,  13 — contained  in 
this  and  the  following  chapter.  But  elsewhere,  chs.  17  :  18  ;  31  :  9,  24-26, 
we  must  certainly  include  at  least  the  whole  of  Deuteronomy.  If  we  sup- 
]pose  that  it  was  Moses'  custom  to  write  out  the  precepts  of  the  law  with 
the  historical  notices  pertaining  to  them  in  a  continuous  roll,  which  was 
enlarged  from  time  to  time,  and  that  he  added  to  this  roll  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy,  then  the  words  in  question  must  be  understood  of  the  entire 
body  of  precepts  from  the  beginning.  But  if,  as  seems  to  be  intimated  in 
Deut.  31  :24,  he  wrote  Deuteronomy  in  a  separate  book,  {"in  a  hooJc,'' 
without  the  article,)  the  words  naturally  refer  to  Deuteronomy  alone. 
This  work,  as  containing  a  summary  of  the  law — a  second  law,  as  the  word 
Deuteronomy  &\^\\\?ies — might  well  be  spoken  of  as  "this  law,"  without  any 
denial  of  an  earlier  law ;  just  as  the  covenant  made  with  the  people  at  this 
time  is  called  "  this  covenant,"  ch.  29  :14,  without  any  denial  of  an  earher 
covenant.     The  reverent  scholar  will  be  careful  not  to  be  wise  above  what 

6* 


130  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

is  written.  It  might  gi-atify  our  curiosity  to  know  exactly  in  what  outward 
form  Moses  left  the  Law  with  the  historical  notices  woven  into  it ;  whether 
in  one  continuous  roU,  or  in  several  rolls  which  were  afterwards  arranged 
by  some  prophet,  perhaps  with  connecting  and  explanatory  clauses ;  but 
it  could  add  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  the  way  of  salvation.  In  either 
case  it  would  be  alike  the  law  of  Moses  and  the  law  which  Moses  wrote, 
invested  with  full  divine  authority. 

11.  It  being  established  that  Moses  wrote  the  whole  law 
with  the  historical  notices  appertaining  to  it,  we  naturally  infer 
that  he  must  have  written  the  book  of  Genesis  also,  which  is 
introductory  to  the  law.  For  this  work  he  had  every  qualifi- 
cation, and  we  know  of  no  other  man  that  had  the  like  qualifi- 
cations. On  this  ground  alone  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the 
book  might  be  reasonably  assumed,  unless  decided  proofs  to 
the  contrary  could  be  adduced.  But  we  find,  upon  examina- 
tion, that  the  book  of  Genesis  is  so  connected  luith  thefoUotving 
hooks  that  without  the  knowledge  of  its  contents  they  cannot 
be  rightly  understood.  The  very  first  appearance  of  God  to 
Moses  is  introduced  by  the  remark  that  he  "  remembered  his 
covenant  with  Abraham,  with  Isaac,  and  with  Jacob."  In 
addressing  Moses  he  calls  the  children  of  Israel  "  my  people," 
Exod.  3  :  6-10;  and  sends  Moses  to  Pharaoh  with  the  message, 
"  Let  my  people  go."  All  this  implies  a  knowledge  of  the  cov- 
enant which  God  made  with  Abraham  and  his  seed  after  him, 
by  virtue  of  which  the  Israelites  became  his  peculiar  people. 
It  is  not  simply  as  an  oppressed  people  that  God  undertakes  to 
deliver  them  and  give  them  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
but  as  Ms  people.  Again  and  again  does  Moses  describe  the 
promised  land  as  "  the  land  which  the  Lord  sware  unto  your 
fathers  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  to  give  unto  them  and  to 
their  seed  after  them."  With  the  book  of  Genesis  these  dec- 
larations are  plain;  but  without  it  they  are  unintelligible.  The 
Abrahamic  covenant,  which  is  recorded  in  the  book  of  GenesiSj 
is  not  a  subordinate,  but  an  essential  part  of  the  history  of  the 
Israelites.  It  underlies  the  whole  plan  of  redemption,  and 
upon  it  the  Mosaic  economy,  as  a  part  of  that  plan,  is  erected. 


EVIDENCES  OF  KEVEALED  EELIGION.  131 

Why  should  any  one  suppose  that  Moses,  who  recorded  the 
establishment  of  this  economy  with  all  its  details,  omitted  to. 
record  the  great  transactions  with  the  patriarchs  which  lie  at 
its  foundation?  There  are  other  references  to  the  book  of 
Genesis  in  the  law  of  Moses.  The  institution  of  the  Sabbath 
Is  expressly  based  on  the  order  of  creation  recorded  in  the  first 
two  chapters;  and  when  the  people  leave  Egypt  they  carry 
with  them  the  bones  of  Joseph,  in  accordance  with  the  oath 
which  he  had  exacted  of  them.  Gen.  50 :  25,  compared  with 
Exod.  13  :  19. 

To  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  Genesis  it  has  been  objected, 
that  it  contains  marks  of  a  later  age.  But  these  marks,  so  far  as 
they  have  any  real  existence,  belong  not  to  the  substance  of 
the  book.  They  are  restricted  to  a  few  explanatory  notices, 
which  may  well  have  been  added  by  Ezra  or  some  prophetical 
man  before  him,  in  setting  forth  a  revised  copy  of  the  law. 
See  No.  3,  above.  The  passages  which  can,  with  any  show 
of  probability,  be  referred  to  a  later  age,  are,  taken  all  together, 
very  inconsiderable,  and  they  refer  only  to  incidental  matters, 
while  the  book,  as  a  whole,  bears  all  the  marks  of  high  anti- 
quity. 

To  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  this  book  it  has  been  objected 
again,  that  it  contains  the  writings  of  different  authors.  This  is 
especially  argued  from  the  diversity  of  usage  in  respect  to  the 
divine  name,  some  passages  employing  the  word  EloMm,  God, 
others  the  word  JeJiovah,  or  a  combination  of  the  two  terms. 
Whatever  force  there  may  be  in  this  argument,  the  validity  of 
Avhich  is  denied  by  many  who  think  that  the  inspired  writer 
designedly  varied  his  usage  between  the  general  term  God  and 
the  special  covenant  name  JeJiovah,  it  goes  only  to  show  that 
Moses  may  have  made  use  of  previously  existing  documents ;  a 
supposition  which  we  need  not  hesitate  to  admit,  provided  we 
have  cogent  reasons  for  so  doing.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  origin  of  these  documents,  they  received  through  Moses  the 
seal  of  God's  authority,  and  thus  became  a  part  of  his  inspired 
word. 


132  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

Several  writers  have  attempted  to  distinguish  throughout  the  book  of 
Genesis  the  parts  which  they  would  assign  to  different  authors  ;  but  beyond 
the  first  chapters  they  are  not  able  to  agree  among  themselves.  All 
attempts  to  carry  the  distinction  of  different  authors  into  the  later  books 
rest  on  fanciful  grounds. 

12.  That  the  Pentateuch,  as  a  whole,  proceeded  from  a 
single  author,  is  shown  by  the  unity  of  plan  that  pervades  the 
whole  work.  The  book  of  Genesis  constitutes,  as  has  been 
shown,  a  general  introduction  to  the  account  which  follows  of 
the  establishment  of  the  theocracy ;  and  it  is  indispensable  to 
the  true  understanding  of  it.  In  the  first  part  of  the  book  of 
Exodus  we  have  a  special  introduction  to  the  giving  of  the  law ; 
for  it  records  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  bondage  in 
Egypt,  and  their  journey  to  Sinai.  The  Mosaic  institutions 
presuppose  a  sanctuarj^  as  their  visible  material  centre.  The 
last  part  of  Exodus,  after  the  promulgation  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments and  the  precepts  connected  with  them,  is  accord- 
ingly occupied  with  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  and  its 
furniture,  and  the  dress  and  consecration  of  the  priests  who 
ministered  there.  In  Leviticus,  the  central  book  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, we  have  the  central  institution  of  the  Mosaic  economy, 
namely,  the  system  of  sacrifices  belonging  to  the  priesthood, 
and  also,  in  general,  the  body  of  ordinances  intrusted  to  their 
administration.  The  theocracy  having  been  founded  at  Sinai, 
it  was  necessary  that  arrangements  should  be  made  for  the 
orderly  march  of  the  people  to  the  land  of  Canaan.  With  these 
the  book  of  Numbers  opens,  and  then  proceeds  to  narrate  the 
various  incidents  that  befell  the  people  in  the  wilderness,  with 
a  record  of  their  encampments,  and  also  the  addition  from  time 
to  time  of  new  ordinances.  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  contains 
the  grand  farewell  address  of  Moses  to  the  Israelites,  into  which 
is  .woven  a  summary  of  the  precepts  already  given  which  con- 
cerned particularly  the  people  at  large,  with  various  modifica- 
tions and  additions  suited  to  their  new  circumstances  and  the 
new  duties  about  to  be  devolved  upon  them.  "We  see  then 
that  the  Pentateuch  constitutes  a  consistent  whole.     Unity  oi 


EVIDENCES  OF  KEVEALED  EELIGION.         133 

design,  harmony  of  parts,  continual  progress  from  beginning 
to  end — these  are  its  grand  characteristics ;  and  they  prove  that 
it  is  not  a  heterogeneous  collection  of  v/ritings  put  together 
without  order,  but  the  work  of  a  single  master-spirit,  writing 
under  God's  immediate  direction,  according  to  the  uniform 
testimony  of  the  New  Testament. 


134  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

CHAPTEE   X. 

Authenticity  and    Credibility   of  the  Penta- 
teuch. 

1.  The  Mstoric  truth  of  the  Pentateuch  is  everywhere 
assumed  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  most 
absolute  and  unquahfied  manner.  They  do  not  simply  allude 
to  it  and  make  quotations  from  it,  as  one  might  do  in  the  case 
of  Homer's  poems,  but  they  build  upon  the  facts  which  it 
records  arguments  of  the  weightiest  character,  and  pertaining 
to  the  essential  doctrines  and  duties  of  religion.  This  is  alike 
true  of  the  Mosaic  laius  and  of  the  narratives  that  precede  them 
or  are  interwoven  with  them.  In  truth,  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  know  no  distinction,  as  it  respects  divine  authority, 
between  one  part  of  the  Pentateuch  and  another.  They  receive 
the  wholQ  as  an  authentic  and  inspired  record  of  God's  deal- 
ings with  men.  A  few  examples,  taken  mostly  from  the  book 
of  Genesis,  will  set  this  in  a  clear  light. 

In  reasoning  Avith  the  Pharisees  on  the  question  of  divorce, 
our  Lord  appeals  to  the  primitive  record :  "  Have  ye  not  read 
that  he  which  made  them  at  the  beginning  made  them  male 
and  female,  and  said,  For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  father 
and  mother,  and  shall  cleave  to  his  wife :  and  they  twain  shall 
be  one  flesh  ?  wherefore  they  are  no  more  twain,  but  one  flesh. 
What  therefore  God  hath  joined  together,  let  not  man  put 
asunder."  And  when,  upon  this,  the  Pharisees  ask,  "Why  did 
Moses  then  command  to  give  a  writing  of  divorcement,  and  to 
put  her  away  ?"  Deut.  24 : 1,  he  answers  in  such  a  way  as  to 
recognize  both  the  authority  of  the  Mosaic  legislation  and  the 
validity  of  the  ante-Mosaic  record:  "Moses,  because  of  the 
hardness  of  your  hearts,  suffered  you  to  put  away  your  wives : 
but  from  the  beginning  it  was  not  so."     He  then  proceeds  to 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  135 

enforce  the  marriage  covenant  as  it  was  "  from  the  beginning." 
Matt.  19  : 3-9,  compared  with  Gen.  2  :  23,  24.  In  Hke  manner 
the  apostle  Paul  establishes  the  headship  of  the  man  over  the 
woman :  "  He  is  the  image  and  glory  of  God :  but  the  woman 
is  the  glory  of  the  man.  For  the  man  is  not  of  the  woman,  but 
the  woman  of  the  man.  Neither  was  the  man  created  for  the 
woman,  but  the  woman  for  the  man."  1  Cor.  11 : 7-9,  com- 
pared with  Gen.  2  :  18-22.  And  again:  "I  suffer  not  a  woman 
to  teach,  nor  to  usurp  authority  over  the  man,  but  to  be  in 
silence.  For  Adam  was  first  formed,  then  Eve.  And  Adam 
was  not  deceived,  but  the  woman  being  deceived  was  in  the 
transgression."  1  Tim.  2  :  12-14,  compared  with  Gen.  2  :  18-22  ; 
3:1-6,  13.  So  also  he  argues  from  the  primitive  record  that, 
as  by  one  man  sin  and  death  came  upon  the  whole  human  race, 
so  by  Christ  Jesus  life  and  immortality  are  procured  for  all. 
Rom.  5  :  12-21 ;  1  Cor.  15  :  21,  22,  compared  with  Gen.  2  :  17  ; 
3  :  19,  22.  The  story  of  Cain  and  Abel,  Gen.  4  : 3-12,  is  repeat- 
edly referred  to  by  the  Saviour  and  his  apostles  as  a  historic 
truth  :  Matt.  23  :  35  ;  Luke  11 :  51 ;  Heb.  11 : 4 ;  12  :  24 ;  1  John 
3 :  12 ;  Jude  11.  So  also  the  narrative  of  the  deluge :  Gen. 
chs.  6-8,  compared  with  Matt.  14:37-39;  Luke  17:26,  27; 
Heb.  11 : 7  ;  1  Peter  3  :  20  ;  2  Peter  2:5;  and  of  the  overthrow 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Gen.  ch.  19,  compared  with  Luke 
17  :  28,  29 ;  2  Peter  2:6;  Jude  7.  It  is  useless  to  adduce  fur- 
ther quotations.  No  man  can  read  the  New  Testament  without 
the  profound  conviction  that  the  authenticity  and  credibility  of 
the  Pentateuch  are  attested  in  every  conceivable  way  by  the 
Saviour  and  his  apostles.  To  reject  the  authority  of  the  for- 
mer is  to  deny  that  of  the  latter  also. 

2.  For  the  authenticity  and  credibility  of  the  Pentateuch 
we  have  an  independent  argument  in  the  fact  that  it  lay  at  the 
foundation  of  the  whole  Jewish  polity,  civil,  religious,  and 
social.  From  the  time  of  Moses  and  onward,  the  Israelitish 
nation  unanimously  acknowledged  its  divine  authority,  even 
when,  through  the  force  of  sinful  passion,  they  disobeyed  its 
commands.     The  whole  hfe  of  the  people  was  moidded  and 


136  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

shaped  by  its  institutions ;  so  that  they  became,  in  a  good 
sense,  a  peculiar  people,  with  "  laws  diverse  from  all  people." 
They  alone,  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  held  the  doctrine  of 
God's  unity  and  personality,  in  023position  to  all  forms  of  poly- 
theism and  pantheism ;  and  thus  they  alone  were  prepared  to 
receive  and  propagate  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
Chap.  8,  No.  2.  If  now  we  admit  the  truth  of  the  Mosaic  record, 
all  this  becomes  perfectly  plain  and  intelligible  ;  but  if  we  deny 
it,  we  involve  ourselves  at  once  in  the  grossest  absurdities. 
How  could  the  Jewish  people  have  been  induced  to  accept  with 
undoubting  faith  such  a  body  of  laws  as  that  contained  in  the 
Pentateuch — so  burdensome  in  their  multiplicity,  so  opposed 
to  all  the  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  surrounding  nations,  and 
imposing  such  severe  restraints  upon  their  corrupt  passions — 
except  upon  the  clearest  evidence  of  their  divine  authority? 
Such  evidence  they  had  in  the  stupendous  miracles  connected 
with  their  deliverance  from  Egypt  and  the  giving  of  the  law  on 
Sinai.  The  fact  that  Moses  constantly  appeals  to  these  mira- 
cles, as  well  known  to  the  whole  body  of  the  people,  is  irre- 
fragable proof  of  their  reality.  None  but  a  madman  would 
thus  appeal  to  miracles  which  had  no  existence ;  and  if  he  did, 
his  appeal  would  be  met  only  by  derision.  Mohammed  needed 
not  the  help  of  miracles,  for  his  appeal  was  to  the  sword  and 
to  the  corrupt  passions  of  the  human  heart ;  and  he  never 
attempted  to  rest  his  pretended  divine  mission  on  the  evidence 
of  miracles.  He  knew  that  to  do  so  would  be  to  overthrow  at 
once  his  authority  as  the  prophet  of  God.  But  the  Mosaic 
economy  needed  and  received  the  seal  of  miracles,  to  which 
Moses  continually  appeals  as  to  undeniable  realities.  But  if 
the  miracles  recorded  in  the  Pentateuch  are  real,  then  it  con- 
tains a  revelation  from  God,  and  is  entitled  to  our  unwavering 
faith.  Then  too  we  can  explain  how,  in  the  providence  of  God, 
the  Mosaic  institutions  prepared  the  way  for  the  advent  of 
*'  Him  of  whom  Moses  in  the  law  and  the  prophets  did  write.'* 
Thus  we  connect  the  old  dispensation  with  the  new,  and  see 
both  together  as  one  whole. 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  RELIGION.         I37 

Other  arguments  might  be  adduced;  but  upon  these  two 
great  pillars — the  authority,  on  the  one  side,  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and,  on  the  other,  the  fact  that  the  Pentateuch  contains 
the  entire  body  of  laws  by  which  the  Jewish  nation  was  moulded 
and  formed,  and  that  its  character  and  history  can  be  explained 
only  -upon  the  assumption  of  its  truth — on  these  two  great  pil- 
lars the  authenticity  and  credibility  of  the  Pentateuch  rest,  as 
upon  an  immovable  basis. 

3.  The  difficulties  connected  with  the  Pentateuch,  so  far  as 
its  contents  are  concerned,  rest  mainly  on  two  grounds,  scien- 
tific  and  historical,  or  moral.  The  nature  of  the  scientific  diffi- 
culties forbids  their  discussion  within  the  restricted  limits  of 
the  present  work.  It  may  be  said,  however,  generally,  that  so 
far  as  they  are  real,  they  relate  not  so  much  to  the  truth  of  the 
Mosaic  record,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  certain  parts  of  it 
should  be  understood. 

How  long,  for  example,  that  state  of  things  continued  which  is  descri- 
bed in  Gen.  1  : 2,  or  what  particular  results  were  produced  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  divine  Spirit  there  recorded,  we  do  not  know.  What  extent 
of  meaning  should  be  assigned  to  the  six  days  of  creation — whether  they 
should  be  understood  literally  or  in  a  symbolical  way,  like  the  prophetical 
days  of  Daniel  and  Revelation— Dan.  7  :  25  ;  9  :  24-27 ;  Rev.  9  :  15 ;  11  :  3, 
etc. — is  a  question  on  which  devout  believers  have  differed  ever  since  the 
days  of  Augustine.  See  Prof.  Tayler  Lewis'  Six  Days  of  Creation,  ch.  14. 
But  all  who  receive  the  Bible  as  containing  a  revelation  from  God  agree 
in  holding  the  truth  of  the  narrative.  So  also  in  regard  to  the  Deluge 
and  other  events  involving  scientific  questions  wliich  are  recorded  in  the 
book  of  Genesis.  Some  of  these  questions  may  perhaps  be  satisfactorily 
solved  by  further  inquiry.  Others  will  probably  remain  shrouded  in  mys- 
tery tiU  the  consummation  of  all  things.  To  the  class  of  historical  diflfi- 
culties  belong  several  chronological  questions,  as,  for  example,  that  of  the 
duration  of  the  Israelitish  residence  in  Egypt.  It  is  sufiicient  to  say  that 
however  these  shall  be  settled — if  settled  at  aU — they  c&nnot  with  any  rea- 
sonable man  affect  the  divine  authority  of  the  Pentateuch  which  is  certi- 
fied to  us  by  so  many  sure  jproofs. 

4.  The  difficulties  which  are  urged  against  the  Pentateuch 
on  moral  grounds  rest  partly  on  misapprehension,  and  are 
partly  of  such  a  character  that,  when  rightly  considered,  they 


138  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

turn  against  the  objectors  themselves.  This  will  be  illustrated 
by  a  few  examples. 

A  common  objection  to  the  Mosaic  economy  is  drawn  from 
its  exdusiveness.  It  contains,  it  is  alleged,  a  religion  not  for 
all  mankind,  but  for  a  single  nation.  The  answer  is  at  hand. 
That  this  economy  may  be  rightly  understood,  it  must  be  con- 
sidered not  separately  and  independently,  but  as  one  part  of  a 
great  plan.  It  was,  as  w^e  have  seen,  subordinate  to  the  cove- 
nant made  with  Abraham,  which  had  respect  to  "  all  the  families 
of  the  earth."  Chap.  8,  No.  4.  It  came  in  temporarily  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  advent  of  Christ,  through  whom  the  Abra- 
hamic  covenant  was  to  be  carried  into  effect.  It  was  a  partial, 
preparatory  to  a  universal  dispensation,  and  looked,  therefore, 
ultimately  to  the  salvation  of  the  entire  race.  So  far  then  as 
the  benevolent  design  of  God  is  concerned,  the  objection  drawn 
from  the  exclusiveness  of  the  Mosaic  economy  falls  to  the 
ground.  It  remains  for  the  objector  to  show  how  a  universal 
dispensation,  like  Christianity,  could  have  been  wisely  intro- 
duced, without  a  previous  work  of  preparation,  or  how  any 
better  plan  of  preparation  could  have  been  adopted  than  that 
contained  in  the  Mosaic  economy. 

If  the  laws  of  Moses  interposed,  as  they  certainly  did,  many 
obstacles  to  the  intercourse  of  the  Israelites  with  other  nations, 
the  design  was  not  to  encourage  in  them  a  spirit  of  national 
pride  and  contempt  of  other  nations,  but  to  preserve  them  from 
the  contagious  influence  of  the  heathen  practices  by  which  they 
were  surrounded.  On  this  ground  the  Mosaic  laws  everywhere 
rest  the  restrictions  which  they  impose  upon  the  Israelites : 
*'Thy  daughter  thou  shalt  not  give  unto  his  son,  nor  his  daugh- 
ter shalt  thou  take  to  thy  son.  For  they  will  turn  away  thy 
son  from  following  me,  that  they  may  serve  other  gods."  Deut. 
7  :  3,  4.  How  necessary  were  these  restrictions  was  made  man- 
ifest by  the  whole  subsequent  history  of  the  people.  So  far 
was  the  Mosaic  law  from  countenancing  hatred  towards  the 
persons  of  foreigners,  that  it  expressly  enjoined  kindness  :  "  If 
a  stranger  sojourn  with  thee  in  your  land,  ye  shall  not  vex  him. 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  KELIGION.  139 

But  the  stranger  that  clwelleth  with  you  shall  be  unto  you  as 
one  born  among  you,  and  thou  shalt  love  him  as  thyself:  for 
ye  were  strangers  in  the  land  of  Egypt."     Lev.  19  :  34. 

5.  Another  ground  of  objection  to  the  Mosaic  law  has  been 
the  number  and  minuteness  of  its  ordinances.  That  this  fea- 
ture of  the  theocracy  was,  absolutely  considered,  an  imperfec- 
tion, is  boldly  asserted  in  the  New  Testament.  The  apostle 
Peter  calls  it  "  a  yoke  which  neither  we  nor  our  fathers  were 
able  to  bear."  Acts  15  :  10.  Nevertheless  the  wisdom  of  God 
judged  it  necessary  in  the  infancy  of  the  nation,  that  it  might 
thus  be  trained,  and  through  it  the  world,  for  the  future  inher- 
itance of  the  gosj)el.  It  is  in  this  very  aspect  that  the  apostle 
Paul  says :  "  The  law  was  our  schoolmaster  to  bring  us  unto 
Christ,  that  we  might  be  justified  by  faith.  But  after  that 
faith  is  come,  we  are  no  longer  under  a  schoolmaster."  Gal. 
3  :  24,  25.  The  divine  plan  was  to  prescribe  minutely  all  the 
institutions  of  the  Mosaic  economy,  leaving  nothing  to  human 
discretion,  apparently  to  prevent  the  intermixture  with  them 
of  heathenish  rites  and  usages ;  perhaps  also  that  in  this  body 
of  outward  forms  the  faith  of  the  Israelites  might  have  a  need- 
ful resting-place,  until  the  way  should  be  prepared  for  the 
introduction  of  a  simpler  and  more  sj)iritual  system. 

We  must  be  careful,  however,  that  we  do  not  fall  into  the 
error  of* supposing  that  the  Mosaic  law  prescribed  a  religion 
of  mere  outward  forms.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  pervaded 
throughout  by  an  evangelical  principle.  It  knew  nothing  of 
heartless  forms  in  which  the  religion  of  the  heart  is  wanting. 
The  observance  of  all  its  numerous  ordinances  it  enjoined  on 
the  spiritual  ground  of  love,  gratitude,  and  humility.  If  any 
one  would  understand  in  what  a  variety  of  forms  these  inward 
graces  of  the  soul,  which  constitute  the  essence  of  religion,  are 
inculcated  in  the  Pentateuch,  he  has  but  to  read  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy ;  there  he  will  see  how  the  law  of  Moses  aimed 
to  make  men  religious  not  in  the  letter,  but  in  the  spirit ;  how, 
in  a  word,  it  rested  the  observance  of  the  letter  on  the  good 
foundation  of  inward  devotion  to  God.     The  summary  which 


140  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

oar  Saviour  g^ve  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  in  it  of  all  religion, 
he  expressed  in  the  very  words  of  the  law :  "  Thou  shalfc  love 
the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and 
with  all  thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy  strength,"  Deut.  6:4,  5; 
"  this  is  the  first  and  great  commandment.  And  the  second  is 
like,  namely  this,  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 
Lev.  19  :  18.  Nor  is  this  love  towards  our  neighbor  restricted 
to  a  narrow  circle;  for  it  is  said  of  the  stranger  also  sojourn- 
ing in  Israel,  "  Thou  shalt  love  him  as  thyself."     Lev.  19  :  34. 

6.  Of  one  usage  w^iich  the  Mosaic  law  tolerated,  our  Sav- 
iour himself  gives  the  true  explanation  when  he  says :  "  Moses, 
because  of  the  hardness  of  your  hearts,  suffered  you  to  put 
away  your  wives ;  but  from  the  beginning  it  was  not  so."  Matt. 
19  :  8.  This  general  principle  applies  also  to  polygamy  and  the 
modified  form  of  servitude  which  prevailed  among  the  Hebrew 
people.  That  the  Mosaic  economy  suffered,  for  the  time  being, 
certain  usages  not  good  in  themselves,  is  no  valid  objection  to 
it,  but  rather  a  proof  of  the  divine  wisdom  of  its  author. 
Though  it  was  his  purpose  to  root  out  of  human  society  every 
organic  evil,  he  would  not  attempt  it  by  premature  legislation, 
any  more  than  he  would  send  his  Son  into  the  world  until  the 
way  was  prepared  for  his  advent. 

7.  The  extirpation  of  the  Canaanitish  nations  by  the  sword 
of  the  Israelites  was  contemplated  by  the  Mosaic  economy. 
The  names  of  these  nations  were  carefully  specified,  and  they 
were  peremptorily  forbidden  to  molest  other  nations;  as,  for 
example,  the  Edomites,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites.  Deut.  2 : 4, 
6,  8,  9,  18,  19.  The  whole  transaction  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
sovereign  act  of  Jehovah,  which  had  in  view  the  manifestation 
of  his  infinite  perfections  for  the  advancement  of  the  cause  of 
truth  and  righteousness  in  this  fallen  world.  Though  we  may 
not  presume  to  fathom  all  the  divine  counsels,  we  can  yet  see 
how  God,  by  the  manner  in  which  he  gave  Israel  possession  of 
the  promised  land,  displayed  his  awful  holiness,  his  almighty 
power,  and  his  absolute  supremacy  over  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  not  only  to  the  covenant  people,  but  also  to  the  sur* 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.         141 

rounding  heathen  world.  Had  the  Canaanites  perished  by 
famine,  pestilence,  earthquake,  or  fire  from  heaven,  it  might 
have  remained  doubtful  to  the  heathen  by  whose  anger  their 
destruction  had  been  effected,  that  of  the  Canaanitish  gods,  or 
of  the  God  of  Israel.  But  now  that  God  went  forth  with  his 
people,  dividing  the  Jordan  before  them,  overthrowing  the 
walls  of  Jericho,  arresting  the  sun  and  the  moon  in  their 
course,  and  raining  down  upon  their  enemies  great  hailstones 
from  heaven,  it  was  manifest  to  all  that  the  God  of  Israel  was 
the  sujDreme  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  that  the  gods  of 
the  gentile  nations  were  vanity.  This  was  one  of  the  great 
lessons  which  the  Theocracy  was  destined  to  teach  the  human 
family.  At  the  same  time  the  Israelites,  who  executed  God's 
vengeance  on  the  Canaanites,  were  carefully  instructed  that  it 
was  for  tlieir  sins  that  the  land  spewed  out  its  inhabitants,  and 
that  if  they  imitated  them  in  their  abominations,  they  should 
in  like  manner  perish. 

8.  The  Mosaic  economy  was  but  the  scaffolding  of  the  gos- 
pel. God  took  it  down  ages  ago  by  the  hand  of  the  Eomans. 
It  perished  amid  fire  and  sword  and  blood,  but  not  till  it  had 
accomplished  the  great  work  for  which  it  was  established.  It 
bequeathed  to  Christianity,  and  through  Christianity  to  "  all 
the  families  of  the  earth,"  a  glorious  body  of  truth,  which 
makes  an  inseparable  part  of  the  plan  of  redemption,  and  has 
thus  blessed  the  world  ever  since,  and  shall  continue  to  bless 
it  to  the  end  of  time. 


142  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

CHAPTEE  XI. 

Remaining  ^ooks  of  the  Old  Testament, 

1.  The  diyine  authority  of  the  Pentateuch  having  been 
established,  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  at  length  on  the  his- 
torical books  which  follow.  The  events  w^hich  they  record  are 
a  natural  and  necessary  sequel  to  the  establishment  of  the  the- 
ocracy, as  given  in  the  five  books  of  Moses.  The  Pentateuch 
is  occupied  mainly  with  the  founding  of  the  theocracy;  the  fol- 
lowing historical  books  describe  the  settlement  of  the  Israeli- 
tish  nation  under  this  theocracy  in  the  promised  land,  and  its 
practical  operation  there  for  the  space  of  a  thousand  years. 
There  is  no  history  in  the  world  so  full  of  God's  presence  and 
providence.  It  sets  forth  with  divine  clearness  and  power,  on 
the  one  side,  God's  faithfulness  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  prom- 
ises and  threatenings  contained  in  the  Mosaic  law;  and  on  the 
other,  the  perverseness  and  rebellion  of  the  people,  and  their 
j)erpetual  relapses  into  idolatry,  with  the  mighty  conflict  thus 
inaugurated  between  the  pute  monotheism  of  the  theocracy, 
and  the  polytheism  and  image-worship  of  the  surrounding 
heathen  nations — a  conflict  which  lasted  through  many  ages, 
which  enlisted  on  both  sides  the  great  and  mighty  men  of  the 
world,  and  which  resulted  in  the  complete  triumph  of  the  Mo- 
saic law,  at  least  so  far  as  its  outward  form  w^as  concerned, 
thus  preparing  the  way  for  the  advent  of  that  great  Prophet  in 
whom  the  theocracy  had  its  end  and  its  fulfilment. 

2.  How  fully  the  divine  authority  of  these  books  is  recog- 
nized by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  every  reader  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament understands.  It  is  not  necessary  to  establish  this  point 
by  the  quotation  of  particular  passages.  Though  the  writers 
of  the  historical  books  which  follow  the  Pentateuch  are  for  the 
most  part  unknown,  the  books  themselves  are  put  in  the  New 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGIOX.         143 

Testament  on  tlie  same  basis  as  the  Pentateuch.  To  those 
who  deny  Christ,  the  Mosaic  economy,  with  the  history  that 
follows,  is  a  mystery;  for  when  they  read  it  "the  veil  is  npon 
their  heart."  But  to  those  who  receive  Christ  as  the  Son  of 
God,  and  the  New  Testament  as  containing  a  true  record  of 
his  heavenly  mission,  Moses  and  the  historical  books  that  fol- 
low are  luminous  with  divine  wisdom  and  glory,  for  they  con- 
tain the  record  of  the  way  in  which  God  prepared  the  world 
for  the  manifestation  of  his  Son  Jesus  Christ. 

3.  The  Old  Testament  contains  a  body  of  writings  which 
are  not  historical;  neither  are  they  prophetical,  in  the  restricted 
sense  of  the  term,  although  some  of  them  contain  prophecy. 
The  enumeration  of  these  books,  prominent  among  which  are 
Job,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs,  with  an  account  of  their  contents 
and  the  place  which  each  of  them  Ifolds  in  the  plan  of  revela- 
tion, belongs  to  the  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament.  It  is 
sufficient  to  say  here,  that  they  are  precious  offshoots  of  the 
Mosaic  economy,  that  they  contain  rich  and  varied  treasures 
of  divine  truth  for  the  instruction  and  encouragement  of  God's 
people  in  all  ages,  and  that  the}^  are,  as  a  whole,  recognized  in 
the  New  Testament  as  part  of  God's  revelation  to  men.  The 
book  of  Psalms,  in  particular,  is  perpetually  quoted  by  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  as  containing  prophecies  which 
had  their  fulfilment  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth. 

4.  The  prophetical  books — according  to  our  classification, 
the  Jews  having  a  different  arrangement — are  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  The  vast 
body  of  prophecies  contained  in  these  books — the  prophetical 
j)ortions  of  the  other  books  being  also  included — may  be  con- 
templated in  different  points  of  view.  * 

Many  of  these  prophecies,  considered  independently  of  the 
New  Testament,  afford  conclusive  proof  that  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  the  word  of  God,  for  they  bear  on  their  front  the  sig- 
net of  their  divine  origin.  They  contain  predictions  of  the 
distant  future  which  lie  altogether  beyond  the  range  of  human 
sagacity  and  foresight.     Such  is  the  wonderfid  prophecy  of 


Hi  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Moses  respecting  the  history  of  the  Israelitish  people  through 
all  coming  ages,  Lev.  ch.  26 ;  Deut.  ch.  28,  a  prophecy  which 
defies  the  assaults  of  skepticism,  and  which,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  our  Lord's  solemn  declaration,  "  They  shall  fall  by 
the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  shall  be  led  away  captive  into  all 
nations:  and  Jerusalem  shall  be  trodden  down  of  the  Gentiles, 
until  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  be  fulfilled,"  Luke  21 :  24,  marks 
both  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  as  given  by  the  same 
omniscient  God,  who  declares  the  end  from  the  beginning. 
Such  also  are  the  predictions  of  the  utter  and  perpetual  deso- 
lation of  Babylon,  uttered  ages  beforehand,  and  which  presup- 
pose a  divine  foresight  of  the  course  of  human  affairs  to  the 
end  of  time :  "  Babylon,  the  glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of 
the  Chaldees'  excellency,  shall  be  as  when  God  overthrew 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  It  shall  never  be  inhabited,  neither 
shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from  generation  to  generation."  "  I  will 
also  make  it  a  possession  for  the  bittern  and  pools  of  water: 
and  I  will  sweep  it  with  the  besom  of  destruction,  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts."  Isa.  13  :  19,  20  ;  14  :  23.  See  also  the  proph- 
ecy of  the  overthrow  of  Nineveh,  Nahum,  clis.  2,  3,  and  of  Tyre : 
"  I  will  also  scrape  her  dust  from  her,  and  make  her  like  the 
top  of  a  rock.  It  shall  be  a  place  for  the  spreading  of  nets  in 
the  midst  of  the  sea."  "  I  will  make  thee  like  the  top  of  a  rock: 
thou  slialt  be  a  place  to  spread  nets  upon ;  thou  shalt  be  built 
no  more."  Ezek.  26 : 4,  5,  14.  On  all  the  above  prophecies, 
and  man}^  more  that  might  be  quoted,  the  descriptions  of  mod- 
ern travellers  furnish  a  perfect  comment. 

5.  But  it  is  preeminently  in  Christ  that  the  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament  have  their  fulfilment.  As  the  rays  of  the 
sun  in  a  burning-glass  all  converge  to  one  bright  focus,  so  all 
the  different  lines  of  prophecy  in  the  Old  Testament  centre  in 
the  person  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Separated  from  him  they 
have  neither  unity  nor  harmony;  but  are,  like  the  primitive 
chaos,  "  without  form  and  void."  But  in  him  predictions,  appa- 
rently contradictory  to  each  other,  meet  with  divine  unity  and 
harmony. 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.         145 

He  is  a  great  Propliet,  like  Moses ;  the  Mediator,  therefore, 
of  the  new  econoniy,  as  Moses  was  of  the  old,  and  revealing  to 
the  people  the  whole  will  of  God.  As  a  Prophet,  the  Spirit  of 
the  Lord  rests  upon  him,  "  the  spirit  of  wisdom  and  under- 
standing, the  spirit  of  counsel  and  might,  the  spirit  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  fear  of  the  Lord."  Isa.  11 :  2.  As  a  Prophet,  he 
receives  from  God  the  tongue  of  the  learned,  that  he  should 
know  how  to  speak  a  word  in  season  to  him  that  is  weary.  Isa. 
50 : 4.  As  a  Prophet,  "  the  kings  shall  shut  their  mouths  at 
him  :  for  that  which  had  not  been  told  them  shall  they  see  ;  and 
that  which  they  had  not  heard  shall  they  consider."  Isaiah 
52 :  15. 

He  is  also  a  mighty  King,  to  whom  God  has  given  the  hea- 
then for  his  inheritance,  and  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth 
for  his  possession.  He  breaks  the  nations  with  a  rod  of  iron ; 
he  dashes  them  in  pieces  as  a  potter's  vessel,  Psa.  2  : 8,  9;  and 
3'et  "  he  shall  not  cry,  nor  lift  up,  nor  cause  his  voice  to  be 
heard  in  the  street.  A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and 
the  smoking  flax  shall  he  not  quench:  he  shall  bring  forth 
judgment  unto  truth."  Isa.  42:2,  3.  "All  kings  shall  fall 
down  before  him:  all  nations  shall  serve  him,"  Psa.  72:11; 
and  yet  "he  is  despised  and  rejected  of  men;  a  man  of  sorrows, 
and  acquainted  with  grief:"  "he  is  brought  as  a  lamb  to  the 
slaughter,  and  as  a  sheep  before  her  shearers  is  dumb,  so  he 
opened  not  his  mouth."  Isa.  53:3,  7.  Many  other  like  con- 
trasts could  be  added. 

With  the  kingly  he  unites  the  priestly  office.  Sitting  as  a 
king  "  upon  the  throne  of  David,  and  upon  his  kingdom,  to 
order  it,  and  to  establish  it  with  judgment  and  with  justice  from 
henceforth  even  for  ever,"  Isa.  9  :  7,  he  is  yet  "  a  priest  for  ever 
after  the  order  of  Melchizedek."  Nor  is  his  priestly  office  any 
thing  of  subordinate  importance,  for  he  is  inducted  into  it  by 
the  solemn  oath  of  Jehovah  :  "  The  Lord  hath  sworn,  and  will 
not  repent,  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of  Mel- 
chizedek." Psa.  110  : 4.  As  a  priest  he  offers  up  himself  "  an 
offering  for  sin:"  "he  was  wounded  for  our  transgressions,  he 

Comp,  to  Bfblj.  '^ 


no  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

was  bruised  for  our  iniquities ;  the  cliastisement  of  our  peace 
was  upon  liim  ;  and  with  his  stripes  we  are  healed.  All  we  like 
sheep  have  gone  astray ;  %e  have  turned  every  one  to  his  own 
way ;  and  the  Lord  hath  laid  on  him  the  iniquity  of  us  all." 
Isa.,  ch.  53.  When  we  find  a  key  that  opens  all  the  intricate 
wards  of  a  lock,  we  know  that  the  key  and  the  lock  have  one 
and  the  same  author,  and  are  parts  of  one  whole.  The  history 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  key  which  unlocks  all  the  wards  of 
Old  Testament  prophecy.  With  this  key  Moses  and  the  propli- 
ets  open  to  the  plainest  reader ;  without  it,  they  remain  closed 
and  hidden  from  human  apprehension.  We  know,  therefore, 
that  he  who  sent  his  Son  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  Saviour  of  the 
world,  sent  also  his  prophets  to  testify  beforehand  of  his  com- 
ing, and  of  the  offices  which  he  bears  for  our  redemption. 

6.  To  sum  up  all  in  a  word,  we  take  the  deepest,  and  there- 
fore the  most  scriptural  view  of  the  Jewish  institutions  and  his- 
tory, when  we  consider  the  whole  as  a  perpetual  adumbration 
of  Christ — not  Christ  in  his  simple  personality,  but  Christ  in 
his  body  the  church.  It  is  not  meant  by  this  that  the  Mosaic 
economy  was  nothing  but  type.  Apart  from  all  reference  to 
the  salvation  of  the  gospel,  it  was  to  the  Israelitish  people 
before  the  Saviour's  advent  a  present  reality  meeting  a  present 
want.  The  deliverance  of  the  people  from  the  bondage  of 
Egypt,  their  passage  through  the  Ked  sea,  the  cloud  which 
guided  them,  the  manna  which  fed  them,  the  water  out  of  the 
rock  which  they  drank — all  these  things  were  to  them  a  true 
manifestation  of  God's  presence  and  favor,  aside  from  their 
typical  import,  the  apprehension  of  which  indeed  was  reserved 
for  future  ages.  So  also  the  Mosaic  institutions  were  to  them 
a  true  body  of  laws  for  the  regulation  of  their  commonwealth, 
and  in  their  judges,  kings,  and  prophets  they  had  true  rulers 
and  teachers. 

But  while  all  this  is  important  to  be  remembered,  it  is  also 
true  that  the  Mosaic  economy  w^as  thickly  sown  by  God's  own 
hand  with  the  seeds  of  higher  principles — those  very  princi- 
ples which  Christ  and  his  apostles  unfolded  out  of  the  lata  and 


EVIDENCES  OF  KEVEALED  EELIGION.  147 

the  prophets.  Thus  it  constituted  a  divine  training  by  which 
the  people  were  prepared  for  that  spiritual  kingdom  of  heaven 
which  "in  the  fulness  of  time"  the  Saviour  established.  "All 
the  prophets  and  the  law  prophesied  until  John" — not  the 
prophets  and  the  law  in  certain  separate  passages  alone,  but 
the  prophets  and  the  law  as  a  whole.  They  prophesied  of 
Christ,  and  in  Christ  their  prophecy  has  its  fulfilment. 

7.  The  consideration  of  the  extent  of  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  does  not  properly  belong  here.  It  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  we  have  no  valid  reason  for  doubting  the  truth  of  the 
Jewish  tradition,  which  assigns  to  Ezra  and  "  the  great  syna- 
gogue" the  work  of  setting  forth  the  Hebrew  canon  as  we  now 
have  it.  That  this  tradition  is  embellished  with  fictions  must 
be  conceded ;  but  we  ought  not,  on  such  a  ground,  to  deny  its 
substantial  truth,  confirmed  as  it  is  by  all  the  scriptural  notices 
of  Ezra's  qualifications  and  labors.  It  is  certain  that  the  canon 
of  the  Jews  in  Palestine  was  the  same  in  our  Lord's  day  that 
it  is  now.  The  Greek  version  of  the  Septuagint  contains  indeed 
certain  apocryphal  books  not  extant  in  the  Hebrew.  These 
seem  to  have  been  in  use,  more  or  less,  among  the  Alexandrine 
Jews;  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  any  canonical  authority 
was  ascribed  to  them,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine adhered  strictly  to  the  Hebrew  canon,  which  is  identical 
with  our  own. 

8.  The  2^'>'"^nciple  upon  which  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  formed  is  not  doubtful.  No  books  were  admitted  into  it 
but  those  written  by  prophets  or  prophetical  men.  As  under 
the  New  Testament  the  reception  or  rejection  of  a  book  as 
canonical  was  determined  by  the  writer's  relation  to  Christ,  so 
was  it  under  the  Old  by  his  relation  to  the  theocracy.  The 
highest  relation  was  held  by  Moses,  its  mediator.  He  accord- 
ingly had  the  prophetical  spirit  in  the  fullest  measure :  "  If 
there  be  a  prophet  among  you,  I  the  Lord  will  make  myself 
known  unto  him  in  a  vision,  and  will  speak  unto  him  in  a  dream. 
My  servant  Mos^s  is  not  so,  who  is  faithful  in  all  mine  house. 
With  him  will  I  speak  mouth  to  mouth,  even  apparently,  and 


148  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

not  in  dark  speeches ;  and  the  similitude  of  tlie  Lord  shall  he 
behold."  Numb.  12  :  6-8.  The  next  place  was  held  bj  proph- 
ets expressly  called  and  commissioned  by  God,  some  of  whom 
also,  as  Samuel,  administered  the  affairs  of  the,  theocracy. 
Finally,  there  were  the  pious  rulers  whom  God  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  covenant  people,  and  endowed  with  the  spirit  of 
prophecy,  such  as  David,  Solomon,  and  Ezra.  To  no  class  of 
men  besides  those  just  mentioned  do  the  Jewish  rabbins  ascribe 
the  authorship  of  any  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  this 
respect  their  judgment  is  undoubtedly  right. 

9.  The  inspiration  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
everywhere  assumed  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles ;  for  they 
argue  from  them  as  possessing  divine  authority.  "What  is 
written  in  the  law^?"  "  What  saith  the  scripture?"  "All  things 
must  be  fulfilled  which  w^ere  written  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and  in 
the  prophets,  and  in  the  psalms  concerning  me ;"  "This  scrip- 
ture must  needs  have  been  fulfilled,  which  the  Holy  Ghost  spake 
before  concerning  Judas;"  "The  scripture  cannot  be  broken  " — 
all  these  and  other  similar  forms  of  expression  contain  the  full 
testimony  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  to  the  truth  elsewhere 
expressly  affirmed  of  the  Old  Testament,  that  "all  scripture  is 
given  by  inspiration  of  God,"  2  Tim.  3:16,  and  that  "the 
prophecy  came  not  in  the  old  time  by  the  will  of  man :  but 
holy  men  of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost."  2  Peter  1 :  21.  When  the  Saviour  asks  the  Pharisees 
in  reference  to  Psalm  110,  "  How  then  doth  David  in  spirit  call 
him  Lord?"  he  manifestly  does  not  mean  that  this  particular 
^osalm  alone  was  written  "in  spirit,"  that  is,  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  but  he  ascribes  to  it  the  character 
which  belongs  to  the  entire  book,  in  common  with  the  rest  of 
Scripture,  in  accordance  with  the  express  testimony  of  David : 
"  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  spake  by  me,-  and  his  word  was  in  my 
tongue."     2  Sam.  23  :  2. 


EVIDENCES  OE  BEVEALED  RELIGION.         119 


CHAPTER    XII. 

Evidences  Internal  and  Experimental, 

1.  The  external  evidences  of  revealed  religion  are,  in  their 
proper  place  and  sphere,  of  the  highest  importance.  Christi- 
anity rests  not  upon  theory,  but  upon  historical  facts  sustained 
by  an  overwhelming  mass  of  testimony.  It  is  desirable  that 
every  Christian,  so  far  as  he  has  opportunity,  should  make 
himself  acquainted  with  this  testimony  for  the  strengthening  of 
his  own  faith  and  the  refutation  of  gainsayers.  Nevertheless, 
many  thousands  of  Christians  are  fully  established  in  the  faith 
of  the  gospel  who  have  but  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  the 
historical  proofs  by  which  its  divine  origin  is  supported.  To 
them  the  Bible  commends  itself  as  the  word  of  God  by  its 
internal  character,  and  the  gospel  as  God's  plan  of  salvation  by 
their  inward  experience  of  its  divine  power,  and  their  outward 
observation  of  its  power  over  the  hearts  and  lives  of  all  who 
truly  receive  it.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the  general  anal- 
ogy of  God's  works.  "We  might  be  assured  beforehand  that  a 
s^^stem  of  religion  having  God  for  its  author,  would  shine  by 
its  own  light,  and  thus  commend  itself  at  once  to  the  human 
understanding  and  conscience,  irrespective  of  all  outward  testi- 
mony to  its  truth.  Although  the  internal  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity have  already  been  considered  to  some  extent  in  connec- 
tion with  those  that  are  outward  and  historical,  it  is  desirable 
in  the  present  closing  chapter  to  offer  some  suggestions  per- 
taining to  the  internal  character  of  the  Bible  as  a  whole,  and 
also  to  the  testimony  of  Christian  experience,  individual  and 
general. 

2.  To  every  unperverted  mind  the  Bible  commends  itself  at 
once  as  the  word  of  God  by  the  wonderful  view  which  it  gives 


150  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  liis  character  and  providence.  It  exhibits  one  personal  God 
who  made  and  governs  the  world,  without  the  least  trace  of 
polytheism  on  the  one  hand,  or  pantheism  on  the  other — the 
two  rocks  of  error  upon  which  every  other  system  of  religion 
in  the  world  has  made  shipwreck.  And  this  great  Spirit,  "infi- 
nite, eternal,  and  unchangeable  in  his  being,  wisdom,  poAver, 
holiness,  justice,  goodness,  and  truth,"  is  not  removed  to  a  dis- 
tance from  us,  but  is  ever  nigh  to  each  one  of  his  creatures. 
He  is  our  Father  in  heaven,  who  cares  for  us  and  can  hear  and 
answer  our  prayers.  His  providence  extends  to  all  things, 
great  and  small.  He  directs  alike  the  sparrow's  flight,  and  the 
rise  and  fall  of  empires.  To  the  perfect  view  of  God's  charac- 
ter and  government  which  the  pages  of  the  Bible  unfold,  no 
man  can  add  anything,  and  whoever  takes  any  thing  away  only 
mars  and  mutilates  it.  How  now  shall  we  explain  the  great 
fact  that  the  Hebrew  people,  some  thousands  of  years  ago,  had 
this  true  knowledge  of  God  and  his  j)rovidence,  while  it  was 
hidden  from  all  other  nations  ?  The  Bible  gives  the  only  rea- 
sonable answer  :  God  himself  revealed  it  to  them. 

The  superficial  view  which  accounts  for  the  pure  monotheism  of  the 
Hebrews  from  their  peculiar  national  character,  is  sufficiently  refuted  by 
their  history.  Notwithstanding  the  severe  penalties  with  which  the  Mosaic 
code  of  laws  visited  idolatrous  practices  in  every  form,  the  people  were 
perpetually  relapsing  into  the  idolatry  of  the  surrounding  nations,  and 
could  be  cured  of  this  propensity  only  by  the  oft-repeated  judgments  of 
theu'  covenant  God. 

3.  Next  we  have  the  wonderful  code  of  morals  contained  in 
the  Bible.  Of  its  perfection,  we  in  Christian  lands  have  but  a 
dim  apprehension,  because  it  is  the  only  system  of  morals  with 
which  we  are  familiar ;  but  the  moment  we  compare  it  with  any 
code  outside  of  Christendom,  its  supreme  excellence  at  once 
appears. 

It  is  a  spiritual  code,  made  for  the  heart.  It  proposes  to 
regulate  the  inward  affections  of  the  soul,  and  through  them 
the  outward  life.     Thus  it  lays  the  axe  at  the  root  of  all  sin. 

It  is  a  reasonable  code,  giving  to  God  the  first  place  in  the 


EVIDENCES  OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.  151 

human  heart,  and  to  man  only  a  subordinate  place.  Its  first 
and  great  commandment  is,  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy 
God  with  all  thy  heart;"  its  second,  "Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbor  as  thyself."  Thus  it  lays  broad  and  deep  the  founda- 
tions of  a  righteous  character.  If  any  moral  proposition  is  self- 
evident,  it  is  that  such  a  code  as  this,  which  exalts  God  to  the 
throne  of  the  human  soul  and  humbles  man  beneath  his  feet,  is 
not  the  offspring  of  human  self-love.  If  any  one  would  know 
the  difference  between  the  Bible  and  a  human  code  of  morals, 
let  him  read  Cicero's  treatise  on  Duties,  perhaps  the  best  system 
of  ethics  which  pure  heathenism  ever  produced,  but  from  which 
man's  relation  to  deity  is  virtually  left  out. 

It  is  a  comprehensive  code,  not  insisting  upon  one  or  two 
favorite  virtues,  but  upon  all  virtues.  Just  as  the  light  of  the 
sun  is  white  and  glistering  because  it  contains  in  itself,  in  due 
proportion,  all  the  different  sorts  of  rays,  so  the  morality  of  the 
Bible  shines  forth,  like  the  sun,  with  a  pure  and  dazzling  bright- 
ness, because  it  unites  in  itself,  in  just  proportion,  all  the  du- 
ties which  men  owe  to  God  and  each  other. 

Many  who  outwardly  profess  Christianity  do  not  make  the 
precepts  of  the  Bible  their  rule  of  life,  or  they  do  so  only  in  a 
very  imperfect  way,  and  thus  scandal  is  brought  upon  the  name 
of  Christ,  whose  servants  they  profess  to  be.  But  it  is  self-evi- 
dent that  he  who  obeys  the  Bible  in  sincerity  and  truth  is  thus 
made  a  thoroughly  good  man  ;  good  in  his  inward  principles 
and  feelings,  and  good  in  his  outward  life;  good  in  his  rela- 
tions to  God  and  man;  good  in  prosperity  and  adversity,  in 
honor  and  dishonor,  in  life  and  death;  a  good  husband  and 
father,  a  good  neighbor,  a  good  citizen.  If  there  is  ever  to  be 
a  perfect  state  of  society  on  earth,  it  must  come  from  simple 
obedience  to  the  precepts  of  the  Bible,  obedience  full  and  uni- 
versal. No  man  can  conceive  of  any  thing  more  glorious  and 
excellent  than  this.  "We  may  boldly  challenge  the  unbeliever 
to  name  a  corrupt  passion  in  the  heart  or  a  vicious  practice  in 
the  life  that  could  remain.  Let  every  man  love  God  with  all 
his  heart  and  his  neighbor  as  himself,  and  bolts  and  bars, 


152  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

prisons  and  penitentiaries,  wonld  be  unnecessary.  One  miglit 
safely  journey  around  the  world  unarmed  and  unattended,  for 
every  man  would  be  a  friend  and  brother.  "  Glory  to  God  in 
the  highest,  and  on  earth  peace,  good-will  towards  men,"  would 
reign  from  pole  to  pole.  The  whole  earth  would  be  at  rest  and 
be  quiet :  it  would  break  forth  into  singing.  That  such  a  glo- 
rious result  would  certainly  come  from  simple  obedience  to  the 
precepts  of  the  Bible  is  undeniable.  And  can  any  man  per- 
suade himself  that  this  perfect  code  of  morals  comes  not  from 
heaven,  but  from  sinful  man  ? 

4.  "We  have,  once  more,  the  wonderful  harmony  heficeen  the 
different  imrts  of  the  Bible,  written  as  it  was  in  different  and  dis- 
tant ages,  and  by  men  who  differed  widely  from  each  other  in 
natural  character  and  education,  and  lived  in  very  different 
states  of  society.  In  outward  form  and  institutions  the  mani- 
festation of  God  has  indeed  undergone  great  changes ;  for  it 
has  existed  successively  under  the  patriarchal,  the  Mosaic,  and 
the  Christian  dispensations.  But  if  we  look  beneath  the  sur- 
face to  the  substance  of  religion  in  these  different  dispensa- 
tions, we  shall  find  it  always  the  same.  The  God  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  the  God  of  Moses,  Samuel,  and  David,  is 
also  the  God  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  While  he  changes 
from  time  to  time  the  outward  ordinances  of  his  people,  he 
remains  himself  "  the  same  j^esterday  and  to-day  and  for  ever." 
Under  the  Old  Testament,  not  less  than  under  the  New,  he  is 
*'  the  Lord,  the  Lord  God,  merciful  and  gracious,  long-suffering 
and  abundant  in  goodness  and  truth,  keeping  mercy  for  thou- 
sands, forgiving  iniquity,  transgression,  and  sin,  and  that  will 
by  no  means  clear  the  guilty."  Exod.  34 : 6,  7,  etc.  Under 
the  New  Testament,  not  less  than  under  the  Old,  he  is  to  all 
the  despisers  of  his  grace  "  a  consuming  fire,"  Heb.  12  :  29 ; 
and  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  whom  he  sent  to  save  the  world,  wiU 
b,-e  revealed  hereafter  "in  flaming  fire,  taking  vengeance  on 
them  that  know  not  God,  and  that  obey  not  the  gospel  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ."  1  Thess.  1:7,^.  If  the  New  Testament 
iusists  on  the  obedience  of  the  heart,  and  not  of  the  outAvard 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  EELIGION.         153 

letter  alone,  the  Old  Testament  teaches  the  same  doctrine : 
"Behold,  to  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice,  and^to  hearken  than 
the  fat  of  rams."  1  Sam.  15  :  22.  "  Thou  desirest  not  sacri- 
fice ;  else  would  I  give  it :  thou  delightest  not  in  burnt  offering. 
The  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit ;  a  broken  and  a  con- 
trite heart,  O  God,  thou  wilt  not  despise."  Psa.  51 :  16, 17.  "  I 
will  praise  the  name  of  God  with  a  song,  and  will  magnify  him 
with  thanksgiving.  This  also  shall  please  the  Lord  better  than 
an  ox  or  bullock  that  hath  horns  and  hoofs."  Psa.  69  :  30,  31. 
"  Take  thou  away  from  me  the  noise  of  thy  songs ;  for  I  will 
not  hear  the  melody  of  thy  viols.  But  let  judgment  run  down 
as  waters,  and  righteousness  as  a  mighty  stream."  Amos  5  :  23, 
24.  If  the  Old  Testament  insists  on  obedience  to  all  God's 
commandments  as  an  indispensable  condition  of  salvation,  so 
does  the  New  :  "  Whosoever  shall  keep  the  whole  law,  and 
offend  in  one  point,  he  is  guilty  of  all,"  James  2  :  10 ;  "If  thy 
right  eye  offend  thee,  pluck  it  out,  and  cast  it  from  thee :  for  it 
is  profitable  for  thee  that  one  of  thy  members  should  perish, 
and  not  that  thy  whole  body  should  be  cast  into  hell."  Matt. 
5 :  29,  etc.  The  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  the  New,  teaches  the 
doctrine  of  regeneration  and  sanctification  by  the  Holy  Ghost : 
"  Create  in  me  a  clean  heart,  O  God,  and  renew  a  right  spirit 
within  me,"  Psa.  51 :  10.  "  Then  will  I  sprinkle  clean  water  upon 
you,  and  ye  shall  be  clean :  from  all  your  filthiness,  and  from 
all  your  idols  will  I  cleanse  you.  A  new  heart  also  will  I  give 
you,  and  a  new  spirit  will  I  put  within  you :  and  I  will  take 
away  the  stony  heart  out  of  your  flesh,  and  I  will  give  you  a 
heart  of  flesh.  And  I  will  put  my  Spirit  within  you,  and  cause 
you  to  walk  in  my  statutes,  and  ye  shall  keep  my  judgments 
and  do  them."  Ezek.  36  :  25-27.  The  Old  Testament,  as  well 
as  the  New,  denounces  self-righteousness  in  every  form,  and 
teaches  men  that  they  are  saved  not  for  the  merit  of  their  good 
works,  but  through  God's  free  mercy :  "  Not  for  thy  righteous- 
ness, or  for  the  uprightness  of  thy  heart  dost  thou  go  in  to 
possess  their  land,"  Deut.  9:5;  "Not  for  your  sakes  do  I  this, 
saith  the  Lord  God,  be  it  known  unto  you  :  be  ashamed  and 


154  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

confounded  for  your  own  ways,  0  house  of  Israel."  Ezekiel 
36 :  32.  "When  the  holy  men  of  the  Old  Testament  so  often 
beseech  God  to  hear  and  answer  their  prayers /or  Ms  name's 
sake,  they  renounce  all  claim  to  be  heard  on  the  ground  of 
their  own  merit.  Faith  that  works  by  love  and  purifies  the 
heart  from  sin — this  is  the  substance  of  the  religion  taught  in 
the  Bible  from  Genesis  to  Eevelation.  This  wonderful  unity 
of  doctrine  and  spirit  that  pervades  the  books  of  the  Bible 
from  first  to  last,  finds  its  natural  explanation  in  the  fact  that 
they  were  all  written  "by  inspiration  of  God." 

5.  The  Bible  is  distinguished  from  all  other  books  by  its 
■poiver  over  the  human  conscience.  The  apostle  says :  "The  word 
of  God  is  quick  and  powerful,  and  sharper  than  any  two-edged 
sword,  piercing  even  to  the  dividing  asunder  of  soul  and  spirit, 
and  of  the  joints  and  marrow,  and  is  a  discern er  of  the  thoughts 
and  intents  of  the  heart,"  Heb.  4 :  12 ;  and  this  declaration  is 
confirmed  by  the  experience  of  every  thoughtful  reader.  Who- 
ever studies  the  pages  of  the  Bible  in  an  earnest  spirit,  feels 
that  in  them  One  speaks  who  has  a  perfect  understanding  of 
his  heart  in  its  inmost  workings;  one  who  knows  not  only  what 
he  is,  but  also  what  he  ought  to  be,  and  who  therefore  speaks 
to  him  with  authority.  The  young  are  sometimes  advised  to 
study  certain  authors,  that  they  may  thus  gain  "a. knowledge 
of  men."  It  cannot  be  denied  that,  within  the  sphere  of  this 
world,  the  knowledge  of  men  which  some  of  these  writers  pos- 
sess is  admirable.  But  the  Bible  contains  not  only  all  this 
knowledge  in  its  most  complete  and  practical  form,  but  also, 
what  is  wanting  in  the  authors  referred  to,  a  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  men  in  their  higher  relation  to  God.  With  wonderful 
accuracy  does  the  Bible  describe  men's  character  and  conduct 
as  citizens  of  this  world.  But  here  it  does  not  stop.  It  regards 
them  as  subjects  of  God's  everlasting  government,  and  thus  as 
citizens  of  eternity  also ;  and  it  portrays  in  vivid  and  truthful 
colors  the  way  in  which  they  harden  their  hearts,  blind  their 
minds,  and  stupefy  their  consciences  by  their  continued  wilful 
resistance  of  God's  claim  to  their  supreme  love  and  obedience. 


EVIDENCES  OF  EEVEALED  BELIGION.  155 

In  a  word,  it  describes  men  in  their  relation  to  God  as  well  agi 
to  their  fellow-men ;  and  every  man  who  reads  the  description, 
hears  within  his  soul  the  still  small  voice  of  conscience  saying, 
"  Thou  art  the  man."  Whence  this  all-comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  man  contained  in  the  Bible  ?  The  answer  is  :  He  who 
made  man  has  described  man  in  his  own  word  with  infallible 
accuracy ;  "  because  he  knew  all  men,  and  needed  not  that  any 
should  testify  of  man ;  for  he  knew  what  was  in  man." 

6.  We  come  now  to  the  argument  from  personal  experience. 
To  receive  Christ  in  sincerity  and  truth,  is  to  know  that  his 
salvation  is  from  God.  Many  thousands  have  thus  a  full  and 
joyous  conviction  of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  They  were 
oppressed  with  a  deep  consciousness  of  guilt,  which  no  tears  of 
sorrow  or  supposed  good  works  could  remove.  But  they  read 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures  that  Jesus  is  "  the  Lamb  of  God  which 
taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world."  They  put  their  trust  in  his 
atoning  sacrifice,  and  thus  obtained  peace  of  conscience,  and 
joyous  access  in  prayer  to  God  as  their  Father  in  heaven. 
They  were  earthly  in  their  affections,  and  able  therefore  to  ren- 
der to  God's  holy  and  spiritual  law  only  an  obedience  of  the 
letter,  which  they  knew  would  not  be  acceptable.  But  through 
faith  in  Christ  they  have  been  lifted  up  to  a  holy  and  blessed 
communion  with  God,  and  thus  enabled  to  render  to  God's  law 
an  obedience  of  love  "  in  the  spirit  and  not  in  the  letter."  They 
were  oppressed  with  a  painful  sense  of  the  empty  and  unsatis- 
fying nature  of  every  thing  earthly;  but  they  ha,ve  found  in 
Christ  and  his  glorious  service  an  all-sufficient  portion.  In  a 
word,  they  are  assured  that  the  gospel  is  from  God,  because  it 
meets  all  their  wants  as  sinners.  They  have  the  same  evidence 
that  God  made  the  gospel  for  the  immortal  soul,  as  that  he 
made  bread  for  the  stomach,  air  for  the  lungs,  and  light  for  the 
eyes.  The  sincere  beHever  has  in  himself  the  witness  that  tho 
gospel  is  from  heaven,  for  he  is  daily  experiencing  its  healing, 
strengthening,  and  purifying  power.  To  tell  him  that  the  Bible 
is  a  cunningly  devised  fable,  is  like  telling  a  man  who  daily 
feeds   on    "the   finest  of  the   wheat"  and  is  nourished  and 


156  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

strengthened  by  it,  tliat  the  field  of  golden  grain  which  waves 
before  his  door  is  only  wormwood  and  gall;  or  that  the  pure 
water  from  the  bosom  of  the  earth  which  daily  quenches  his 
thirst  is  a  deadly  poison;  or  that  the  blessed  air  of  heaven 
which  fans  his  lungs  is  a  pestilential  vapor.  Not  until  error 
becomes  the  nutriment  of  the  soul  and  truth  its  destruction, 
can  this  argument  from  personal  experience  be  set  aside  or 
gainsaid. 

7.  The  argument  from  the  character  of  Jesus  has  already 
been  considered  at  length  in  chap.  4,  No.  8.  It  is  sufficient  to 
repeat  here  that  the  very  description  of  such  a  character,  so 
gloriously  perfect,  so  far  above  all  that  the  greatest  minds  of 
antiquity  ever  conceived,  is  itself  a  proof  of  its  reality.  Very 
plain  men  may  describe  what  they  have  actually  seen  and 
heard.  But  that  any  man  left  to  himself — and  God  would  not 
help  in  a  work  of  error  and  delusion — should  have  conceived  of 
such  a  character  as  that  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  without  the  real- 
ity before  him,  is  impossible ;  how  much  more  that  four  unlet- 
tered men  should  have  consistently  carried  out  the  conception 
in  such  a  life  as  that  recorded  by  the  four  evangelists. 

8.  Passing  now  from  individual  to  general  experience,  we  find 
another  proof  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Bible  in  the  power  of 
the  gospel — which  includes  in  itself  the  whole  word  of  God — 
over  the  human  heart.  This  is  closely  connected  with  the  pre- 
ceding head,  since  the  Christian's  religion  takes  the  shape  of 
personal  love  towards  the  Saviour — love  which  is  awakened  in 
the  sinner's  soul,  as  the  New  Testament  teaches,  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  revealing  to  him  his  lost  condition  and  the  character  and 
offices  of  the  Redeemer,  whereby  he  is  drawn  into  an  inward 
spiritual  union  with  him.  This  love  of  Jesus  is  the  mightiest 
principle  on  earth  for  both  doing  and  suffering.  The  man  of 
whose  soul  it  has  taken  full  possession  is  invincible,  not  in  his 
own  strength,  but  in  the  strength  of  Him  to  v/hom  he  has 
given  his  supreme  confidence  and  affection.  No  hardships, 
privations,  or  dangers  can  deter  him  from  Christ's  service ;  no 
persecutions  can  drive  him  from  it.    In  the  early  days  of  Chris- 


EVIDENCES   OF  REVEALED  RELIGION.         157 

tianitj,  at  the  period  of  the  Reformatioiij  in  many  missionary 
fields  in  our  own  time,  not  only  strong  men,  but  tender  women 
and  children,  have  steadfastly  endured  shame  and  suffering  in 
every  form — banishment  and  the  spoiling  of  their  goods, 
imprisonment,  torture,  and  death — for  Christ's  sake.  In  times 
of  worldly  peace  and  prosperity,  the  power  of  this  principle  is 
dimly  seen ;  but  were  the  Christians  of  this  day  required,  under 
penalty  of  imprisonment,  confiscation,  and  death,  to  deny 
Christ,  it  would  at  once  manifest  itself.  Many  would  aposta- 
tize, because  they  are  believers  only  in  name;  but  true  believ- 
ers would  remain  steadfast,  as  in  the  days  of  old.  It  is  a  fact 
worthy  of  special  notice,  that  persecution  not  only  fails  to  con- 
quer those  who  love  Jesus,  but  it  fails  also  to  hinder  others 
from  embracing  his  religion.  It  has  first  a  winnowing  power. 
It  separates  from  the  body  of  the  faithful  those  who  are  Chris- 
tians only  in  name.  Then  the  manifestation  of  Christian  faith 
and  patience  by  those  who  remain  steadfast,  draws  men  from 
the  world  without  to  Christ.  Hence  the  maxim,  as  true  as 
trite,  "  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  church." 
The  Christian  religion  at  the  beginning  had  no  worldly  advan- 
tages, and  it  was  opposed  by  all  the  power  of  imperial  Home 
in  alliance  with  the  heathen  priesthood.  Had  it  been  possible 
that  any  combination  of  men  should  crush  it,  it  must  have  per- 
ished at  the  outset;  but  it  only  grew  stronger  in  the  midst  of 
its  fierce  and  powerful  enemies.  It  went  through  ten  bloody 
persecutions,  "conquering  and  to  conquer,"  until  it  overthrew 
paganism,  and  became  the  established  religion  of  the  Eoman 
empire.  Then  it  was  not  strengthened  by  its  alliance  with  the 
state,  but  only  corrupted  and  shorn  of  its  true  power.  And  so 
it  has  been  ever  since.  The  gospel  has  always  shown  itself 
mightiest  to  subdue  men  to  Christ,  when  it  has  been  compelled 
to  rely  most  exclusively  on  its  own  divinely  furnished  strength. 
What  the  apostle  said  of  himself  personally,  the  gospel  which 
he  preached  can  say  with  equal  truth:  "When  I  am  weak,  then 
am  I  strong."  How  shall  we  account  for  this  fact  ?  The  only 
reasonable  explanation  is,  that  God  is  the  author  of  the  gospel, 


158  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

and  his  power  is  in  it,  so  that  it  is  able  to  overcome  the  world 
without  any  help  from  without.  Were  it  the  invention  of  man, 
we  might  reasonably  expect  that  it  would  be  greatly  strength- 
ened by  an  alliance  with  the  kings  and  rulers  of  the  world, 
instead  of  being  thereby  corrupted  and  weakened,  as  we  find 
to  be  the  invariable  result.  Because  God  made  the  gospel,  and 
not  men,  when  it  is  left  free  to  work  according  to  his  appoint- 
ment, it  is  mighty  in  its  power  over  the  human  heart ;  but  the 
moment  worldly  men  take  it  under  their  patronage,  that  they 
may  make  it  subservient  to  their  worldly  ends,  they  bind  it  in 
fetters,  and  would  kill  it,  had  it  not  a  divine  and  indestructible 
life. 

9.  We  notice,  further,  that  the  same  love  of  Jesus  which 
makes  men  invincible  to  the  world  without,  also  enables  them 
to  conquer  their  oiun  corrupt  passions,  and  this  is  the  greater 
victory  of  the  two.  It  is  easy  to  declaim  on  the  sins  and  incon- 
sistencies of  visible  Christians.  The  church  of  Christ,  like  every 
thing  administered  by  men,  is  imperfect.  Unworthy  men  find 
their  way  into  it,  making  it,  as  the  great  Master  foretold,  a  field 
in  which  wheat  and  tares  grow  together.  Nevertheless,  wher- 
ever the  gospel  is  preached  in  its  purity,  bright  examples  are 
found  of  its  power  to  reclaim  the  vicious,  to  make  the  proud 
humble,  and  the  earthly-minded  heavenly.  It  draws  all  who 
truly  receive  it,  by  a  gradual  but  certain  process,  into  a  likeness 
to  Christ,  which  is  the  sum  of  all  goodness.  In  proportion  also 
as  the  principles  of  the  gospel  gain  ground  in  any  community, 
they  ennoble  it,  purify  it,  and  inspire  it  with  the  spirit  of  truth 
and  justice.  Yery  imperfectly  is  our  country  pervaded  by 
this  good. leaven.  Yet  it  is  this,  small  as  is  its  measure,  which 
makes  the  difference  between  the  state  of  society  here  at  home 
and  in  India  or  China.  Many  thousands  who  do  not  person- 
ally receive  the  gospel  thus  experience  its  elevating  power. 
They  receive  at  its  hand  innumerable  precious  gifts  without 
understanding  or  acknowledging  the  source  from  which  they 
come. 

10.  As  a  final  argument,  may  be  named  the  power  of  the 


EVIDENCES  O*^  REVEALED  RELIGION.         159 

Christian  religion  to  'purify  itself  from  the  corruptions  intro- 
duced into  it  by  men.  It  is  not  alone  from  the  world  without 
that  Christ's  church  has  been  assailed.  Corrupt  men  have 
arisen  within  her  pale  who  have  set  themselves  to  deny  or 
exj)lain  away  her  essential  doctrines,  to  change  her  holy  prac- 
tice, or  to  crush  and  overlay  her  with  a  load  of  superstitious 
observances.  But  the  gospel  cannot  be  destroyed  by  inward 
any  more  than  by  outward  enemies.  From  time  to  time  it 
asserts  its  divine  origin  and  invincible  power,  by  bursting  the 
bands  imposed  on  it  by  men,  and  throwing  off  their  human 
additions,  thus  reappearing  in  its  native  purity  and  strength. 
So  it  did  on  a  broad  scale  at  the  era  of  the  Keformation,  and 
so  it  has  often  done  since  m  narrower  fields. 

10.  Let  now*  the  candid  inquirer  ask  himself  whether  a  book 
which  gives  such  gloriously  perfect  views  of  God's  character 
and  government;  whose  code  of  morals  is  so  spotlessly  pure 
that  simple  obedience  to  it  is  the  sum  of  all  goodness,  and 
would,  if  full  and  universal,  make  this  world  a  moral  paradise ; 
all  whose  parts,  though  written  in  different  and  distant  ages 
by  men  of  such  diversified  character  and  training,  are  in  per- 
fect harmony  with  each  other ;  which  displays  such  a  wonder- 
ful knowledge  of  man  in  all  his  relations  to  God  and  his  fellow- 
men,  and  therefore  speaks  with  such  authority  and  power  to 
his  conscience;  which  reveals  a  religion  that  satisfies  all  the 
wants  of  those  who  embrace  it,  that  makes  them  victorious 
alike  over  outward  persecution  and  inward  sinful  passion,  and 
that  asserts  its  invincible  power  by  throwing  off  from  itself  the 
corrupt  additions  of  men — whether  such  a  book  can  possibly 
have  man  for  its  author.  Assuredly  in  character  it  resembles 
not  sinful  man,  but  the  holy  God.  It  must  be  from  heaven,  for 
it  is  heavenly  in  all  its  features. 


PART  II. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO 


The  Old  Testament 


PREFATORY  REMARKS. 


To  consider  at  length  all  the  questions  which  the  spirit  of 
modern  inquiry  has  raised  concerning  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament — their  genuineness,  integrity,  date,  chronology,  and 
credibility ;  their  relation  to  science,  to  profane  history,  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  New  Testament — would  far  exceed  the  limits 
.allowed  by  the  plan  of  the  present  work.  To  the  Pentateuch 
alone,  or  even  a  single  book  of  it,  as  Genesis  or  Deuteronomy ; 
to  the  books  of  Chronicles ;  to  Isaiah  or  Daniel,  a  whole  vol- 
ume might  be  devoted  without  exhausting  the  subject.  In  the 
present  Introduction  to  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
aim  has  been  to  give  the  results  of  biblical  research,  ancient 
and  modern,  with  a  concise  statement  of  the  lines  of  argument 
employed,  wherever  this  could  be  done  without  involving  dis- 
cussions intelligible  only  to  those  who  are  familiar  with  the 
original  languages  of  ScriptuiL-  and  the  ancient  versions.  For 
such  discussions  the  biblical  student  is  referred  to  the  more 
extended  Introductions  which  abound  at  the  present  day.  The 
author  has  endeavored,  first  of  all,  to  direct  the  reader's  atten- 
tion to  the  unity  of  Scrijoture.  "  Known  unto  God  are  all  his 
works  from  the  beginning  of  the  world."  The  plan  of  Kedemp- 
tion  is  the  very  highest  of  these  works,  and  it  constitutes  a 
gloriously  perfect  whole,  gradually  unfolding  itself  from  age  to 
age.  The  earliest  revelations  have  reference  to  all  that  fol- 
low.   The  later  revelations  shed  light  on  the  earlier,  and  receive 


IGl  PKEFATORY  BEMARKS. 

light  from  them  in  return.  It  is  only  when  the  Scriptures  are 
thus  studied  as  a  whole,  that  any  one  part  of  them  can  be  truly 
comprehended. ,  The  effort  has  accordingly  been  made  to  show 
the  relation  of  the  Old  Testament,  considered  as  a  whole,  to 
the  New ;  then,  the  relation  of  the  several  great  divisions  of  the 
Old  Testament — the  law,  the  historical  books,  the  prophets, 
the  poetical  books — to  each  other,  and  the  place  which  each 
holds  in  the  system  of  revelation ;  and  finally,  the  ofiice  of  each 
particular  book,  with  such  notices  of  its  authorship,  date,  gen- 
eral plan,  and  contents,  as  will  prepare  the  reader  to  study  it 
intelligently  and  profitably.  To  all  who  would  have  a  thorough 
and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  Neiu  Testament,  the  dili- 
gent study  of  the  preparatory  revelation  contained  in  the  Old, 
is  earnestly  commended.  The  present  Introduction  will  be' 
followed  by  one  to  the  New  Testament  on  the  same  general 
plan.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  for  much  of  the  ma- 
terials employed  in  these  two  parts,  particularly  what  relates  to 
ancient  manuscripts,  the  author  is  dependent  on  the  statements 
of  those  who  have  had  the  opportunity  of  making  original 
investigations. 


INTRODUCTION 

TO 

THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


FIRST  DIVISIO:^,  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

Names  and  External  Form  of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  The  word  Bible  comes  to  us  from  the  Greek  {ta  hihlia,  the 
hooks;  that  is,  emphatically,  the  sacred  canonical  books)  through 
the  Latin  and  Norman  French.  In  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  its  use,  as  a  plural  noun  applied  to  the  whole  collec- 
tion of  sacred  books  of  the  OkLand  New  Testaments,  can  be 
traced  as  far  back  as  the  fifth  century.  In  the  English,  as  in 
all  the  modern  languages  of  Europe,  it  has  become  a  singular 
noun,  and  thus  signifies  the  Book — the  one  book  containing  in 
itself  all  the  particular  books  of  the  sacred  canon. 

In  very  ancient  usage,  the  word  Laiu  (Heb.  Torali)  was 
applied  to  the  five  books  of  Moses;  but  there  was  no  general 
term  to  denote  the  whole  collection  of  inspired  writings  till 
after  the  completion  of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  when 
they  were  known  in  Jewish  usage  as:  The  Lata,  the  Prophets, 
and  the  Writings  (see  below.  No.  5).  In  accordance  with  the 
same  usage,  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  speak  of  the  "law 
and  the  prophets,"  and  more  fully,  "the  law  of  Moses,  and  the 
prophets,  and  the  psalms,"  Luke  24 :  44.     And  they  apply  to 


166  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  collected  writings  of  tlie  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  to  par- 
ticular p*assages,  the  term  the  Scripture,  that  is,  the  loritings, 
thus :  "  The  Scripture  saith,"  John  7 :  38,  etc.  Or  they  employ 
the  plural  number:  "Ye  do  err,  not  knowing  the  Scriptures," 
Matt.  22  :  29,  etc.    Once  the  epithet  My  is  added,  2  Tim.  3  :  15. 

In  2  Pet.  3  :  16,  the  term  Scriptures  is  appHed  to  at  least  the  epistles  of 
Paul ;  apparently  also  to  the  other  canonical  writings  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment then  extant.  In  the  usage  of  Christian  writers,  the  application  of 
this  term  to  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  soon  became  well  estab- 
lished; but  the  above  is  the  only  example  of  such  an  appHcation  that, 
occurs  in  the  New  Testament  itself. 

2.  The  terms  Old  and  Neiu  Testament  arose  in  the  follow- 
ing way :  God's  dealings  with  the  Israelitish  people,  under  both 
the  patriarchs  and  Moses,  took  the  form  of  a  covenant;  that  is, 
not  a  mutual  agreement  as  between  two  equal  parties,  but  an 
arrangement  or  dispensation,  in  which  God  himself,  as  the  sover- 
eign Lord,  propounded  to  the  chosen  people  certain  terms,  and 
bound  himself,  upon  condition  of  the  fulfilment  of  these  terms, 
to  bestow  upon  them  blessings  temporal  and  spiritual.  Now 
the  Greek  word  diatheJce,  by  which  the  Septuagint  renders  the 
Hebrew  word  for  covenant,  signifies  both  covenant,  in  the  gen- 
eral sense  above  given,  and  testament,  as  being  the  final  dispo- 
sition which  a  man  makes  of  his  worldly  estate.  The  new  cov- 
enant introduced  by  Christ  is,  in  a  sense,  a  testament,  as  being 
ratified  by  his  bloody  death.  Matt.  26  :  28 ;  Mark  14  :'24;  Luke 
22 :  20.  So  it  is  expressly  called  in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
9 :  15-17,  where  the  new  covenant,  considered  in  the  light  of  a 
testament,  is  contrasted  with  the  old.  It  was  probably  in  con- 
nection with  this  view  that  the  Old  Latin  version  of  the  Bible 
(made  in  the  Old  Testament  not  from  the  original  Hebrew,  but 
from  the  Greek  Septuagint)  everywhere  rendered  the  Greek 
word  diathehe  by  the  Latin  testamentum.  When  Jerome  under- 
took the  work  of  correcting  this  version,  he  did  not  everywhere 
pursue  the  same  plan.  The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  he 
rendered  in  general  from  the  Hebrew ;  and  here  he  employed 
for  the  Hebrew  word  denoting  covenant  the  appropriate  Latin 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  167 

words  fcedus  and  pactum.  But  in  the  Psalms,  and  the  whole 
New  Testament,  from  deference  to  established  usage,  he  gave 
simply  a  revision  of  the  Old  Latin,  leaving  the  word  testamentumy 
by  which  that  version  had  rendered  the  word  diatlieke,  cove- 
nant, untouched.  Hence  in  Latin  usage  we  have  in  the  New- 
Testament  the  two  covenants,  the  old  and  the  new,  expressed 
by  the  terms  old  testament  (vetus  testamentum,  lorius  or  primiim 
testamentum)  and  neiv  testament  (novum  testamentum),  and  some- 
times in  -immediate  contrast  with  each  other,  as  in  2  Cor.  3  : 6, 
14;  Heb.  9  :  15-18.  The  transfer  of  these  terms  from  the  cov- 
enants themselves  to  the  writings  which  give  an  account  of 
them  was  easy,  and  soon  became  established  in  general  usage. 
Hence  the  terms  Old  and  Neio  Testament  for  the  two  great 
divisions  of  the  Bible. 

Another  Latin  term  for  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Bible  was  instru- 
menium,  instrument,  document;  a  term  appHed  to  the  documents  or  body 
of  records  relating  to  the  Roman  empire,  and  very  appropriate,  therefore, 
to  the  records  of  God's  dealings  with  men.  But  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Tertullian,  about  the  close  of  the  second  century,  the  word  testamentum, 
testament,  was  more  in  use.  See  Tertullian  against  Marcion,  4.  1.  A 
striking  example  of  the  superior  accuracy  of  Jerome's  independent  version 
above  his  simple  revision  of  the  old  Latin  is  the  passage  Jer.  31 :  31-33  as 
compared  with  the  quotation  of  the  same,  Heb.  8 : 8-10.  In  the  former, 
where  the  translation  is  made  immediately  from  the  Hebrew,  we  read : 
' '  Behold  the  days  shall  come,  saith  the  Lord,  that  I  will  make  for  the 
house  of  Israel  and  the  house  of  Judah  a  new  covenant  [foedus):  not 
according  to  the  covenant  [pactum]  which  I  made  with  their  fathers,"  etc. 
In  the  same  passage,  as  quoted  in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  where  we 
have  only  a  revision  of  the  old  Latin,  we  read :  ' '  Behold  the  days  shall 
come,  saith  the  Lord,  that  I  will  accomplish  for  the  house  of  Israel  and  for 
the  house  of  Judah  a  new  testament  [testamentum)  :  not  according  to  the 
testament  [testamentum)  which  I  made  for  their  fathers,"  etc. 

3.  The  linity  of  the  Bible  has  its  ground  only  in  divine 
inspiration.  So  far  as  human  composition  is  concerned,  both 
parts  of  it  have  a  great  variety  of  authors.  The  writers  of  the 
Old  Testament,  especially,  lived  in  different,  and  some  of  them 
in  very  distant  ages.  They  were  widely  separated  from  each 
other  in  native  character  and  endowments,  in  education,  and 


168  COMPANIOX  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

in  tlieir  outward  circumstances  and  position  in  life.  It  is  of 
the  highest  importance  that  the  student  of  Scripture  not  only 
know  these  facts,  but  ponder  them  long  and  carefully,  till  he 
fully  understands  their  deep  significance.  He  has  been  accus- 
tomed from  childhood  to  see  all  the  books  of  the  Bible  com- 
prised within  the  covers  of  a  single  volume.  He  can  hardly 
divest  himself  of  the  idea  that  their  authors,  if  not  exactly  con- 
temjDorary,  must  yet  somehow  have  understood  each  other's 
views  and  plans,  and  acted  in  mutual  concert.  It  is  only  by 
long  contemplation  that  he  is  able  to  apprehend  the  true  posi- 
tion which  these  writers  held  to  each  other,  separated  from 
each  other,  as  they  often  were,  by  centuries  of  time,  during 
which  great  changes  took  place  in  the  social  and  political 
condition  of  the  Hebrew  people.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  he 
begins  to  discern,  in  the  wonderful  harmony  that  pervades  the 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  clear 
proofs  of  a  superintending  divine  Spirit;  and  learns  to  refer 
this  harmony  to  its  true  ground,  that  "  holy  men  of  God  spake 
as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost."     2  Peter  1 :  21. 

A.ccording  to  the  received  chronology,  Moses  wrote  the  book  of  Deut- 
eronomy about  1451  B.  c,  and  Malachi,  the  last  of  the  prophets,  wrote 
about  397  b.  c.  The  difference,  then,  between  the  time  of  these  two 
authors  is  1054  years  ;  or  say,  in  round  numbers,  about  1000  years.  From 
Moses  to  the  anointing  of  David  is,  according  to  the  shorter  chronology, 
388  years ;  and  from  Moses  to  the  comjDosition  of  the  books  of  Kings, 
nearly  nine  centuries.  From  Joel  to  Malachi  we  must  assume  a  period  of 
about  400  years,  within  which  space  our  present  prophetical  books  were 
composed.  The  earlier  of  the  psalms  written  by  David  differ  in  time  from 
those  composed  at  the  close  of  the  captivity  by  about  530  years.  Let  the 
reader  who  has  been  in  the  habit  of  passing  from  one  book  of  the  Bible 
to  another,  as  if  both  belonged  to  the  same  age,  jjonder  well  the  meaning 
of  these  figures.  They  confirm  the  arguments  already  adduced  (cli.  12, 
No.  4)  that  the  unity  of  Scripture  has  its  ground  not  in  human  concert, 
but  in  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

4.  The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  have  been  differently 
classified  and  arranged.  But  in  no  system  of  distribution  has 
the  chronological  order  been  strictly  observed. 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT.  169 

(A.)  The  Jewish  dassificaiion  and  arrangement  is  as  follows. 
They  first  distribute  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  into  three 
great  classes,  the  Laiv,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Writings;  that  is, 
the  canonical  writings  not  included  in  the  other  two  divisions — 
the  Hagiograplia  (holy  ivritings),  as  they  are  commonly  desig- 
nated at  the  present  day. 

The  Laio  is  then  subdivided  into  five  books,  as  we  now  have 
them  ;  for  the  names  of  which  see  the  introduction  to  the  Pen- 
tateuch.    Chap.  19,  No.  1. 

With  reference  to  this  five-fold  division  of  the  Law,  the 
Rabbins  call  it  tlie  five-fifths  of  the  Laic,  each  book  being  reck- 
oned as  one-fifth.  This  term  answers  to  the  word  Pentateicch, 
that  is,  the  five-fold  hool:     Chap.  9,  beginning. 

The  second  great  class  consists  of  the  so-called  Prophets. 
These  are  first  divided  into  the  former  and  the  latter  Prophets. 
The  former  Prophets  consist  of  the  historical  books:  Joshua, 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  in  the  order  named.  The  latter 
comprise  the  prophetical  books  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the 
word,  with  the  exception  of  Daniel ;  and  these  are  subdivided 
into  the  greater  and  the  less.  The  greater  Prophets  are  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel.  The  less  are  the  twelve  Minor  Proph- 
ets from  Hosea  to  Malachi,  in  the  same  order  as  that  followed 
in  our  English  version. 

The  remaining  books  of  the  Old  Testament  constitute  the 
third  great  class,  under  the  name  of  Writings,  Hagiographa ; 
and  they  are  commonly  arranged  in  the  following  order : 
Psahns,  Proverbs,  Job,  Canticles,  Euth,  Lamentations,  Eccle- 
siastes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles.  These 
books  naturally  fall  into  three  groups.  First,  devotional  and 
didactic — the  three  so-called  poetical  books  of  Psalms,  Prov- 
erbs, and  Job,  which  have  in  Hebrew  a  stricter  rhythm;  sec- 
ondly, the  five  rolls — Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesias- 
tes,  Esther;  so  called  because  written  on  five  separate  rolls  for 
use  in  the  synagogue  service  on  the  occasion  of  special  festi- 
vals ;  thirdly,  books  that  are  chiefly  of  an  historical  character — 
Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles. 

Conip.  to  Bible.  § 


170  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  Talmud  arranges  the  Greater  Prophets  thus  :  Jeremiah,  Ezekicl, 
Isaiah.  Of  the  Hagiographa,  various  other  arrangements,  Masoretic  and 
Talmudic,  are  given,  which  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  specify. 

That  the  writing  of  sacred  histoiy  belonged  to  the  proi^hetical  office  is 
clear  from  various  scriptural  notices.  Compare  1  Chron.  29  :  29  ;  2  Chron. 
9  :  29  ;  12  :  15-  20  :  34  ;  26  :  22  ;  32  :  32  ;  33  :  19.  The  narrative  concerning 
Sennacherib  inserted  in  the  second  book  of  Kings  (18  :  13-19  :  37)  is  mani- 
festly from  the  pen  of  Isaiah.  The  Rabbins  rightly  ascribed  the  composi- 
tion of  the  historical  as  weU  as  the  other  books  which  compose,  according 
to  their  division,  the  Prophets,  to  prophetical  men.  But  the  grounds  upon 
which  they  separated  from  these  certain  books,  as,  for  exami)le,  Daniel, 
and  placed  them  among  the  Hagiographa,  are  not  clear.  Some  of  the 
rabbins  made  the  distinction  to  lie  in  the  degree  of  inspiration,  Moses 
enjoying  it  in  the  fullest  measure  (Numb.  12  : 6-8),  the  authors  of  the 
books  which  are  classed  among  the  prophets  having  the  Spirit  of  prophecy, 
and  those  of  the  books  belonging  to  the  Hagiograj)ha  simply  the  Holy 
Spirit  (the  Holy  Spirit,  but  not  in  the  degree  necessary  for  prox)hetic  rev- 
elation). But  this  distinction  is  untenable.  Who  had  the  spirit  of  proph- 
ecy if  not  Daniel  ?  In  the  opinion  of  some  modern  scholars,  they  reck- 
oned to  the  Prophets  only  books  wiitten  by  men  who  w^ere  prophets  in  the 
stricter  sense  of  the  term ;  that  is,  men  trained  to  the  prophetical  office, 
and  exercising  it  as  their  x^rof  ession  ;  while  the  writings  of  men  like  David, 
Solomon,  and  Daniel,  who  though  they  had  the  Spirit  of  prophecy,  w'ere 
yet  in  their  office  not  prophets,  but  rulers  and  statesmen,  were  assigned  to 
the  Hagiographa.  But  this  is  inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  the  book  of 
Ruth  (which  in  respect  to  authorshij)  must  go  with  that  of  Judges)  and  also 
the  book  of  Lamentations  are  in  the  Hagiographa.  Others,  with  more 
probabihty,  find  the  main  ground  of  classification  in  the  character  of  the 
writings  themselves — the  Laic,  as  the  foundation  of  the  Theocracy ;  the 
Prophets,  that  record  the  history  of  the  Theocracy  and  make  prophetic 
revelations  concerning  it ;  the  sacred  Writings,  occupied  with  the  personal 
appropriation  of  the  truths  of  revelation,  and  as  such  exhibiting  the  reli- 
gious hfe  of  the  covenant  people  in  its  inward  and  outward  form.  But 
even  here  we  do  not  find  perfect  consistency. 

(B.)  Classification  of  the  Greek  Version  of  the  Seventy.  The 
ancient  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  called  the  Septua- 
gint  (Latin  Septuaginta,  seventy),  because,  according  to  Jewish 
tradition,  it  was  the  work  of  seventy  men,  interweaves  the  apoc- 
ryphal with  the  canonical  books.  Its  arrangement  is  as  follows, 
the  apocryphal  books  and  parts  of  books  being  indicated  by 
italic  letters.      We  follow  the  edition   of  Yan  Ess  from  the 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT. 


171 


Vatican  manuscript,  which  omits  the   apocryphal  Prayer  of 
Manasseh : 


1.  Genesis. 

27.  JEcclesiasiicus. 

2.  Exodus. 

28.  Hosea. 

3.  Leviticus. 

29.  Amos. 

4.  Numbers. 

30.  Micah. 

5.  Deuteronomy. 

31.  Joel. 

6.  Joshua. 

32.  Obadiah. 

7.  Judges. 

33.  Jonah. 

8.  Euth. 

34.  Nahum. 

9.   1  Kings  (our  ] 

.  Samuel). 

35.  Habaklmk. 

10.  2  Kings  (our  \ 

1  Samuel). 

36.  Zephaniah. 

11.  3  Kings  (our  ] 

L  Kings). 

37.  Haggai. 

12.  4  Kings  (our  2 

!  Kings).  ; 

38.  Zechariah. 

13.  1  Chronicles. 

39.  Malachi. 

14.  2  Chronicles. 

40.  Isaiah. 

15.   1  Esdras. 

41.  Jeremiah. 

16.  2  Esdras  (our 

Ezra). 

42.  Baruch. 

17.  Nehemiah. 

43.  Lamentations. 

18.   Tohit. 

44.   Epistle  of  Jeremiah. 

19.  Juditli. 

45.  Ezeldel. 

20.  Esther,    toith 

apoa^yphal  addi-   46.  Daniel,    with    apocryphal    addi- 

lions. 

iions—Song  of  the  Three  Chil- 

21. Job. 

dren  in  the  Furnace,  History  of 

22.  Psalms. 

Susannah,  Story  of  Bel  and  the 

23.  Proverbs. 

Dragon. 

24.  Ecclesiastes. 

■    47.   1  Maccabees. 

25.  Canticles. 

48.  2  3Iaccahees. 

26.    Wisdom  of  Solomon. 

49.  3  Maccabees. 

The  arrangement  of  books  in  the  Latin  Vidgate  agrees  with 
that  of  the  Septuagint  with  the  following  exceptions :  the  two 
canonical  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  appear  together,  as  in 
the  Septuagint,  but  under  the  titles  of  1  Esdras  and  2  Esdras. 
Next  follow  the  two  apocryphal  books  of  Esdras  (the  latter 
wanting  in  the  Septuagint),  under  the  titles  of  3  Esdras  and 
4  Esdras.  The  Greater  Prophets,  with  Lamentations  after 
Jeremiah  and  Daniel  after  Ezekiel,  are  inserted  before  the 
twelve  Minor  Prophets,  which  last  stand  in  the  order  followed 
in  our  version.     Throwing  out  of  account,  therefore,  the  apoc- 


172  COMPANION  TO   TPIE  BIBLE. 

ryphal  books,  the  order  of  the  Yulgate  is  that  followed  by  our 
English  Bible. 

From  tbe  above  it  is  manifest  that  in  neither  the  Hebrew,  the  Greek, 
nor  the  Latin  arrangement  is  the  order  of  time  strictly  followed.  The 
Hebrew,  for  example,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Psalms,  which  were  written 
in  different  ages,  throws  into  the  Hagiographa  Kuth,  Job,  Proverbs,  etc. , 
which  are  older  than  any  of  the  so-called  latter  pro]ohets.  The  Hebrew 
places  the  books  of  Kings,  and  the  Greek  and  Latin  not  only  these,  but 
also  the  books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther,  before  all  the 
j)roper  projDhetical  books,  though  it  is  well  known  that  several  of  these 
were  much  earlier.  In  the  Hebrew  arrangement,  the  three  Greater  Proph- 
ets precede  all  the  Minor  Prophets,  though  several  of  the  latter  were  ear- 
lier than  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  and  even  Isaiah.  In  the  Greek,  on  the 
contrary,  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  as  well  as  Ezekiel,  are  placed  after  even  the 
prophets  of  the  Restoration.  The  biblical  student  should  carefully  remem- 
ber these  facts.  He  must  not  hastily  assume  that  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  stand  in  the  order  in  which  they  v/ere  written,  but  must  deter- 
mine the  age  of  each  for  itself,  according  to  the  best  light  that  he  can 
obtain.     See  further  in  the  introductions  to  the  several  books. 

5.  In  high  antiquity,  the  continuous  mode  of  turiting,  {scriptio 
continua,)  without  divisions  between  the  words,  was  common. 
We  cannot  indeed  infer,  from  the  continuous  writing  of  the 
oldest  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament,  that  the  same 
method  prevailed  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  writing;  for  in  very 
ancient  inscriptions  and  manuscripts,  belonging  to  different 
languages,  the  words  are  distinguished  from  each  other  more 
or  less  completely  by  points.  Yet  the  neglect  of  these  is  com- 
mon. In  most  Greek  and  Phoenician  inscriptions  there  is  no 
division  of  words.  The  translators  of  the  Septuagint  may  be 
reasonably  supposed  to  have  employed  the  best  manuscripts 
at  their  command.  Yet  their  version  shows  that  in  these  the 
words  were  either  not  separated  at  all,  or  only  partially.  The 
complete  separation  of  words  by  intervening  spaces  did  not 
take  place  till  after  the  introduction  of  the  Assyrian,  or  square 
character.  Ch.  14,  No.  2.  With  the  separation  is  connected 
the  use  of  the  so-called  final  letters,  that  is,  forms  of  certain 
letters  employed  exclusively  at  the  ends  of  words. 

6.  A  verv  ancient  Jewish  division  of  the  sacred  text  is  into 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  173 

open  and  dosed  sections.  The  former,  wliicli  are  the  larger  of 
the  two,  are  so  named  because  in  the  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
and  in  some  printed  editions,  the  remainder  of  the  line  at  their 
close  is  left  open,  the  next  section  beginning  with  a  new  line. 
The  dosed  sections,  on  the  contrary,  are  separated  from  each 
other  only  by  a  space  in  the  middle  of  a  line — shut  in  on  either 
hand.  The  origin  of  these  sections  is  obscure.  They  answer 
in  a  general  way  to  our  sections  and  paragraphs,  and  are  older 
than  the  Talmud,  which  contains  several  references  to  them, 
belonging  at  least  to  the  earliest  time  when  the  sacred  books 
w^ere  read  in  public.  Davidson,  Biblical  Criticism,  vol.  1,  ch.  5. 
Different  from  these,  and  later  in  their  origin,  are  the  larger 
sections  of  the  Lcnv,  called  ParsMyoth  (from  the  singular  Para- 
shah,  section),  which  have  exclusive  reference  to  the  reading  of 
the  Law  in  the  synagogue  service.  These  are  fifty -four  in  num- 
ber, one  for  each  Sabbath  of  the  Jewish  intercalary  j^ear,  while 
on  common  j^ears  two  of  the  smaller  sections  are  united.  Cor- 
responding to  these  sections  of  the  Law  are  sections  from  the 
Prophets,  (the  former  and  latter,  according  to  the  Jewish  classi- 
fication,) called  Haphtaroth,  embracing,  however,  only  selections 
from  the  prophets,  and  not  the  whole,  as  do  the  sections  of  the 
Law.  The  Jewish  tradition  is  that  this  custom  was  first  intro- 
duced during  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  (about 
167  B.  c.,)  because  the  reading  of  the  Law  had  been  prohibited 
by  him.     But  this  account  of  the  matter  is  doubted  by  many. 

In  the  Pentateuch,  the  smaller  sections  called  open  and  closed  are  indi- 
cated, the  former  by  the  Hebrew  letter  |3  ,  that  is,  P,  the  initial  letter  of 
the  word  pethuhah,  open  ;  the  latter  by  the  Hebrew  letter  5=S,  the  first 
letter  of  the  word  sethumdJi,  closed.  The  larger  sections,  an-anged  for  the 
reading  of  the  Law  in  the  synagogues,  are  indicated  by  three  ^'s  or  three 
O's.  according  as  they  coincide  at  their  beginning  with  an  open  or  closed 
section.  In  the  other  portions  of  the  sacred  text  these  divisions  are  simply 
indicated  by  the  ai)propriate  spaces.  But  some  printed  editions  do  not 
obsjerve  the  distinction  between  the  two  in  respect  to  space,  so  that  the 
open  and  closed  sections  are  confounded  with  each  other. 

7.   Chapters  and  Verses.     The  division  of  the  poetical  books 
and  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  into  separate  lines,  Hebrew, 


17i  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

IjesuMm,  (answering  in  general  to  our  lialf-verses,  sometimes  to 
the  third  of  a  verse,)  is  very  ancient,  if  not  primitive.  It  is 
found  in  the  poetical  passages  of  the  Law  and  the  historical 
books,  (Exod.,  ch.  15;  Deut.,  ch.  32;  Judges,  ch.  5;  2  Sam., 
ch.  22,)  and  belonged  originally  to  the  three  books  of  Job, 
Psalms,  and  Proverbs,  which  alone  the  Hebrews  reckon  as 
poetical.  See  below,  Ch.  21,  No.  1.  The  division  of  the  whole 
Old  Testament  into  verses,  (likewise  called  by  the  Hebrews 
pesuJcim,)  is  also  the  work  of  Jewish  scholars.  It  existed  in  its 
completeness  in  the  ninth  century,  and  must  have  had  its  ori- 
gin much  earlier  in  the  necessity  that  grew  out  of  the  public 
reading  and  interpretation  of  the  sacred  books  in  the  syna- 
gogue service. 

In  the  Hebrew  text  the  verses  are  distinguished  by  two  points  called 
soph-pasuk  (  ♦  ),  except  in  the  synagogue  rolls,  where,  according  to  ancient 
usage,  this  mark  of  distinction  is. omitted. 

The  present  division  into  chapters  is  much  later,  and  is  the 
work  of  Christian  scholars.  By  some  it  is  ascribed  to  Stephen 
Langton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  died  in  1227;  by  oth- 
ers to  Cardinal  Hugo  de  St.  Cher  of  the  same  century.  The 
Jews  transferred  it  from  the  Latin  Yulgate  to  the  Hebrew  text. 
There  are,  however,  some  discrepancies  between  the  chapters 
of  the  Hebrew  text  and  those  of  the  Yulgate  and  our  English 
version. 

The  division  of  the  sacred  text  into  chapters  and  verses  is  indispensa- 
ble for  convenience  of  reference.  But  the  student  should  remember  that 
these  distinctions  are  wholly  of  human  origin,  and  sometimes  separate  pas- 
sages closely  connected  in  meaning.  The  first  verse,  for  examj)le,  of  Isa- 
iah, ch.  4,  is  immediately  connected  in  sense  with  the  threatenings  against 
"the  daughters  of  Zion"  contained  in  the  close  of  the  preceding  chaj)ter. 
In  the  beginning  of  ch.  11  of  tlie  same  book,  the  words  :  "And  there  shall 
come  forth  a  rod  out  of  the  stem  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch  shall  grow  out 
of  his  roots,"  contrast  the  Branch  of  the  Messiah  with  the  Assyrian  bough, 
the  lopping  off  of  which  has  just  been  foretold  ;  chajD.  10  :  33,  34.  The 
last  three  verses,  again,  of  Isaiah,  ch,  52,  evidently  belong  to  the  following 
chapter.  The  connections  of  the  sacred  text,  therefore,  must  be  deter- 
mined independently  of  these  human  distinctions. 


THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.  175 


CHAPTEK  XIV. 

The  Original  Text  and  its  History. 

1.  The  original  language  of  the  Old  Testament  is  Hehreiv, 
with  the  exception  of  certain  portions  of  Ezra  and  Daniel  and  a 
single  verse  of  Jeremiah,  (Ezra  4 :  8-6 :  18 ;  7  :  12-26 ;  Dan.  2  : 4, 
from  the  middle  of  the  verse  to  end  of  chap.  7 ;  Jer.  10 :  11,) 
which  are  written  in  the  cognate  Chaldee  language.  The  He- 
brew belongs  to  a  stock  of  related  languages  commonly  called 
Shemttic,  because  spoken  mainly  by  the  descendants  of  Shem. 
Its  main  divisions  are:  (1,)  the  Arabic,  having  its  original  seat 
in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Shemitic  territory,  and  of  which 
the  ^thiopic  is  a  branch ;  (2,)  the  Aramcean  in  the  north  and 
northeast,  comprising  the  eastern  Aramaean  or  Chaldee,  and 
the  western  or  Syriac ;  (3,)  the  Hehreiv,  occupying  a  middle 
place  between  the  two.  The  Samaritan  is  essentially  Ara- 
maean, but  with  an  intermixture  of  Hebrew  forms;  the  Phoeni- 
cian, or  Punic,  on  the  other  hand,  is  most  closely  allied  to  the 
Hebrew.  All  these  languages,  with  the  exception  of  the  ^thi- 
opic,  are  written  from  right  to  left,  and  exhibit  many  peculiar- 
ities of  orthography  and  grammatical  forms  and  structure. 

2.  The  Hebrew  characters  in  present  use,  called  the  Assyr- 
ian, or  square  writing,  are  not  those  originally  employed.  The 
earlier  form  is  undoubtedly  represented  by  the  inscriptions  on 
the  coins  struck  by  the  Maccabees,  of  which  the  letters  bear  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  Samaritan  and  Phoenician  charac- 
ters. The  Jewish  tradition  is  that  the  present  square  character 
was  introduced  by  Ezra,  and  that  it  was  of  Assyrian  origin. 
The  question  of  the  correctness  of  this  tradition  has  been  much 
discussed.  Some  wholly  reject  it,  and  hold  that  the  present 
square  writing  came  by  a  gradual  process  of  change  from  a 
more  ancient  type.     See  Davidson's  Bib.  Crit..  vol.  1,  ch.  3. 


176  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

That  the  present  square  writing  existed  in  onr  Saviour's  day  has  been 
argued  with  much  force  from  Matth.  5  :  18,  where  the  Saviour  says  :  ' '  Till 
heaven  and  earth  jDass,  one  jot  [iota)  or  one  tittle  [keraia]  shall  in  no  wise 
pass  from  the  law,  till  all  be  fulfilled."  The  iota  (Hebrew  yod)  is  the  letter 
i  or  y,  which  in  the  square  w^riting  is  the  smallest  in  the  alphabet  ( ^ ),  but 
not  in  the  ancient  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  or  Samaritan.  Tlie  kera:ia,  little 
turn,  is  that  which  distinguishes  one  letter  from  another ;  as  "^ ,  c?,  from 
*) ,  r  ;  or  ^  ,  &,  from  3  >  ^-  ^^e  Alf ord  on  Matth.  5  :  18.  [The  recent  dis- 
covery in  the  Crimea  of  inscriptions  on  the  tombs  of  Caraite  Jew'S,  some 
of  them  dating  back,  it  is  alleged,  to  the  first  century,  proves  that  the 
Assyrian  or  square  character  w^as  then  in  use.  In  these  inscriptions  the 
Yod  (iota)  is  represented  by  a  simple  point.  See  Alexander's  Kitto,  vol. 
3,  p.  1173.] 

The  Rahhinic  is  a  modification  of  the  Assyrian  or  square  writing,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  it  a  more  cursive  character. 

3.  The  Hebrew  alplicibet,  like  all  the  other  Sliemitic  alpha- 
bets— with  the  exception  of  the  iEthiopic,  which  is  syllabic,  the 
vowels  being  indicated  by  certain  modifications  in  the  forms  of 
the  consonants — was  originally  a  skeleton  alphabet,  an  alpha- 
bet of  consonants,  in  which,  however,  certain  letters,  called 
vowel-letters,  performed  in  a  measure  the  office  of  vowels.  The 
Shemite  did  not  separate  the  vow^els  from  the  consonants,  and 
express  them,  as  we  do,  by  separate  signs.  He  rather  con- 
ceived of  the  vowels  as  inhering  in  the  consonants — as  modifi- 
cations in  the  utterance  of  the  consonants,  which  the  reader 
could  make  for  himself.  Various  particulars  in  respect  to  the 
pronunciation  of  certain  consonants  were,  in  like  manner,  left 
to  the  reader's  own  knowledge.  For  example,  the  three  He- 
brew letters,  ^^  sh;  f2  ^  i'^^'  /  1 ,  ^',(l/!2^;to  be  read  from  right  to 
left,)  might  be  pronounced,  shamar,  he  kept ;  shemor,  keep  tJiou  ; 
shomer,  keeping — the  reader  determining  from  the  connection 
which  of  these  forms  should  be  used,  just  as  we  decide  in  Eng- 
lish between  the  different  pronunciations  of  the  word  boiv.  As 
long  as  the  Hebrew  remained  a  living  language,  that  is,  the 
language  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  this  outline  alphabet  was 
sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  modern  Arabs  read 
without  difficulty  their  ordinary  books,  which  omit,  in  like  man- 
ner, the  signs  for  the  vowels.      The  regularity  of  structure 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  177 

which  belongs  to  the  Shemitic  languages  generally,  makes  this 
omission  less  inconvenient  for  them  than  a  like  omission  would 
be  for  us  in  our  western  tongues. 

4.  During  the  long  Babylonish  captivity  the  mass  of  the 
Jewish  people,  who  were  born  and  educated  in  Babylon  and 
the  adjacent  regions,  adopted  of  necessity  the  language  of  the 
country;  that  is,  the  Aramaean  or  Chaldee  language.  After 
the  exile,  the  Hebrew  was  indeed  spoken  and  written  by  the 
prophets  and  learned  men,  but  not  by  the  people  at  large.  In 
Nehemiah  8  : 8  we  are  told  that  "  they  read  in  the  book  in  the 
law  of  God  distinctly,  and  gave  the  sense,  and  caused  them  to 
understand  the  reading."  This  has  been  explained  by  some 
as  meaning  simply  that  they  expounded  to  them  the  sense. 
But  the  more  natural  meaning  is  that  they  inferpreted  to  the 
people  the  words  read  from  the  law.  We  find,  soon  after  the 
captivity  at  least,  the  old  Hebrew  supplanted  as  a  living  lan- 
guage among  the  people  at  large  by  the  Aramaean  or  Chaldee. 
Why  not  date  the  change  from  the  latter  part  of  the  captivity 
itself? 

It  was  natural  that  tlie  prophets  and  historians,  all  of  whom  wrote  soon 
after  the  exile,  should  emx^loy  the  sacred  language  of  their  fathers.  This 
fact  cannot  be  adduced  as  a  valid  argument  that  the  body  of  the  people 
continued  to  speak  Hebrew.  The  incorporation,,  on  the  other  hand,  of 
long  passages  in  Chaldee  into  the  books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra  implies  at  least 
that  this  language  was  known  to  the  peoi^le  at  large.  As  to  the  children 
spoken  of  in  Neh.  13  :  24,  who  "could  not  speak  in  the  Jews'  language, 
but  according  to  the  language  of  eacli  people  " — the  i)eople,  to  wit,  to 
which  their  mothers  belonged — "the  Jews'  language"  here  is  probably 
the  language  used  by  the  Jews,  as  distinguished  from  that  used  by  the 
j)eople  of  Ashdod,  Ammon,  and  Moab.  Keil,  Introduction  to  Old  Testa- 
ment, ^  18. 

5.  After  the  Hebrew  had  ceased  to  be  the  language  of  the 
common  peojDle,  its  traditional  pronunciation  was  carefully 
preserved  for  many  successive  centuries  in  the  synagogue-read- 
ing. It  was  not  till  several  centuries  after  Christ  (somewhere 
between  the  sixth  and  the  tenth  centuries)  that  the  vowel-signs 
and  other  marks  of  distinction  were  added  in  order  to  perpet- 


178  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

uate,  with  all  possible  accuracy,  tlie  solemn  traditional  pronun- 
ciation of  the  synagogue.  This  work  is  ascribed  to  learned 
Jews  of  Tiberias,  called  3fasoretes,  from  llasora,  tradition  ;  and 
the  Hebrew  text  thus  furnished  by  them  is  called  the  3fasoretiCy 
in  distinction  from  the  iinpointed  text,  which  latter  is,  according 
to  Jewish  usage,  retained  in  the  synagogue-rolls.  From  rever- 
ence to  the  word  of  God,  the  jounduators  (as  these  men  are  also 
called)  left  the  primitive  text  in  all  cases  undisturbed,  simply 
superadding  to  it  their  marks  of  distinction.  After  giving  with 
great  minuteness  the  different  vowel-signs  and  marks  (com- 
monly called  diacritical)  for  the  varying  pronunciation  of  the 
consonants,  they  superadded  a  complicated  system  of  accents. 
These  serve  the  threefold  office  of  guides  in  cantUlating  the 
sacred  text  (according  to  ancient  usage  in  the  synagogue-read- 
ing) ;  of  indicating  the  connection  in  meaning  among  the  words 
and  clauses ;  and  of  marking,  though  with  certain  exceptions, 
the  tone-syllahles  of  words.  In  addition  to  all  the  above,  they 
added  a  mass  of  notes,  partly  of  a  critical  and  partly  of  a  gram- 
matical character,  relating  to  various  readings,  grammatical 
forms  and  connections,  modes  of  orthography,  and  the  like. 
These  are  called  collectively  the  3IasoraJi,  of  which  there  is  a 
fuller  Masorah  called  the  greater  (found  only  in  Kabbinical 
Bibles),  and  a  briefer,  called  the  less,  the  main  part  of  which 
is  found  in  common  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  To  illus- 
trate the  llasoretic  as  contrasted  with  the  unpointed  text,  we 
give  the  first  verse  of  Genesis,  first,  in  its  simple  unpointed 
form ;  secondly,  with  the  vowel-signs  and  diacritical  marks  for 
the  consonants ;  tJiirdly,  with  both  these  and  the  accents,  the 
last  being  the  complete  Masoretic  text. 


T  T 


ha-arets.      ve-etli  liasshamayim   eili        eloliim       hara        Bereshiih 
the-earth.     and-it      the-lieavens    them       God       created  In-ihe-heginning 


THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.  179 

The  round  circle  above  the  initial  letter  in  the  third  line  refers  to  a 
marginal  note  of  tlie  Masorah  indicating  that  it  is  to  bo  written  large. 

Eespecting  the  origin  and  antiquity  of  tlie  Hebrew  points  a  warm  con- 
troversy existed  in  former  times.  Some  maintained  that  they  were  coeval 
with  the  language  itself ;  others  that  they  were  first  introduced  by  Ezra 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity.  But  their  later  origin — somewhere  be- 
tween the  sixth  and  tenth  centuries — ^is  now  generally  conceded.  It  is 
further  agreed  that  their  inventors  were  able  scholars,  thoroughly  acquaint- 
ed as  well  with  the  genius  and  structure  of  the  language  as  with  the  tradi- 
tional pronunciation  of  the  synagogue  ;  and  that  they  have  given  a  faithful 
representation  of  this  pronunciation,  as  it  existed  in  their  day.  Their 
judgment,  therefore,  though  not  invested  with  any  divine  authority,  is 
very  valuable.  ' '  It  represents  a  tradition,  it  is  true ;  but  a  tradition  of 
the  oldest  and  most  important  character. "  Home's  Introduction,  vol.  2, 
p.  15,  edition  of  1860. 

6.  The  deep  reverence  of  the  Jews  for  their  sacred  books 
manifests  itself  in  their  numerous  rules  for  the  guidance  of 
copyists  in  the  transcription  of  the  rolls  designed  for  use  in  the 
synagogue  service.  They  extend  to  every  minute  particular — 
the  quality  of  the  ink  and  the  parchment  (which  latter  must 
always  be  prepared  by  a  Jew  from  the  skin  of  a  clean  animal, 
and  fastened  by  strings  made  from  the  skins  of  clean  animals) ; 
the  number,  length,  and  breadth  of  the  columns ;  the  number 
of  lines  in  each  column,  and  the  number  of  words  in  each  line. 
No  w^ord  must  be  written  till  the  copyist  has  first  inspected  it 
in  the  example  before  him,  and  pronounced  it  aloud ;  before 
w'riting  the  name  of  God  he  must  wash  his  pen ;  all  redun- 
dance or  defect  of  letters  must  be  carefully  avoided ;  prose 
must  not  be  written  as  verse,  or  verse  as  prose  ;  and  when  the 
copy  has  been  completed,  it  must  be  examined  for  approval  or 
rejection  wdthin  thirty  days.  Superstitious,  and  even  ridiculous, 
as  these  rules  are,  we  have  in  them  a  satisfactory  assurance  of 
the  fidelity  with  which  the  sacred  text  has  been  perpetuated. 
Though  their  date  may  be  posterior  to  the  age  of  the  Talmud- 
ists  (between  200  and  500  after  Christ),  the  spirit  of  reverence 
for  the  divine  word  which  they  manifest  goes  far  back  beyond 
this  age.  We  see  it,  free  from  these  later  superstitious  obser- 
vances, in  the  transactions  recorded  in  the  eighth  chapter  of 


180  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Nehemiali,  when  Ezra  oj^ened  the  book  of  the  law  in  the  sight 
of  all  the  people,  "  and  wdien  he  opened  it,  all  the  people  stood 
up."  The  early  history  of  the  sacred  text  is  confessedly  in- 
volved in  great  obscurity;  but  in  the  profound  reverence  with 
which  the  Jews  have  ever  regarded  it  since  the  captivity,  w-e 
have  satisfactory  proof  that  it  has  come  down  to  us,  in  all 
essential  particulars,  as  Ezra  left  it.  Of  the  primitive  text 
before  the  days  of  Ezra  and  his  associates  we  have  but  a  few 
brief  notices  in  the  historical  books.  But  in  the  fidelity  and 
skill  of  Ezra,  who  was  "  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses, 
which  the  Lord  God  of  Israel  had  given,"  as  well  as  in  the 
intelligence  and  deep  earnestness  of  the  men  associated  with 
him,  w^e  have  a  reasonable  ground  of  assurance  that  the  sacred 
books  which  have  come  down  to  us  through  their  hands  con- 
tain, in  all  essential  particulars,  the  primitive  text  in  a  pure 
and  un corrupt  form. 

7.  As  to  the  age  of  Hebrew  manuscripts,  it  is  to  be  noticed 
that  not  many  have  come  down  to  us  from  an  earlier  century 
than  the  tw-elfth.  In  this  respect  there  is  a  striking  difference 
between  them  and  the  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts  of  the 
New  Testament,  a  few  of  which  are  as  old  as  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  and  quite  a  number  anterior  to  the  tenth.  The 
oldest  known  Hebrew  manuscript,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  Penta- 
teuch roll  on  leather,  now  at  Odessa,  which,  if  the  subscription 
stating  that  it  was  corrected  in  the  year  580  can  be  relied  on, 
belongs  to  the  sixth  century.  One  of  De  Rossi's  manuscripts 
is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  eighth  century,  and  there  are  a 
few  of  the  ninth  and  tenth,  and  several  of  the  eleventh.  Bishop 
Walton  supposes  that  after  the  Masoretic  text  was  fully  settled, 
the  Jewish  rulers  condemned,  as  profane  and  illegitimate,  all 
the  older  manuscripts  not  conformed  to  this :  wdience,  after  a 
few  ages,  the  rejected  copies  mostly  perished.  The  existing 
Hebrew  manuscripts  give  the  Masoretic  text  with  but  little 
variation  from  each  other. 

Earnest  effort  has  been  made  to  find  a  reliable  ante-Masoretic  text,  biit 
to  no  purpose.     The  search  in  China  has  thus  far  been  fruitless.     When 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  181 

Dr.  Buchanan  in  1806  brought  from  India  a  synagogue-roll  which  ho 
found  among  the  Jews  of  Malabar,  high  expectations  were  raised.  But  it 
is  now  conceded  to  be  a  Masoretic  roll,  probably  of  Eiiroi^ean  origin. 
Eespecting  the  manuscrixDts  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  see  below.  No.  9. 
[A  synagogue-roll  has  recently  been  discovered  in  the  Crimea  of  the 
date  answering  to  a.  d.  489.     See  Alexander's  Kitto,  vol.  3,  pp.  1172-5.] 

8.  In  respect  to  form,  Hebrew  manuscripts  fall  into  two 
great  divisions,  louhlic  and  private.  The  public  manuscripts 
consist  of  synagogue-rolls  carefully  written  out  on  parchment,  as 
already  described,  without  vowel-points  or  divisions  of  verses. 
The  Law  is  written  on  a  single  roll ;  the  sections  from  the 
prophets  (Haphtaroth,  ch.  12.  6)  and  the  Five  Eolls — Canticles, 
Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther  (ch.  12.  4) — each  on 
separate  rolls.  The  private  manuscripts  are  written  loltli  leaves 
in  book  form — folio,  quarto,  octavo,  and  duodecimo ;  mostly  on 
parchment,  but  some  of  the  later  on  paper.  The  poetical  pas- 
sages are  generally  arranged  in  hemisticlis ;  the  rest  is  in  col- 
umns which  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  page.  The  text. 
and  points  were  always  written  separately ;  the  former  with  a 
heavier,  the  latter  with  a  lighter  pen,  and  generally  with  differ- 
ent ink.  The  square  or  Assyrian  character  is  employed  as  a 
rule,  but  a  few  are  written  in  the  rabbinic  character.  The 
Chaldee  paraphrase  (less  frequently  some  other  version)  may 
be  added.  The  margin  contains  more  or  less  of  the  Masorah; 
sometimes  prayers,  psalms,  rabbinical  commentaries,  etc. 

9.  There  is  also  a  Samaritan  Pentateuch;  that  is,  a  Hebrew 
Pentateuch  written  in  the  ancient  Samaritan  characters,  and 
first  brought  to  light  in  1616,  respecting  the  origin  of  which 
very  different  opinions  are  held.  Some  suppose  that  the  Samar- 
itans received  it  as  an  inheritance  from  the  ten  tribes ;  others 
that  it  was  introduced  at  the  time  of  the  founding  of  the  Samar- 
itan temple  on  Mount  Gerizim ;  others  that  it  was  brought  by 
the  Israelitish  priest  sent  to  instruct  the  Samaritans  in  the 
knowledge  of  God,  2  Kings  17 :  27,  28.  It  is  agreed  among 
biblical  scholars  that  its  text  has  been  subjected  to  many  alter- 
ations which  greatly  impair  its  critical  authority.     These,  how- 


182  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ever,  are  not  suiScient  to  account  for  its  remarkable  agreement 
with  the  Septuagint  version  against  the  Masoretic  text,  in 
numerous  readings,  some  of  them  of  importance.  The  explana- 
tion of  this  phenomenon  must  be  the  agreement  of  the  original 
Samaritan  codex  with  the  manuscripts  from  which  the  Alexan- 
drine version  was  executed.  Probably  both  were  of  Egyptian 
origin.     See  Alexander's  Kitto,  art.  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

In  a  brief  compend,  like  the  present  work,  it  is  not  thought  necessary 
to  notice  particularly  the  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  The 
reader  will  find  an  account  of  them  in  the  "Bibliographical  List "  appended 
to  the  fourth  volume  of  Home's  Introduction,  edition  of  1860.  The  text 
of  Yan  der  Hooght's  Hebrew  Bible,  (Amsterdam  and  Utrecht,  1705,)  which 
was  chiefly  based  on  the  earlier  text  of  Athias,  (Amsterdam,  1667,)  is  gen- 
erally followed  at  the  present  day,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  received 
text  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT  183 


CHAPTEE    XV. 

Formation  and   Wistory  of   the    fiEBREW    Canon. 

1.  The  Greek  word  canon  (originally  a  straight  rod  or  polcy 
measuring-rod,  then  rule)  denotes  that  collection  of  books  which 
the  churches  receive  as  given  by  inspiration  of  God,  and  there- 
fore as  constituting  for  them  a  divinerule  of  faith  and  practice. 
To  the  books  included  in  it  the  term  canonical  is  applied.  The 
Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  considered  in  reference  to  its  con- 
stituent parts,  was  formed  gradually ;  formed  under  divine 
superintendence  by  a  process  of  growth  extending  through 
many  centuries.  The  history  of  its  formation  may  be  conveni- 
ently considered  under  the  following  divisions :  (1,)  the  Penta- 
teuch; (2,)  the  historical  books;  (3,)  the  prophetical  books  in  the 
stricter  sense  of  the  term  ;  (4,)  a  somewhat  miscellaneous  col- 
lection of  books  which  may  be  designated  in  a  general  way  as 
poetical. 

I.    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

2.  In  the  name  applied  to  the  Pentateuch — "  the  book  of 
the  law,"  and  more  fully,  "  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses,"  "  the 
book  of  the  law  of  Moses,  which  the  Lord  had  commanded  to 
Israel" — we  have  from  the  beginning  the  general  idea  of  the 
canon.  A  canonical  writing  is  one  that  contains  a  communica- 
tion from  God  to  men,  and  has  therefore  the  impress  of  divine 
authority.  In  its  outward  form  it  may  be  preceptive,  historical, 
or  meditative.  But  in  all  these  different  modes  it  still  reveals 
to  men  God's  character,  and  the  duties  which  he  requires  of 
them.  The  Hebrews  never  admitted  to  the  number  of  their 
sacred  books  a  writing  that  was  secular  in  its  character.  Even 
those  who  deny  the  canonical  authority  of  certain  parts  of  the 


184  COMPANION   TO   THE  BIBLE. 

Old  Testament  acknowledge  that  the  Jews  received  these  parts 
because  they  believed  them  to  be  of  a  sacred  character. 

3.  In  Deut.  31:9-13,  24-26;  17:18,  19,  we  read:  "And 
Moses  wrote  this  law,  and  delivered  it  unto  the  priests  the  sons 
of  Levi,  which  bare  the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord,  and 
unto  all  the  elders  of  Israel.  And  Moses  commanded  them, 
saying,  At  the  end  of  every  seven  years,  in  the  solemnity  of  the 
year  of  release,  in  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  when  all  Israel  is 
come  to  appear  before  the  Lord  thy  God  in  the  place  which  he 
shall  choose,  thou  shalt  read  this  law  before  all  Israel  in  their 
hearing.  Gather  the  people  together,  men,  and  women,  and 
children,  and  thy  stranger  that  is  within  thy  gates,  that  they 
may  hear,  and  that  they  may  learn,  and  fear  the  Lord  your  God, 
and  observe  to  do  all  the  words  of  this  law:  and  that  their 
children  which  have  not  known  anything,  may  hear,  and  learn 
to  fear  the  Lord  your  God,  as  long  as  ye  live  in  the  land 
whither  ye  go  over  Jordan  to  possess  it;"  "and  it  came  to 
pass,  when  Moses  had  made  an  end  of  writing  the  words  of 
this  law  in  a  book,  until  they  were  finished,  that  Moses  com- 
manded the  Levites,  which  bare  the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the 
Lord,  saying,  Take  this  book  of  the  law,  and  put  it  in  the  side" 
(that  is,  not  icitldn,  but  hy  the  side.  Compare  Josh.  12  :  9  ;  Kutli 
2  :  14 ;  1  Sam.  20  :  25  ;  Psa.  91 :  7  ;  where  the  same  word  is  used 
in  the  original)  "  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord  your 
God,  that  it  may  be  there  for  a  witness  against  thee ;"  "  and  it 
shall  be  when  he"— the  king  whom  the  Israelites  in  some  future 
age  shall  set  over  themselves — "  sitteth  upon  the  throne  of  his 
kingdom,  that  he  shall  write  him  a  copy  of  this  law  in  a  book 
out  of  that  w^iich  is  before  the  priests  the  Levites  :  and  it  shall 
be  with  him,  and  he  shall  read  therein  all  the  days  of  his  life ; 
that  he  may  learn  to  fear  the  Lord  his  God,  to  keep  all  the 
words  of  this  law  and  the  statutes,  to  do  them."  These  passa- 
ges are  of  the  w^eightiest  import;  for  they  teach  us  how  the 
nucleus  of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  was  formed,  and  give 
us  all  the  particulars  that  enter  into  the  idea  of  a  canonical 
writing.     It  is  given  by  God  as  an  authoritative  rule  of  faith 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  183 

and  practice ;  it  is  committed  to  the  custody  of  liis  people 
tlirougli  their  recognized  officers,  and  that  for  all  future  time ; 
it  is  to  be  published  to  the  people  at  large,  and  diligently  stud- 
ied by  the  rulers,  that  they  and  the  people  together  m*ay  know 
and  do  the  will  of  God.  It  is  not  necessary  to  decide  the  ques- 
tion how  much  is  included  in  the  words  "  this  book  of  the  law," 
Deut.  31 :  26,  whether  the  whole  Pentateuch,  or  only  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy.  The  arguments  to  show  that  the  four  pre- 
ceding books  came,  in  all  essential  respects,  from  the  pen  of 
Moses  nave  been  already  given  (Ch.  9,  Nos.  7-9),  and  need  not 
be  here  repeated.  We  only  add  that  even  if  the  reference  is  to 
Deuteronomy  alone,  as  some  suppose,  the  rule  for  this  book 
would  naturally  be  the  rule  for  all  the  previous  writings.  They 
also  would  be  laid  up  by  the  side  of  the  ark ;  for  it  is  plain 
that  the  priests  and  Levites,  who  had  charge  of  the  sanctuary, 
were  made  the  keepers  of  the  sacred  writiugs  generally. 

As  a  matter  of  simple  convenience  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  was  Avrit- 
ten  on  a  separate  roll  ("in  a  book,"  Deut.  31  :24).  But  if  this  book, 
when  finished,  was  laid  up  with  the  earlier  portions  of  the  law  at  the  side 
of  the  ark,  so  as  to  constitute  with  them  a  single  collection,  and  if,  as  we 
may  reasonably  suppose,  Moses,  in  writing  the  book  of  Deuteronomy, 
contemplated  such  a  collection  of  all  the  jDarts  of  the  law  into  one  whole  ; 
then,  when  the  law  is  mentioned,  whether  in  Deuteronomy  or  in  the  later 
books,  we  are  to  understand  the  whole  law,  unless  there  be  something  in 
the  context  to  limit  its  meaning,  as  there  is,  for  example,  in  Joshua  8  :  32 
compared  with  Deut.  27  : 1-8.  The  command  to  "read  this  law  before  all 
Israel  in  their  hearing,"  "  at  tlie  end  of  every  seven  years,  in  the  solem- 
nity of  the  year  of  release,  in  the  feast  of  tabernacles,"  was  understood  in 
the  days  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  of  the  whole  law,  and  not  of  Deuteronomy 
alone  (Ch.  9,  No.  4) ;  and  so  Josephus  plainly  understood  it  :  "  But  when  the 
multitude  is  assembled  in  the  holy  city  at  the  septennial  sacrifices  on  the 
occasion  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  let  the  high  iDriest,  standing  on  a  lofty 
stage  whence  he  can  be  plainly  heard,  read  the  laws  to  all."  Antiq.  4.  8, 
12.  "The  laws,"  in  the  usage  of  Josephus,  naturally  mean  the  whole 
collection  of  laws. 

II.     THE  HISTOEICAL  BOOKS. 

4.  The  history  of  these  is  involved  in  obscurity.     In  respect 
to  most  of  them  we  know  not  the  authors,  nor  the  exact  date  of 


186  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

their  composition.     There  are,  however,  two  notices  that  shed 
much   light   on  the  general  history  of  the  earlier  historical 
books.     In  the  last  chapter  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  after  an 
account  of  the  renewal  of  the  covenant  at  Shechem,  it  is  added : 
"  And  Joshua  wrote  these  words  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God, 
and  took  a  great  stone,  and  set  it  up  there  under  an  oak  that 
was  by  the  sanctuary  of  the  Lord."    Josh.  24  :  26.    Again,  upon 
the  occasion  of  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  under  Saul, 
we  are  told  that  "  Samuel  told  the  people  the  manner  of  the 
kingdom,  and  wrote  it  in  a  book,  and  laid  it  up  before  the 
Lord."     1  Sam.  10  :  25.     From  the  first  of  these  passages  we 
learn  that  a  theocratic  man  after  Moses,  who  had  the  spirit  of 
prophecy,  connected  his  writings  (or  at  least  one  portion  of 
them)  with  the  law.     This  addition  by  Joshua,  though  never 
formally  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  law,  virtually  belonged  to  it, 
since  it  contained  a  renewal  of  the  covenant  between  God  and 
his  people.     From  the  second  passage  we  learn  that  the  place 
for  other  important  documents  pertaining  to  the  theocracy  was 
*'  before  the  Lord,"  where  the  law  was  deposited.     Hence  we 
infer  with  much  probability  that,  besides  the  addition  made  to 
"  the  book  of  the  law  of  God,"  important  historical  writings, 
proceeding  from  prophetical  men,  like  Joshua  and  Samuel, 
were  in  process  of  collection  at  the  sanctuary,  all  the  time  from 
Moses  to  Samuel. 

5.  If  now  we  examine  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges,  we 
must  be  satisfied  that  the  men  who  compiled  them  made  use  of 
such  materials.  In  the  book  of  Joshua  is  recorded,  with  much 
detail,  the  allotment  of  the  land  of  Canaan  among  the  several 
tribes.  A  document  of  this  nature  must  have  been  written  at 
the  time,  and  by  Joshua  himself,  or  under  his  immediate  direc- 
tion. The  same  may  be  reasonably  supposed  of  other  portions 
of  the  book.  If  then  it  was  put  into  its  present  form  after  the 
death  of  Joshua,  as  some  suppose,  the  materials  must  still  have 
been  furnished  by  him  to  a  great  extent.  The  book  of  Judges 
covers  a  period  of  more  than  three  centuries.  "^Yho  composed 
it  we  do  not  know,  but  the  materials  employed  by  him  must 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  187 

Lave  existed,  in  part  at  least,  in  a  written  form.     The  book  of 
Kuth  may  be  regarded  as  an  appendix  to  that  of  the  Judges. 

6.  The  two  books  of  Samuel  (which  originally  constituted 
one  whole)  bring  down  the  histoL-y  of  the  Theocracy  from  the 
birth  of  Samuel  to  the  close  of  David's  reign — a  period  of  about 
a  century  and  a  half.  The  author,  therefore,  can  have  been, 
upon  any  supposition,  only  in  part  contemporary  with  the 
events  which  he  records.  Yet  if  we  examine  the  biographical 
sketches  of  Saul,  Samuel,  and  David  contained  in  these  books, 
the  conviction  forces  itself  upon  us  that  they  must  have  been 
written  by  contemporaries.  Their  freshness,  minute  accuracy 
of  detail,  and  graphic  vividness  of  style  mark  them  as  coming 
from  eye-witnesses,  or  from  writers  who  had  received  their 
accounts  from  eye-witnesses.  Who  were  authors  of  these  origi- 
nal documents  we  cannot  determine.  It  is  certain  that  Sam- 
uel was  one  of  them.  1  Chron.  29  :  29.  Who  composed  the 
books,  again,  is  a  question  that  we  are  unable  to  answer.  It 
was  probably  a  prophet  living  not  very  long  after  the  separa- 
tion of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah.  From  the  days  of 
Samuel  and  onward  there  was  a  flourishing  school  of  the  proph- 
ets at  hand  which  could  furnish,  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  both  the  writers  of  the  original  materials  and  the 
author  of  the  books  in  their  present  form. 

The  attempt  has  been  made  to  set  aside  the  evidence  that  the  writer  of 
the  books  of  Samuel  made  use  of  ei'.rlier  documents,  from  the  example  of 
such  men  as  Swift  and  Defoe,  who  composed  works  of  fiction  with  all  the 
simjplicity  and  circumstantial  detail  of  those  who  write  authentic  history  as 
eye-witnesses.  But,  unless  the  design  be  to  class  the  books  of  Samuel  with 
"Gulliver's  Travels"  and  "Eobinson  Crusoe,"  the  argument  is  wholly 
irrelevant.  With  Swift  and  Defoe  simplicity  and  minuteness  of  detail  were 
a  matter  of  conscious  effort — a  work  of  art,  for  which  they  naturally  chose 
the  region  of  fiction ;  and  here  they,  and  other  men  of  genius,  have  been 
eminently  successful.  Shakespeare  has  portrayed  ideal  scenes  in  the  life  of 
Julius  Caesar  with  more  vividness  and  circumstantiality  than  any  authentic 
historian  of  Csesar's  age.  But  real  history,  written  simply  in  the  interest 
of  truth,  never  has  the  graphic  character,  artless  simj^licity,  and  circum- 
stantiality of  detail  which  belong  to  these  inimitable  narratives,  unless  the 
Arriter  be  eitlier  an  eye-witness,  or  draw  his  materials  from  eye-witnesses. 


188  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

7.  We  come  next  to  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  the 
writers  of  which  corfessedly  employed  previously  existing  mate- 
rials. In  the  two  books  of  Kings  (which,  like  the  two  of  Sam- 
uel and  of  Chronicles,  originally  constituted  one  work)  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  following  sources :  For  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon, "  the  book  of  the  acts  of  Solomon  "  (1  Kings  11 :  41) ;  for 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  after  the  revolt  of  the  twelve  tribes  from 
Rehoboam  to  Jehoiakim,  "  the  book  of  the  chronicles  of  the 
kings  of  Judah;"  for  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  "the  book  of  the 
chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Israel."  In  the  books  of  Chronicles 
we  have:  For  the  reign  of  David,  ''the  book"  (history)  "of 
Samuel  the  seer,  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  the  book 
of  Gad  the  seer  "  (1  Chron.  29  :  29) ;  for  the  reign  of  Solomon, 
"  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  the  prophecy  of  Ahijah  the 
Shilonite,"  and  "  the  vision  of  Iddo  the  seer  against  Jeroboam 
the  son  of  Nebat  (2  Chron.  9:29) ;  for  the  reign  of  Eehoboam, 
"the  book  of  Shemaiah  the  prophet,"  and  "of  Iddo  the  seer 
concerning  genealogies,"  that  is,  in  the  manner  of  a  genealogi- 
cal record  (2  Chron.  12  :  15) ;  for  the  reign  of  Abijah,  "  the 
story  "  (commentary)  "of  the  prophet  Iddo  "  (2  Chron.  13  :  22) ; 
for  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  "  the  book  of  Jehu  the  son  of 
Hanani,"  who  is  mentioned  (rather,  loho  is  inserted,  i.  e.,  as  an 
author)  in  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel  (2  Chron.  20  :  34) ;  for 
the  reign  of  Uzziah,  "  the  prophet  Isaiah  "  (2  Chron.  26 :  22) ; 
for  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  in  part,  "the  vision  of  Isaiah  the 
prophet"  (2  Chron.  32  :  32);  for  the  reign  of  Manasseh  in  part, 
"  the  sayings  of  the  seers,"  or,  as  many  prefer  to  render,  "  the 
words  of  Hosai"  (2  Chron.  33  :  18).  Besides  the  above,  refer- 
ence is  made  to  "  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel," 
"the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,"  "the  story  of  the 
book  of  the  kings;"  "the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel."  These 
last  are  probably  only  different  titles  of  the  same  collection  of 
annals,  embracing  in  its  contents  the  history  of  hoth  kingdoms ; 
since  the  references  to  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel  are  for 
the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  20:  34;  33 :  18). 

8.  With  regard  to  the  above  original  sources,  it  should  be 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  ISO 

carefully  noticed  that  tlie  references  in  the  books  of  Kings  are 
not  to  our  present  books  of  Chronicles,  which  did  not  exist 
when  the  books  of  Kings  were  written.  Chap.  20,  No.  21.  Nei- 
ther can  the  allusions  in  the  books  of  Chronicles  be  restricted 
to  our  present  books  of  Kings ;  for  (1)  they  refer  to  matters 
not  recorded  in  those  books — for  example,  to  the  wars  of  Jo- 
tham,  2  Chron.  27 : 7;  (2)  they  refer  to  the  book  of  the  kings  of 
Judah  and  Israel  for  2ifuU  account  of  the  acts  of  a  given  mon- 
arch "  first  and  last,"  while  the  history  of  the  same  monarch  in 
our  present  books  of  Kings  refers  ioT  further  information  to  the 
book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Judah.  It  is  plain  that 
both  writers  had  access  to  a  larger  collection  of  original  documents ^ 
which  were  in  great  part  the  same.  The  chief  difference  in 
outward  form  is  that,  when  the  books  of  Chronicles  were  writ- 
ten, the  annals  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  seem 
to  have  constituted  a  single  collection,  whereas  in  the  books  of 
Kings  they  are  always  mentioned  as  two  separate  works.  In 
making  his  selections  from  these  annals,  each  writer  proceeded 
independently.  Hence  the  remarkable  agreements,  where  both 
used  the  same  materials ;  and  the  remarkable  differences,  where 
one  employed  documents,  or  parts  of  documents,  which  the 
other  omitted  to  use. 

9.  As  to  the  character  of  these  original  documents,  it  is  plain 
that  a  portion  of  them  were  written  by  prophets.  By  some  the 
books  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  so  often  referred  to, 
have  been  regarded  as  simply  the  public  annals  of  the  two  king- 
doms written  by  the  official  annalists,  the  "  scribes  "  or  "record- 
ers "  so  often  spoken  of.  No  doubt  such  annals  existed,  and 
entered  largely  into  the  documents  in  question.  But  the  right 
interpretation  of  2  Chron.  20  :  34,  shows  that,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  the  writings  of  prophets  were  incorporated  into  these 
annals.  The  extended  history  of  Elijah  and  Elisha  cannot 
have  been  the  work  of  the  public  scribes  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  but  of  prophets,  writing  from  the  prophetic  point  of 
view.  Th3  question,  however,  is  not  one  of  practical  impor- 
tance, since,  whatever  may  have  been  the  source  or  character 


100  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

of  the  materials  employed,  the  writers  of  the  books  now  under 
consideration,  used  them  at  their  discretion  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Spirit  of  God.  To  us,  therefore,  they  come  with  the 
weight  of  prophetic  authority.  The  further  consideration  of 
the  relation  between  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  is 
reserved  for  the  special  introductions  to  these  books.  It  may 
be  added  here  that  the  probable  date  of  the  former  is  the  first 
half  of  the  Babjdonish  captivity  ;  of  the  latter,  the  time  of  Ezra 
under  the  Persian  rule. 

10.  The  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  constitute  a  continu- 
ation of  the  books  of  Chronicles,  and  need  not  be  particularly 
noticed  in  the  present  connection.  For  their  authorship  and 
date,  as  also  for  the  book  of  Esther,  see  the  particular  intro- 
ductions to  these  books. 

III.     THE  PKOPHETICAL  BOOKS. 

11.  Under  the  loroplietical  hooks,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the 
word,  may  be  included  the  three  Greater  prophets — Isaiah,  Jer- 
emiah, and  Ezekiel — Daniel  (though  largely  historical),  and 
the  twelve  Minor  prophets.  These  will  all  come  up  hereafter 
for  separate  consideration.  At  present  we  view  them  simply 
with  reference  to  the  growth  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon. 
From  the  settlement  of  the  Israelities  in  the  land  of  Canaan  to 
the  time  of  Samuel,  a  period  of  several  centuries  (according  to 
the  chronology  followed  by  the  apostle  Paul,  Acts  13  :  20,  four 
hundred  and  fifty  years),  we  read  of  several  ajDpearances  of  the 
"angel  of  the  Lord."  Judges  2  : 1 ;  G  :  11 ;  13  :  3.  The  notices 
of  prophets  during  the  same  period  are  only  three  in  number. 
Judges  4:4;  6:8;  1  Sam.  2  :  27.  But  with  Samuel  began  a 
new  era.  He  was  himself  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  prophets, 
and  he  established  a  school  of  the  prophets  over  which  he  him- 
self presided.  1  Sam.  10 :  5,  10 ;  19  :  20.  From  his  day  onward 
such  schools  seem  to  have  flourished  as  a  theocratic  institution 
throughout  the  whole  period  of  the  kings,  though  more  vigor- 
ously at  certain  times.    1  Kings  18  : 4 ;  20  :  35 ;  2  Kings  2  : 3,  5  ; 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  191 

4  : 1,  38,  43  ;  5  :  22  ;  6  : 1 ;  9  : 1.  So  far  as  we  have  notices  of 
these  schools,  they  were  under  the  instruction  of  eminent  proph- 
ets; and  "the  sons  of  the  prophets"  assembled  in  them  received 
such  a  training  as  fitted  them,  so  far  as  human  instrumentality 
is  concerned,  for  the  exercise  of  the  prophetical  office,  as  well 
as  for  being,  in  a  more  general  sense,  the  religious  instructors 
of  the  people.  From  these  schools  came,  apparently,  most 
of  those  whom  God  called  to  be  his  messengers  to  the  rulers 
and  people,  though  with  exceptions  according  to  his  sovereign 
wisdom.  Amos  1:1;  7 :  14.  We  find,  accordingly,  that  from 
the  days  of  Samuel  and  onward  the  prophets  were  recognized 
as  a  distinct  order  of  men  in  the  Jewish  theocracy,  who  derived 
their  authority  immediately  from  God,  and  spoke  by  direct 
inspiration  of  his  Spirit,  as  they  themselves  indicate  by  the 
standing  formula:  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord." 

12.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  however,  that  from  Samuel  to 
about  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  a  period  of  some  three  centuries,  we 
have  no  hooks  of  prophecy  written  by  these  men,  if  we  except, 
perhaps,  the  book  of  Jonah.  Their  writings  seem  to  have  been 
mainly  historical  (like  the  historical  notices  incorporated  into 
the  books  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel) ;  and  what 
remains  to  us  of  them  is  preserved  in  the  historical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament.  See  above,  Nos.  6  and  7.  But  about  the  time 
of  Uzziah  begins  a  new  era,  that  of  written  prophecy.  During 
his  reign  appeared  Hosea,  Amos,  Isaiah,  and  probably  Jonah, 
Joel,  and  Obadiah.  Micah  followed  immediately  afterwards, 
being  contemporary  in  part  with  Isaiah;  and  then,  in  succes- 
sion, the  rest  of  the  prophets  whose  writings  have  come  down 
to  us.  When  the  theocracy  was  now  on  its  decline,  waxing  old 
and  destined  to  pass  away  for  ever,  they  felt  themselves  called 
to  put  on  record,  for  the  instruction  of  all  coming  ages,  their 
words  of  warning  and  encouragement.  Thus  arose  gradually 
our  present  collection  of  prophetical  books ;  that  of  Lamenta- 
tions included,  which  is  but  an  appendix  to  the  writings  of 
Jeremiah. 


102  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

IV.     THE  POETICAL  BOOKS. 

13.  These  are  a  precious  outgrowth  of  the  theocratic  spirit, 
in  which  the  elements  of  meditation  and  reflection  predominate. 
Concerning  the  date  and  authorship  of  the  book  of  Job,  which 
stands  first  in  order  in  our  arrangement,  we  have  no  certain 
information.  Learned  men  vary  between  the  ante-Mosaic  age 
and  that  of  Solomon.  Its  theme  is  divine  providence,  as  viewed 
from  the  position  of  the  Old  Testament.  See  further  in  the 
introduction  to  this  book. 

14.  With  the  call  of  David  to  the  throne  of  Israel  began  a 
new  and  glorious  era  in  the  history  of  public  worship,  that  of 
"  the  service  of  song  in  the  house  of  the  Lord."  1  Chron.  6  :  31. 
As  when  Moses  smote  the  rock  in  the  wilderness  the  water 
gushed  forth  in  refreshing  streams,  so  the  soul  of  David,  touched 
by  the  spirit  of.  inspiration,  poured  forth  a  rich  and  copious  flood 
of  divine  song,  which  has  in  all  ages  refreshed  and  strengthened 
God's  people  in  their  journey  heavenward  "  through  this  dark 
vale  of  tears."  Nor  was  the  fountain  of  sacred  poetry  confined 
to  him  alone.  God  opened  it  also  in  the  souls  of  such  men  as 
Asaph,  Ethan,  Heman,  and  the  sons  of  Korah ;  nor  did  its  flow 
wholly  cease  till  after  the  captivity.  The  Psalms  of  David  and 
his  coadjutors  were  from  the  first  dedicated  to  the  service  of 
the  sanctuary;  and  thus  arose  our  canonical  book  of  Psalms, 
although  (as  will  be  hereafter  shown)  it  did  not  receive  its  pres- 
ent form  and  arrangement  till  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 

16.  After  David  came  Solomon  in  the  sphere  of  practical 
wisdom.  This,  according  to  the  divine  record,  he  received  as 
a  special  endowment  from  God,  though  doubtless  he  had  in  a 
peculiar  measure  a  natural  capacity  for  such  an  endowment. 
In  Gibeon  the  Lord  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream  by  night,  and 
said  :  "  Ask  what  I  shall  give  thee."  Passing  by  wealth,  long 
life,  and  the  death  of  his  enemies,  the  youthful  monarch  be- 
sought God  to  give  him  "an  understanding  heart,"  that  he  might 
be  qualified  to  judge  the  great  people  committed  to  his  care. 
The  answer  was:  "  Behold,  I  have  done  according  to  thy  word: 


THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.  193 

lo,  I  have  given  thee  a  wise  and  an  understanding  heart;  so 
that  there  was  none  like  thee  before  thee,  neither  after  thee 
shall  an  J  arise  like  unto  thee."  1  Kings  3  : 5-12.  Thus  di- 
vinely qualified,  he  embodied,  in  a  vast  collection  of  proverbs, 
his  observations  on  human  life,  and  the  course  of  human  affairs. 
Our  canonical  book  of  Proverbs  is  a  selection  from  these,  with 
some  additions  at  the  end  from  other  sources.  For  notices 
respecting  the  arrangement  of  these  proverbs  in  their  present 
form,  as  well  as  respecting  the  books  of  Ecclesiastes  and  Can- 
ticles, which  are  also  ascribed  to  Solomon,  the  reader  may  con- 
sult the  introductions  to  these  books. 

V.     THE  COMPLETION  OF  THE  CANON. 

The  subject  thus  far  before  us  has  been  the  groiotli  of  the 
materials  which  constitute  our  canonical  books.  The  question 
of  their  preservation  and  final  embodiment  in  their  present 
form  remains  to  be  considered. 

16.  Respecting  the  preservation  of  the  sacred  books  till  the 
time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  our  information  is  very  scanty. 
Each  king  was  required  to  have  at  hand  for  his  own  personal 
use  a  transcript  of  the  law  of  Moses  (Deut.  17 :  18),  the  original 
writing  being  carefully  laid  up  in  the  inner  sanctuary,  where 
Hilkiah,  the  high  priest,  found  it  in  the  reign  of  Josiah. 
2  Kings  22  :  8.  We  cannot  doubt  that  such  kings  as  David, 
Solomon,  Asa,  and  Hezekiah  complied  with  this  law;  though 
after  the  disorders  connected  with  the  reign  of  Manasseh  and 
his  captivity,  the  good  king  Josiah  neglected  it.  Jehoshaphat, 
we  are  expressly  told,  sent  men  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah, 
who  had  "  the  book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord  with  them,  and 
went  about  throughout  all  the  cities  of  Judah,  and  taught  the 
people."  2  Chron.  17  :  7-9.  Of  course  it  was  a  copy,  and  not 
the  original  autograph,  which  might  not  be  removed  from  the 
sanctuary.  It  is  a  natural  supposition  that  other  transcripts 
of  the  law  were  made  under  the  direction  of  the  high  priest,  for 

Comp.  to  r,l'l».  9 


104  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  use  of  pious  men,  especially  pious  prophets,  princes,  and 
Levites,  who  needed  its  directions  for  the  right  discharge  of 
their  official  duties,  though  on  this  point  we  can  affirm  nothing 
positively.  As  to  the  prophetical  books,  we  know  that  Jere- 
miah had  access  to  the  writings  of  Isaiah,  for  in  repeated 
instances  he  borrowed  his  language.  "We  know  again  that 
Daniel  had  at  hand  the  j^rophecies  of  Jeremiah;  for  he  under- 
stood "by  books"  (literally  "by  the  books,"  which  may  be 
well  understood  to  mean  that  collection  of  sacred  books  of 
which  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  formed  a  part)  "  the  number 
of  the  years  whereof  the  w^ord  of  the  Lord  came  to  Jeremiah 
the  prophet,  that  he  would  accomplish  seventy  years  in  the 
desolations  of  Jerusalem."  Dan.  9 : 2.  The  consecration  of 
the  Psalms  of  David  and  his  coadjutors  to  the  public  service  of 
the  sanctuary  must  have  insured  their  careful  preservation  by 
the  Levites  who  had  charge  of  the  temple  music;  and,  in  gen- 
eral, the  deep  reverence  of  the  Jews  for  their  sacred  writings  is 
to  us  a  reasonable  evidence  that  they  preserved  them  from  loss 
and  mutilation  to  the  captivity,  and  through  that  calamitous 
period. 

17.  To  Ezra  and  his  coadjutors,  the  men  of  the  Great  Syn- 
agogue, the  Jews  ascribe  the  completion  of  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Their  traditions  concerning  him  are  embellished 
with  extravagant  fictions ;  yet  we  cannot  reasonably  deny  that 
they  are  underlaid  by  a  basis  of  truth.  All  the  scriptural  noti- 
ces of  Ezra  attest  both  his  zeal  and  his  ability  as  "  a  scribe  of 
the  words  of  the  commandments  of  the  Lord,  and  of  his  statutes 
to  Israel,"  a  man  who  "  had  prepared  his  heart  to  seek  the  law 
of  the  Lord,  and  to  do  it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel  statutes  and 
judgments."  Ezra  7  :  10,  11.  The  work  in  which  he  and  his 
associates  were  engaged  was  the  reestablishment  of  the  The- 
ocracy on  its  old  foundation,  the  law  of  Moses,  with  the  ordi- 
nances pertaining  to  the  sanctuary-service  afterwards  added  by 
David ;  and  that  too  in  the  vivid  consciousness  of  the  fact  that 
disobedience  to  the  divine  law  had  brought  upon  the  nation  the 
calamities  of  the  captivity.      In  such  circumstances  their  first 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  l9o 

solicitude  must  have  been  that  the  people  might  have  the 
inspired  oracles  given  to  their  fathers,  and  be  thoroughly  in- 
structed in  them.  The  work,  therefore,  which  Jewish  tradition 
ascribes  to  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  was  alto- 
gether appropriate  to  their  situation,  nor  do  we  know  of  any 
man  or  body  of  men  afterwards  so  well  qualified  for  its  per- 
formance, or  upon  whom  it  would  so  naturally  have  devolved. 
That  they  arranged  the  inspired  volume  in  substantially  its 
present  form,  we  have  no  good. reason  for  doubting.  But  we 
should  not,  perhaps,  be  warranted  in  saying  that  they  brought 
the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  absolutely  and  formally  to  a 
close.  Josephus  (against  Apion  1.  8)  affirms  that  no  book 
belongs  to  the  sacred  writings  of  his  nation  "  which  are  justly 
believed  to  be  divine,"  that  had  its  origin  after  the  reign  of 
Artaxerxes,  Xerxes'  son  (Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  under  whom 
Ezra  led  forth  his  colony,  Ezra,  chap.  7);  and  that  on  the 
ground  that  from  this  time  onward  "the  exact  succession  of 
the  prophets  "  was  wanting.  This  declaration  of  the  Jewish 
historian  is  in  all  essential  respects  worthy  of  full  credence. 
We  cannot,  however,  affirm  with  confidence  that  all  the  later 
historical  books  were  put  by  Ezra  and  his  contemporaries  into 
the  exact  form  in  which  we  now  have  them.  The  book  of  Ne- 
hemiah,  for  example,  contains  some  genealogical  notices  (chap. 
12  :  11,  22)  which,  according  to  any  fair  interpretation,  are  of  a 
later  date.  We  are  at  liberty  to  suppose  that  these  were  after- 
wards added  officially  and  in  good  faith,  as  matters  of  public 
interest ;  or,  as  some  think,  that  the  book  itself  is  an  arrange- 
ment by  a  later  hand  of  writings  left  by  Nehemiah,  perhaps 
also  by  Ezra ;  so  that  while  its  contents  belong,  in  every  essen- 
tial respect,  to  them,  it  received  its  present  form  after  their 
death.  Kespecting  the  question  when  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  received  its  finishing  stroke,  a  question  which  the 
wisdom  of  God  has  left  in  obscurity,  we  must  speak  with  diffi- 
dence. We  know  with  certainty  that  our  present  Hebrew 
canon  is  identical  with  that  collection  of  sacred  writings  to 
which  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles  constantly  appealed  as 


196  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

invested  tlirougliout  with  divine  autliority,  and  tliis  is  a  firm 
basis  for  our  faitli. 

The  attempt  lias  been  made,  but  witlioiit  success,  to  show  that  a  por- 
tion of  the  Psalms  belongs  to  the  Maccabean  age.  The  words  of  the  Psalm- 
ist (Psa.  74  : 8)  rendered  in  our  version  :  ' '  They  have  burned  up  all  the 
synagogues  of  God  in  the  land,"  have  no  reference  to  the  synagogues  of  a 
later  age,  as  is  now  generally  admitted.  The  Hebrew  word  denotes  places 
of  assemhly,  and  was  never  applied  by  the  later  Jews  to  their  synagogues. 
The  Psalmist  wrote,  moreover,  in  immediate  connection  with  the  burning 
of  the  temjjle — "they  have  cast  fire-into  thy  sanctuary,  they  have  defiled 
by  casting  down  the  dwelling-place  of  thy  name  to  the  ground" — and  this 
fixes  the  date  of  the  Psalm  to  the  Chaldean  invasion  (2  Kings  25  : 9)  ;  for 
the  temple  was  not  burned,  but  only  profaned,  in  the  days  of  the  Macca- 
bees. By  "the  assemblies  of  God,"  we  are  probably  to  understand  the 
ancient  sacred  places,  such  as  Ramah,  Bethel,  and  Gilgal,  where  the  peo- 
j)le  were  accustomed  to  meet,  though  in  a  somewhat  irregular  way,  for  the 
worship  of  God.  But  whether  this  interpretation  be  correct  or  not,  the 
words  have  no  reference  to  the  buildings  of  a  later  age  called  synagogues. 

Some  of  the  apocryphal  writings,  as,  for  example,  the  book  of  Wisdom, 
the  book  of  Eeclesiasticus,  the  first  book  of  Maccabees,  were  highly  valued 
by  the  ancient  Jews.  But  they  were  never  received  into  the  Hebrew  can- 
on, because  their  authors  lived  after  "the  exact  succession  of  the  proph- 
ets," which  ended  with  Malachi.  They  knew  how  to  make  the  just  dis- 
tinction between  books  of  human  wisdom  and  books  written  "by  inspira- 
tion of  God." 

18.  The  earliest  notice  of  the  contents  of  the  Hebreio  Gabion 
is  that  contained  in  the  prologue  to  the  Greek  translation  of 
Eeclesiasticus,  where  it  is  described  as  "  the  law,  the  prophets, 
and  the  other  national  books,"  "  the  law,  and  the  prophecies, 
and  the  rest  of  the  books,"  according  to  the  three-fold  division 
already  considered.  Chap.  13,  No.  4.  Josephus,  in  the  passage 
already  referred  to  (against  Apion,  1.  8),  says:  "We  have  not 
among  us  innumerable  books  discordant  and  contrary  to  each 
other,  but  only  two-and-twenty,  containing  the  history  of  all 
time,  which  are  justly  believed  to  be  divine.  And  of  these  five 
belong  to  Moses,  which  contain  the  laws  and  the  transmission 
of  human  genealogy  to  the  time  of  his  death.  This  period  of 
time  wants  but  little  of  three  thousand  years"  (the  longer 
chronology  followed  by  him).     "  But  from  the  death  of  Moses 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  197 

to  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes,  who  was  king  of  the  Persians  after 
Xerxes,  the  prophets  after  Moses  WTote  the  history  of  their 
times  in  thirteen  books.  The  remaining  four  contain  hymns  to 
God  and  precepts  for  human  life.  From  Artaxerxes  to  our 
time  various  books  have  been  written  ;  but  they  have  not  been 
esteemed  worthy  of  credence  hke  that  given  to  the  books  before 
tliem,  because  the  exact  succession  of  the  prophets  has  been 
wanting."  In  this  hst  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
artificially  arranged  to  agree  with  the  number  tioo-and-tioenty , 
that  of  tlie  Hebrew  alphabet.  The  four  that  contain  "  hymns 
to  God  and  precepts  for  human  life  "  are,  in  all  probability : 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticles;  and  the  thirteen 
prophetical  books  (see  below)  are  :  (1)  Joshua,  (2)  Judges  and 
Kuth,  (3)  the  two  books  of  Samuel,  (4)  the  two  books  of  Kings, 
(5)  the  two  books  of  Chronicles,  (6)  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 
(7)  Esther,  (8)  Isaiah,  (9)  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,  (10)  Eze- 
kiel,  (11)  Daniel,  (12)  the  book  of  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets, 
(13)  Job.  See  Oehler  in  Hertzog's  Encyclopaedia,  Art.  Canon 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Origen,  as  quoted  by  Eusebius  (Hist. 
Eccl.  6.  25),  and  Jerome  (both  of  whom  drew  their  information 
concerning  the  Hebrew  Canon  immediately  from  Jewish  schol- 
ars, and  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  in  a  certain  sense  the 
expositors  of  the  above  list  of  Josephus)  make  mention  of  the 
same  number,  twenty-two.  Origen's  list  unites  Eutli  with 
Judges,  puts  together  the  first  and  second  of  Samuel,  the  first 
and  second  of  Kings,  the  first  and  second  of  Chronicles,  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  (under  the  names  of  the  first  and  second  of 
Ezra),  and  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  (with  the  addition  of 
the  apocryphal  Epistle  of  Jeremiah — an  inconsistency,  or 
rather  oversight,  to  be  explained  from  his  constant  habit  of 
using  the  Septuagint  version).  In  the  present  text  of  Eusebius, 
the  book  of  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets  is  wanting.  But  this  is 
simply  an  old  error  of  the  scribe,  since  it  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  number  of  twenty- two.  Jerome's  list  (Prologus  gale- 
atus)  is  the  same,  only  that  he  gives  the  contents  of  the  Law, 
the  Prophets,  and  the  Hagiographa  in  accordance  with  the 


198  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Hebrew  arrangement,  placing  Daniel  in  the  last  class,  and 
adding  tliat  wliatever  is  without  the  number  of  these  must  be 
placed  among  the  Apocrj^phal  writings.  Smith's  Diet,  of  the 
Bible,  Art.  Canon.  The  catalogue  of  these  two  distinguished 
Christian  scholars — Origen  of  the  Eastern  church,  and  Jerome 
of  the  Western,  both  of  whom  drew  their  information  imme- 
diately from  Hebrew  scholars — is  decisive,  and  we  need  add 
nothing  further. 

19.  The  Apocryplial  hooTcs  of  the  Old  Testament  were  incor- 
porated into  the  Alexandrine  version  called  the  Septuagint ; 
but  they  were  never  received  by  the  Jews  of  Palestine  as  a  part 
of  the  sacred  volume.  Concerning  them  and  their  history,  see 
further  in  the  Appendix  to  this  part. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  109 


CHAPTER    XYI. 

Ancient   Versions   of   the    Old   Testament. 

In  tlie  present  chapter  only  those  versions  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament are  noticed  which  were  made  independently  of  the 
New.  Versions  of  the  whole  Bible,  made  in  the  interest  of 
Christianity,  are  considered  in  the  following  part. 

I.  THE  GREEK  VERSION  CALLED  THE  SEPTUAGINT. 

1.  This  is  worthy  of  special  notice  as  the  oldest  existing 
version  of  the  holy  Scriptures,  or  any  part  of  them,  in  any  lan- 
guage ;  and  also  as  the  version  which  exerted  a  very  large 
influence  on  the  language  and  style  of  the  New  Testament; 
for  it  was  extensively  used  in  our  Lord's  day  not  only  in  Egypt, 
where  it  originated,  and  in  the  Eoman  provinces  generally, 
but  also,  in  Palestine ;  and  the  quotations  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  made  more  commonly  from  it  than  from  the  Hebrew. 

2.  The  Jewish  account  of  its  origin,  first  noticed  briefly  by 
Aristobulus,  a  Jew  (as  quoted  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Eusebius),  then  given  at  great  length  in  a  letter  which  professes 
to  have  been  written  by  one  Aristeas,  a  heathen  and  a  special 
friend  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  and  the  main 
part  of  which  Josephus  has  copied  (Antiq.  12.  2),  is  for  sub- 
stance as  follows :  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (who  reigned  from 
B.  c.  285  to  247),  at  the  suggestion  of  his  librarian  Demetrius 
Phalereus,  after  having  first  liberated  all  the  Jewish  captives 
found  in  his  kingdom,  sent  an  embassy  with  costly  gifts  to  Ele- 
azar  the  high  priest  at  Jerusalem,  requesting  that  he  would 
send  him  chosen  men,  six  from  each  of  the  twelve  tribes,  with 
a  copy  of  the  Jewish  law,  that  it  might  be  interpreted  fi'om  the 
Hebrew  into  the  Greek  and  laid  up  in  the  royal  library  at  Alex- 


200  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

andria.  Eleazar  accordingly  sent  the  seventy-two  elders  with 
a  copy  of  the  laws  written  on  parchments  in  letters  of  gold, 
who  were  received  by  the  king  with  high  honors,  sumptuously 
feasted,  and  afterwards  lodged  in  a  palace  on  an  island  (appa- 
rently Pharos  in  the  harbor  of  Alexandria),  wdiere  they  com- 
pleted their  work  in  seventy-two  days,  and  were  then  sent 
home  with  munificent  gifts.  The  story  that  they  were  shut  up 
in  seventy-two  separate  cells  (according  to  another  legend  two 
by  two  in  thirty-six  cells),  where  they  had  no  communication 
with  each  other  and  yet  produced  as  many  versions  agreeing 
with  each  other  w^ord  for  word,  was  a  later  embellishment  de- 
signed (as  indeed  were  all  the  legends  respecting  the  origin  of 
this  version)  to  exalt  its  character  in  the  apprehension  of  the 
people,  and  to  gain  for  it  an  authority  equal  to  that  of  the  in- 
spired original. 

3.  The  letter  ascribed  to  Aristeas  is  now  generally  admitted 
to  be  spurious.  It  purports  to  have  been  written  by  a  heathen, 
scholar,  yet  it  bears  throughout  marks  of  a  Jewish  origin.  It 
represents  the  translators  as  Jewish  elders  sent  by  the  high 
priest  from  Jerusalem.  Yet  the  version  is  acknowledged  to  be 
in  the  Alexandrine  Greek  dialect.  For  these  and  other  reasons 
learned  men  ascribe  its  authorship  to  a  Jew  whose  object  was 
to  exalt  the  merits  of  the  Alexandrine  version  in  the  estimation 
of  his  nation.  But  we  are  not,  for  this  reason,  warranted  to 
pronounce  the  wdiole  account  a  pure  fable,  as  many  have  done. 
We  ma}^  well  believe  that  the  work  was  executed  under  the 
auspices  of  Ptolemy,  and  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  hig 
library.  But  we  must  believe  that  it  was  executed  by  Jews 
born  in  Egypt  to  whom  the  Greek  language  was  vernacular, 
and  probably  from  manuscripts  of"  Egyptian  origin.  Thus 
much  is  manifest  from  the  face  of  the  version,  that  it  was  made 
by  different  men,  and  with  different  degrees  of  ability  and 
fidelity. 

The  name  Septuaginl  (Latin,  Sepiuaginia),  seventy,  a  round  number  foi 
the  more  exact  seventy-two,  probably  arose  from  this  tradition  of  the  exe- 
cution of  the  work  by  seventy-two  elders  in  seventy-two  days.     The  story 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  201 

of  the  parchments  sent  from  Jerusalem  for  the  nse  of  the  translators  (with 
the  request  that  they  might  be  returned  with  them)  has  been  rejected  on 
the  ground  that  the  text  used  by  them  differs  too  widely  from  the  Pales- 
tinian text.  See  further  on  this  subject  in  No.  5,  below.  It  has  been  fur- 
ther affirmed  that  Demetrius  Phalereus  did  not  belong  to  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  but  to  that  of  his  father  Ptolemy  Soter,  the  son 
having  banished  him  from  court  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign.  For  this 
reason  some  have  proposed  to  assign  the  founding  of  the  Alexandrian 
library  to  the  father  and  not  the  son.  But  whatever  be  our  judgment  in 
respect  to  Demetrius  and  his  relation  to  the  two  Ptolemies,  the  voice  of 
history  is  decisive  in  favor  of  the  son  and  not  the  father,  as  the  patron  of 
learning. 

4.  It  has  been  a  question  whether  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
were  translated  at  one  time,  or  in  successive  portions.  The 
tradition  above  considered  speaks  only  of  the  law,  or,  in  the 
plural,  the  Imus.  These  might,  perhaps,  be  understood  as  com- 
prehensive terms  for  the  whole  Old  Testament,  but  they  prob- 
ably mean  the  Pentateuch  alone,  in  which  both  the  Egyptian 
king  and  the  Jews  of  his  realm  would  feel  a  special  interest. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Pentateuch — the  Laiu  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  term — was  first  translated,  and  afterwards  the  re- 
maining books.  But  how  long  a  period  of  time  was  thus  occu- 
pied cannot  be  determined.  Eespecting  the  incorporation  into 
this  version  of  the  apocryphal  book,  see  in  the  appendix  to  this 
Part,  No.  2. 

When  the  translator  of  the  Wisdam  of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach  (Ecclesi- 
asticus),  says  in  his  prologue,  in  immediate  connection  with  his  residence 
and  labors  in  Egypt,  that  "the  law  itself  and  the  prophets,  and  the  rest  of 
the  books  have  no  small  difference  [as  to  force]  when  read  in  their  own 
tongue,"  he  plainly  refers  to  the  Septuagint  version  as  comi^lete  in  his 
day.  He  visited  Egypt  "under  Euergetes."  But  to  which  of  the  two 
monarchs  who  bore  that  title  he  refers  is  uncertain.  If  to  the  former,  it 
was  between  246-221  b.  c.  ;  if  to  the  latter,  between  145-116  b.  c. 

5.  The  version  varies  so  much  in  its  different  parts  that  it 
is  not  easy  to  give  its  character  as  a  whole.  It  is  agreed  among 
biblical  scholars  that  the  translators  of  the  Pentateuch  excelled 
in  ability  and  fidelity,  according  to  the  well-known  judgment  of 

9* 


202  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Jerome — "  which  [the  books  of  Moses]  we  also  acknowledge  to 
agree  more  than  the  others  with  the  Hebrew."  Among  the 
historical  books  the  translations  of  Samuel  and  Kings  are  the 
most  faulty.  Those  of  the  prophets  are  in  general  poor,  espe- 
cially that  of  Isaiah.  That  of  Daniel  was  so  faulty  that  the 
Christians  in  later  times  substituted  for  it  the  translation  of 
Theodotion.  See  below,  No.  10.  Among  the  poetical  books 
that  of  Proverbs  is  the  best.  As  a  Avhole  the  Septuagint  ver- 
sion cannot  for  a  moment  enter  into  competition  with  the  He- 
brew original.  Yet,  as  the  most  ancient  of  versions  and  one 
which  also  represents  a  text  much  older  than  the  Masoretic, 
its  use  is  indispensable  to  every  scholar  who  would  study  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  original  language. 

6.  Independently  of  its  critical  value,  the  Septuagint  must 
be  regarded  with  deep  interest  from  its  close  connection  with 
the  New  Testament.  In  the  days  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  it 
was  known  and  read  throughout  the  whole  Koman  empire  by 
the  Hellenists ;  that  is,  by  those  Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes 
who  had  the  Greek  civilization  and  spoke  the  Greek  language. 
As  the  Alexandrine  Greek,  in  which  this  version  was  made, 
was 'itself  pervaded  throughout  with  the  Hebrew  spirit,  and  to 
a  great  extent  also  with  Hebrew  idioms  and  forms  of  thought, 
so  was  the  language  of  the  New  Testament,  in  turn,  moulded 
and  shaped  by  the  dialect  of  the  Septuagint,  nor  can  the  for- 
mer be  successfully  studied  except  in  connection  with  the  latter. 
Then  again  the  greatest  number  of  quotations  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament from  the  Old  is  made  from  the  Septuagint.  According 
to  Mr.  Greenfield  (quoted  in  Smith's  Bible  Diet.,  art.  Septua- 
gint) "the  number  of  direct  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  Gospels,  Acts,  •  and  Epistles,  may  be  estimated  at 
three  liundred  and  fifty,  of  which  not  more  than  fifty  materially 
differ  from  the  seventy.  But  the  indirect  verbal  allusions 
would  swell  the  number  to  a  far  greater  amount."  The  discus- 
sion of  the  principles  upon  which  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment quote  from  the  Old  belongs  to  another  part  of  this  work. 
It  may  be  briefly  remarked  here  that  they  quote  in  a  free  spirit, 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  203 

not  in  that  of  servile  adherence  to  the  letter,  aiming  to  give  the 
substance  of  the  sacred  writers'  thoughts,  rather  than  an  exactly 
literal  rendering  of  the  original  word  for  word. 

The  i)ropliecy  of  Isaiah,  for  example  (6  : 9,  10),  is  six  times  quoted  in 
the  New  Testament,  wholly  or  in  part,  with  very  free  variations  of  lan- 
guage. Matt.  13  :  14,  15  ;  Mark  4  :  12  ;  Luke  8  :  10  ;  John  12  :  40  ;  Acts 
28  :  26,  27  ;  Eom.  11  : 8.  From  neither  of  these  quotations,  nor  from  all 
of  them  combined,  could  we  draw  a  critical  argument  respecting  either  the 
Hebrew  or  Greek  text  of  the  passage  quoted.  Neither  can  we  argue  from 
the  exact  agreement  of  a  quotation  in  the  New  Testament  with  the  Septu- 
agint  where  that  differs  from  the  Hebrew,  that  the  Hebrew  text  has  been 
corrupted.  The  New  Testament  writers  are  occupied  with  the  spirit  of 
the  passages  to  which  they  refer,  rather  than  with  the  letter. 

7.  The  Hebrew  text  from  which  the  Septuagint  version  was 
executed  was  unpointed  and  much  older  than  the  Masoretic  text. 
"Were  the  version  more  literal  and  faithful,  and  had  its  text  come 
down  to  us  in  a  purer  form  (see  below.  Chap.  17,  No.  2),  it 
would  be  of  great  service  in  settling  the  exact  text  of  the  origi- 
nal Hebrew.  With  its  present  character,  and  in  the  present 
condition  of  its  text,  it  is  of  but  comparatively  small  value  in 
this  respect.  Yet  its  striking  agreement  with  the  text  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  (Ch.  13,  No.  8)  is  a  phenomenon  worthy 
of  special  notice.  Biblical  scholars  affirm  that  the  two  agree  in 
more  than  a  thousand  places  where  they  differ  from  the  Hebrew. 
For  the  probable  explanation  of  this  see  above,  Ch.  14,  No.  9. 

The  reader  must  be  on  his  guard  against  the  error  of  supposing  that 
these  more  than  a  thousand  variations  from  the  Hebrew  text  are  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  affect  seriously  the  system  of  doctrines  and  duties  taught  in 
the  Pentateuch.  They  are  rather  of  a  critical  and  grammatical  character, 
changes  which  leave  the  substance  of  revelation  untouched.  See  on  this 
point  Ch.  3.  There  is  one  striking  agreement  between  the  Samaritan  text 
and  that  of  the  Septuagint  in  which  many  biblical  scholars  think  that  the 
true  ancient  reading  has  been  preserved.  It  is  that  of  Gen.  4:8:  "And 
Cain  said  to  Abel  his  brother.  Let  us  go  out  into  the  field.  And  it  came 
to  pass  v/hen  they  were  in  the  field."  etc. 

II.     OTHER  GREEK  VEBiSIONS. 

8.  In  the  beginning  of  Christianity  the  Septuagint  enjoyed, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  high  reputation  among  the  Jews ;  and  as  a 


204  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

natural  consequence,  among  the  Jewisli  converts  also,  as  well 
as  tlie  Gentile  Christians.  To  the  great  body  of  Gentile  be- 
lievers it  was  for  the  Old  Testament  the  only  source  of  knowl- 
edge, as  they  were  ignorant  of  the  Hebrew  original.  They 
studied  it  diligently,  and  used  it  efficiently  against  the  unbe- 
lieving Jews.  Hence  there  naturally  arose  in  the  minds  of  the 
latter  a  feeling  of  opposition  to  this  version  which  became  very 
bitter.  They  began  to  disparage  its  authority,  and  to  accuse 
it  of  misrepresenting  the  Hebrew.  The  next  step  was  to  oppose 
to  it  another  version  made  by  Aquila,  which  was  soon  followed 
by  two  others,  those  of  Theodotion  and  SymmacJms. 

9.  Aquila  is  represented  to  have  been  a  Jewish  proselyte  of 
Pontus,  and  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century.  His  version 
was  slavishly  literal,  following  the  Hebrew  idiom  even  where  it 
is  contrary  to  that  of  the  Greek.  For  this  very  reason,  not- 
withstanding all  the  barbarisms  thus  introduced,  the  Jews  highlj^ 
valued  it,  calling  it  the  Hebreio  verity.  All  that  remains  of  it  to 
us  is  contained  in  the  fragments  of  Origen's  Hexapla.  See 
below.  No.  12.  Had  we  the  whole  work,  its  extremely  literal 
character  would  give  it  great  value  in  a  critical  point  of  view, 
as  it  would  shed  much  light  on  the  state  of  the  Hebrew  text 
when  it  was  executed. 

10.  Theodotion  was,  according  to  Irenseus,  an  Ephesian. 
Jerome  calls  him  and  Symmachus  Ebionites,  Judaizing  here- 
tics, and  semi-Christians.  He  is  supposed  to  have  made  his 
version  in  the  last  half  of  the  second  century.  According  to 
the  testimony  of  the  ancients,  it  had  a  close  resemblance  in 
character  to  the  Septuagint.  He  seems  to  have  had  this  ver- 
sion before  him,  and  to  have  made  a  free  use  of  it.  Of  the 
three  later  versions,  that  of  Theodotion  was  most  esteemed  by 
the  Christians,  and  they  substituted  his  translation  of  the  book 
of  Daniel  for  that  of  the  Seventy. 

11.  Symmachus,  called  by  the  church  fathers  an  Ebionite, 
but  by  some  a  Samaritan,  seems  to  have  flourished  not  far  from 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  His  version  was  free,  aiming 
to  give  the  sense  rather  than  the  words.     His  idiom  was  Hel- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  205 

lenistic,  and  in  this  respect  resembled  the  Septuagint,  from  the 
author's  familiarity  with  which,  indeed,  it  probably  took  its 
complexion. 

Of  other  ancient  Greek  versions  discovered  by  Origen  in 
his  Eastern  travels  and  made  by  unknown  authors  it  is  not 
necessary  to  speak. 

12.  The  text  of  the  Septuagint  was  never  preserved  so 
carefully  as  that  of  the  Hebrew,  and  in  the  days  of  Origen  it 
had  fallen  into  great  confusion.  To  meet  the  objections  of  the 
Jews,  as  well  as  to  help  believers  in  their  study  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, Origen  undertook  first  the  work  called  the  Tetrcqjla 
(Greek,  fourfold),  which  was  followed  by  the  Hexapla  (Greek, 
sixfold).  To  prepare  himself  he  spent  twenty-eight  years,  trav- 
elling extensively  and  collecting  materials.  In  the  Tetrapla, 
the  text  of  the  Septuagint  (corrected  by  manuscripts  of  itself), 
and  those  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  and  Symmachus  were  arran- 
ged side  by  side  in  four  parallel  columns.  In  the  Hexapla 
there  were  six  columns — (1)  the  Hebrew  in  Hebrew  characters; 
(2)  the  Hebrew  expressed  in  Greek  letters ;  (3)  Aquila ;  (4) 
Symmachus;  (5)  the  Septuagint;  (6)  Theodotion.  See  David- 
son's Bib.  Crit.,  1,  p.  203 ;  Smith's  Bib.  Diet.,  2,  p.  1202.  In  some 
books  he  used  two  other  Greek  versions,  and  occasionally  even 
a  third,  giving  in  the  first  case  eighty  in  the  second,  nine  columns. 

"The  great  work,"  says  Davidson,  "consisting  of  nearly  fifty  vokimes 
on  which  he  had  spent  the  best  years  of  his  life,  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  transcribed — probably  in  consequence  of  its  magnitude  and  the  gi-eat 
exjDense  necessarily  attending  a  transcript.  It  lay  unused  as  a  whole  fifty 
years  after  it  was  finished,  till  Eusebius  and  Pamphilus  drew  it  forth  from 
its  concealment  in  Tyre,  and  placed  it  in  the  library  of  the  latter  in  Cses- 
area.  It  is  thought  to  have  perished  there  when  Csesarea  was  taken  and 
plundered  by  the  Saracens,  a.  d.  653."  Bib.  Criticism,  1,  p.  206,  Well 
did  Origen  merit  by  his  vast  researches  and  labors  the  epithet  Adamantimis 
[Adamantine)  bestowed  on  him  by  the  ancients.  Fragments  of  the  Hex- 
apla, consisting  of  extracts  made  from  it  by  the  ancients,  have  been  col- 
lected and  published  in  two  folio  volumes  by  Montfaugon,  Paris,  1713,  and 
reprinted  by  Bahrdt  in  two  volumes  octavo,  Leipzig  and  Lubeck,  1769, 
1770.  It  is  the  hope  of  biblical  scholars  that  these  may  be  enriched  from 
the  Nitrian  manuscripts.     See  further,  Chap.  28,  No.  8. 


206  COMPxiNION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

For  the  four  "Standard  Text  Editions"  of  the  Septuagint  Greek  ver- 
sion, with  the  j)rincipal  editions  founded  on  them,  the  reader  may  consult 
the  Bibliographical  List  appended  to  the  fourth  volume  of  Home's  Intro- 
duction, edition  of  1860. 

III.     THE  OHALDEE  TAEGUMS. 

13.  The  Clialclce  word  Targitm  means  interpretation,  and  is 
applied  to  tlie  translations  or  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Chaldee  language.  When,  after  the  captivity,  the 
Chaldee  had  supplanted  the  Hebrew  as  the  language  of  con> 
mon  life,  it  was  natural  that  the  Jews  should  desire  to  have 
their  sacred  writings  in  the  language  which  was  to  them  ver- 
nacular. Thus  we  account,  in  a  natural  w^ay.  for  the  origin  of 
these  Targums,  of  which  there  is  a  considerable  number  now 
extant  differing  widely  in  age  as  well  as  character.  No  one  of 
them  extends  to  the  whole  Old  Testament. 

The  question  has  been  raised  whether  the  Targums  have  for  their 
authors  single  individuals,  or  are  the  embodiment  of  traditional  interijre- 
tations  collected  and  revised  by  one  or  more  persons.  Many  bibhcal  schol- 
ars of  the  present  day  inchne  strongly  to  the  latter  view,  which  is  not  in 
itself  improbable.  But  the  decision  of  the  question,  in  the  case  of  each 
Targum,  rests  not  on  theory,  but  on  the  character  of  its  contents,  as  ascer- 
tained by  careful  examination. 

14.  The  first  place  in  worth,  and  probably  in  time  also, 
belongs  to  the  Targum  on  the  Pentateuch  which  bears  the  name 
of  Onkelos.  It  is  a  literal  and,  upon  the  whole,  an  able  and 
faithful  version  (not  paraphrase)  of  the  Hebrew  text,  written 
in  good  Aramaean,  and  approaching  in  style  to  the  Chaldee 
parts  of  Daniel  and  Ezra.  In  those  passages  which  describe 
God  in  language  borrowed  from  human  attributes  (anthropo- 
morjjJiic,  describing  God  in  human  forms,  as  having  eyes,  hands, 
etc. ;  anthropojjathic,  ascribing  to  God  human  affections,  as  repent- 
ing, grieving,  etc.),  the  author  is  inclined  to  use  paraphrases ; 
thus:  "And  Jehovah  smelled  a  sweet  savor"  (Gen.  8  :  21)  be- 
comes in  this  Targum  :  "  And  Jehovah  received  the  sacrifice 
with  favor;"  and  "Jehovah  Avent  down  to  see"  (Gen.  11  : 5), 
"  Jehovah  revealed  himself."     So  also  strong  expressions  dis- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  207 

creditable  to  tlie  ancient  patriarchs  are  softened,  as :  "  Rachel 
took''  instead  of  "Rachel  stolen  Gen.  31:19.  In  the  poetical 
passages,  moreover,  the  Targnm  allows  itself  more  liberty,  and 
is  consequently  less  satisfactory. 

According  to  a  Jewish  tradition,  Onkelos  was  a  proselyte  and  nephew 
of  the  emperor  Titus,  so  that  he  must  have  flourished  about  the  time  oi 
the  destruction  of  the  second  temple.  But  all  the  notices  we  have  of  his 
person  are  very  uncertain.  There  is  even  ground  for  the  suspicion  that 
the  above  tradition  respecting  OnJcelos  relates,  by  a  confusion  of  persons, 
to  Aquila  (Chaldee  AJcilas),  the  author  of  the  Greek  version  already  con- 
sidered. In  this  case  the  real  author  of  the  Targum  is  unknown,  and  we 
can  only  say  that  it  should  not  ^Drobably  be  assigned  to  a  later  date  than 
the  close  of  the  second  century. 

15.  Next  in  age  and  value  is  the  Targum  of  Jonathan  Ben 
Uzziel  on  the  Prophets  ;  that  is,  according  to  the  Jewish  classi- 
fication (Chap.  13,  No.  4),  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets.  In 
the  historical  books,  this  Targum  is  in  the  main  literal;  but  in 
the  prophets  (in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  term)  paraphrastic 
and  allegorical. 


"O^ 


The  Jewish  tradition  represents  that  Jonathan  wrote  the  paraphrase  of 
the  prophets  from  the  mouth  of  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi ;  a  mere 
fable.  Who  was  the  real  author  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty,  only 
that  he  lived  after  the  so-called  Onkelos. 

16.  There  are  two  other  Targums  on  the  Pentateuch,  one  of 
them  commonly  known  as  the  Targum  of  the  Pseudo- Jonathan  (be- 
cause falsely  ascribed  to  the  author  of  the  preceding  Targum) 
and  the  Jerusalem  Targum.  The  latter  is  of  a  fragmentary  char- 
acter; and  its  agreement  with  the  corresponding  passages  of 
the  former  is  so  remarkable  that  it  is  generally  considered  as 
consisting  of  extracts  taken  from  it  with  free  variations.  But 
according  to  Davidson  (in  Alexander's  Kitto) :  "  The  Jerusalem 
Targum  formed  the  basis  of  that  of  Jonathan ;  and  its  own 
basis  was  that  of  Onkelos.  Jonathan  used  both  his  predeces- 
sors' paraphrases ;  the  author  of  the  Jerusalem  Targum  that  of 
Onkelos  alone."     The  stvle  of  Pseudo-Jonathan  is  barbarous, 


208  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

abounding  in  foreign  words,  Avitli  the  introduction  of  many 
legends,  fables,  and  ideas  of  a  later  age.  He  is  assigned  to 
the  seventh  century.     Keil,  Introduc.  to  Old  Testament,  §  189. 

17.  The  Targums  on  the  Hagiographa  are  all  of  late  date. 
There  is  one  on  Psalms,  Job,  and  Proverbs,  the  last  tolerably 
accurate  and  free  from  legendary  and  paraphrastic  additions; 
one  on  ih-Qfive  rolls — Euth,  Esther,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes, 
Canticles ;  which  is  not  a  translation,  but  rather  a  commentary 
in  the  Talmudic  style ;  two  on  Esther,  one  on  Chronicles. 

In  the  present  connection,  though  not  belonging  properly 
to  the  Targums,  may  be  named  the  Samaritan  version  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  printed  with  the  originals  in  the  Paris 
and  London  Polyglotts.  It  is  a  literal  translation  executed  in 
the  spirit  of  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  and  admitting  the  same 
class  of  variations  from  the  letter  of  the  original. 

IV.     THE  SYPvIAG  PESHITO. 

18.  This  is  the  oldest  version  made  by  Christians  from  the 
original  Hebrew.  The  word  Peshito  signifies  simple,  indicating 
that  it  gives  the  simple  meaning  of  the  original,  without  para- 
phrastic and  allegorical  additions.  It  is  upon  the  whole  an 
able  and  faithful  version.  It  often  exhibits  a  resemblance  to 
the  Alexandrine  version.  We  may  readily  suppose  that  the 
translator,  though  rendering  from  the  original  Hebrew,  was 
familiar  with  the  Septuagint,  and  that  this  exerted  upon  his 
work  a  certain  degree  of  influence.  The  Peshito  was  the 
standard  version  for  the  Syriac  Christians,  being  used  alike  by 
all  parties;  a  fact  which  is  naturally  explained  by  its  high 
antiquity.  If  it  be  of  the  same  date  as  the  New  Testament 
Peshito,  it  may  be  placed  not  far  from  the  close  of  the  second 
century. 

The  Old  Latin,  and  in  connection  with  this,  the  Vulgate  of 
Jerome,  with  some  other  ancient  versions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, will  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  209 


OHAPTEE  XVII. 

Criticism  of  the  Sacred  Text. 

1.  The  only  legitimate  criticism  of  tlie  sacred  text  is  that 
which  has  for  its  object  to  restore  it,  as  far  as  possible,  to  its 
primitive  form.  Had  we  the  autograph  of  Moses  in  the  exact 
form  in  which  he  deposited  it  in  the  sanctuary  (Deut.  31 :  26), 
this  would  be  a  perfect  text ;  and  so  of  any  other  book  of  the 
Old  Testament.  In  the  absence  of  the  autographs,  which  have 
all  perished,  we  are  still  able  to  establish  the  form  of  their  text 
with  a  reasonable  degree  of  certainty  for  all  purposes  of  faith 
and  practice.  The  means  of  accomplishing  this  are  now  to  be 
considered. 

2.  Here  ancient  manuscripts  hold  the  first  place.  It  is  obvi- 
ous, however,  that  in  settling  the  true  reading  of  a  given  pas- 
sage we  cannot  look  simply  to  the  number  of  manuscript  testi- 
monies. The  quality  of  the  manuscripts  must  also  be  taken 
into  account.  Here  age  is  of  primary  importance.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  oldest  are  the  most  worthy  of  credence, 
as  being  nearest  to  the  original  sources.  But,  in  estimating 
the  testimony  of  a  manuscript,  there  are  other  qualities  besides 
age  that  must  be  carefully  considered — the  care  of  the  tran- 
scriber; its  freedom  from  interpolations  by  later  hands  (which 
can,  however,  as  a  general  rule,  be  easily  detected) ;  and  espe- 
cially its  independence,  that  is,  its  independence  as  compared 
with  other  manuscrii3ts.  We  may  have  a  group  of  manuscripts 
whose  peculiar  readings  mark  them  as  having  come  from  a  sin- 
gle source.  Properly  speaking,  their  testimony  is  valid  only 
for  the  text  of  their  source.  The  authority  of  a  single  inde- 
pendent manuscript  may  be  equal  in  weight  to  their  combined 
testimony.  Then,  again,  the  character  of  the  different  readings 
must  be  considered.     The  easiest  reading — that  which  most 


210  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

naturally  suggests  itself  to  tlie  scribe — lias  less  presumption 
in  its  favor  than  a  more  difficult  reading ;  and  that  on  the  sim- 
ple ground  that  it  is  more  likely  that  an  easy  should  have  been 
substituted  for  a  difficult  reading  than  the  reverse.  There  are 
many  other  points  which  would  need  discussion  in  a  work 
designed  for  biblical  critics ;  but  for  the  purposes  of  this  work 
the  above  brief  hints  are  sufficient. 

The  Masoretic  manuscripts  have  a  great  degree  of  uniformity,  and  are 
all  comparatively  recent.  Chap.  14,  No.  7.  We  have  reason  to  believe 
that  the  Hebrew  text  which  they  exhibit  has  a  good  degree  of  purity.  But 
we  cannot  consider  these  manuscripts  as  so  many  independent  witnesses. 
The  text  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  independent  of  the  Masoretic  text. 
Could  we  believe  that  we  i)ossess  it  in  a  tolerably  pure  form,  its  critical 
value  would  be  very  great.  But,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  best 
bibhcal  scholars,  it  has  been  subjected  to  so  many  alterations,  that  its  crit- 
ical authority  is  of  small  account. 

3.  Next  in  order  come  ancient  versions,  the  value  of  which 
for  critical  purposes  depends  on  their  character  as  literal  or 
free,  and  also  upon  the  state  of  their  text  as  we  possess  it. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  authority  of  a  version  is  mani- 
festly inferior  to  that  of  a  manuscript  of  the  original.  But  a 
version  may  have  been  made  from  a  more  ancient  form  of  the 
original  text  than  an}^  which  we  have  in  existing  manuscripts ; 
and  thus  it  may  be  indirectly  a  witness  of  great  value.  The 
extremely  literal  version  of  Aquila  (Chap.  16,  No.  9)  was  made 
in  the  second  centur3^  Could  we  recover  it,  its  testimony  to 
the  Hebrew  text,  as  it  then  existed,  would  be  of  great  value. 
The  Septuagint  version  was  made  (at  least  begun)  in  the  third 
century  before  Christ.  But  its  free  character  diminishes,  and 
the  impure  state  of  its  text  greatly  injures  its  critical  authority. 
Of  the  Targums,  those  of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  alone  are 
capable  of  rendering  any  service  in  the  line  of  sacred  criticism, 
and  this  is  not  of  much  account. 

4.  "We  have  also  primary-printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible — those  printed  from  Hebrew  manuscripts,  which  the 
reader  may  see  noticed  in  Home's  Bibliographical  List,  Ap- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  211 

pendix  to  vol.  4.  The  critical  autlioritj  of  these  depends  on 
that  of  the  manuscripts  used,  which  were  all  of  the  Masoretic 
recension. 

5.  Parallel  passages — parallel  in  a  critical  and  not  simply  in 
a  Mstorical  respect — are  passages  which  profess  not  merely  to 
give  an  account  of  the  same  transaction,  but  to  repeat  the 
same  text.  Well  known  examples  are:  the  song  of  David 
recorded  in  the  twenty-second  chapter  of  the  second  book  of 
Samuel,  and  repeated  as  the  eighteenth  psalm ;  the  fourteenth 
and  fifty-third  psalms,  etc.  Such  repetitions  possess  for  every 
biblical  student  a  high  interest.  But  in  the  critical  use  of  them 
great  caution  is  necessary.  It  must  be  ascertained,  first  of  all, 
whether  they  proceed  from  the  same,  or  from  a  diflferent  writer. 
In  the  latter  case  they  are  only  historical  imitations.  If,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  above-named  passages,  they  manifestly  have 
the  same  author,  the  inquiry  still  remains  hoiu  the  differences 
arose.  They  may  be  different  recensions  of  the  same  writer 
(in  this  case,  of  David  himself),  or  of  another  inspired  writer, 
who  thus  sought  to  adapt  them  more  perfectly — the  fifty-third 
psalm,  for  example — to  the  circumstances  of  his  own  day.  The 
gift  of  inspiration  made  the  later  writer,  in  this  respect,  coor- 
dinate in  authority  with  the  earlier. 

Historical  parallelism,  such  as  those  in  the  books  of  Chronicles,  as  com- 
pared with  the  earlier  historical  books,  do  not  properly  belong  here.  Yet 
these  also  sometimes  furnish  critical  help,  especially  in  respect  to  names 
and  dates. 

6.  The  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New  have 
for  every  believer  the  highest  authority;  more,  however,  in  a 
lieymeneutical  than  a  critical  respect.  For,  as  already  remarked 
(Chap.  16,  No.  6),  the  New  Testament  writers  quote  mostly  from 
the  Septuagint,  and  in  a  very  free  way.  The  whole  subject  of 
these  quotations  will  come  up  hereafter  under  the  head  of 
Biblical  Interpretation. 

7.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Talmud  and 
later  rabbinical  tvriters  are  another  source  of  sacred  criticism. 


212  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  Talmud,  embodjing  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  law  of  the 
Jews  according  to  their  traditions,  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
Mishna,  or  text,  generally  referred  to  the  last  half  of  the  second 
century,  and  the  Gemara,  or  commentary  on  the  Mishna.  The 
Mishna  is  one ;  but  connected  with  this  are  two  Gemaras  of 
later  origin ;  the  more  copious  Babylonian^  and  the  briefer  Jeru- 
salem Gemara;  whence  the  distinction  of  the  Babylonian  and 
Jerusalem  Talmud.  Whether  because  the  Hebrew  text  was 
rigidly  settled  in  its  present  form  in  the  days  of  the  Talmud- 
ists,  or  because  their  quotations  have  been  made  to  agree  with 
the  Masorah,  an  examination  of  the  Talmud  furnishes  few  vari- 
ous readings  that  are  of  any  importance.  Most  of  them  relate 
to  trifling  particulars.  The  quotations  of  later  rabbinical  wri- 
ters are  of  small  account  in  a  critical  respect. 

8.  It  remains  to  speak  of  critical  conjecture.  Of  this  a  wise 
and  reverent  scholar  will  make  a  very  cautious  use.  He  will 
content  himself  witli  offering  to  the  public  his  suggestions, 
without  venturing  to  incorporate  them  into  the  text  itself.  The 
recklessness  of  some  modern  critics,  who  make  an  abundance 
of  conjectural  emendations,  and  then  embody  them  in  their  ver- 
sions, with  only  a  brief  note,  deserves  severe  condemnation. 
Had  the  ancient  critics  generally  adopted  this  uncritical  meth- 
od, the  sacred  text  would  long  ago  have  fallen  into  irretrieva- 
ble confusion. 

We  add  an  example  where  critical  conjecture  is  in  place,  though  it  may 
not  venture  to  alter  the  established  reading.  In  Psalm  42,  the  last  clause 
of  verse  6  and  the  beginning  of  verse  7,  written  continuously  without  a 
division  of  words  (Chap.  13,  No.  5),  would  read  thus  : 

With  the  present  division  of  words  : 

the  clauses  are  to  be  translated,  as  in  our  version  : 

For  I  shall  yet  praise  him  [for]  the  salvation  of  his  countenance.  0  my 
God,  my  soul  is  cast  doivn  within  me. 

Divided  as  follows  (by  the  transfer  of  a  single  letter  to  the  following 
word) . 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  )il6 

the  rendering  would  be  : 

For  I  shall  yet  "praise  him,  [who  is]  the  salvation  of  my  countenance  and 
my  God.     My  soul  is  cast  down  within  me. 

Thus  the  refrain  would  agree  exactly  with  the  two  that  follow  (ver.  11 
and  43  : 5).  Yet  this  conjecture,  however  plausible,  is  uncertain,  since  we 
do  not  know  that  the  saored  writer  sought  exact  uniformity  in  the  three 
refrains.  . 

9.  General  remark  on  the  various  readings  of  the  sacred 
text.  As  a  general  rule,  the  various  readings  with  which  text- 
ual criticism  is  occupied  have  respect  to  minor  points — for  the 
most  part  points  of  a  trivial  nature;  and  even  where  the  varia- 
tions are  of  more  importance,  thej  are  not  of  such  a  character 
as  to  obscure,  much  less  change,  the  truths  of  revelation  in  any 
essential  resj)ect.  Biblical  critics  tell  us,  for  example,  that  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  agrees  with  the  Septuagint  version  in 
more  than  a  thousand  places  where  they  differ  from  the  Maso- 
retic  Hebrew  text.  Chap.  16,  No.  7.  Yet  these  three  texts  all 
exhibit  the  same  God,  and  the  same  system  of  doctrines  and 
duties.  Eevelation  does  not  lie  in  letters  and  syllables  and 
grammatical  forms,  but  in  the  deep  and  pure  and  strong  and 
broad  current  of  truth  "given  by  inspiration  of  God."  Eev- 
erence  for  the  inspired  word  makes  us  anxious  to  possess  the 
sacred  text  in  all  possible  purity.  Yet  if  we  cannot  attain  to 
absolute  perfection  in  this  respect,  we  have  reasonable  assu- 
rance that  God,  who  gave  the  revelation  contained  in  the  Old 
Testament,  has  preserved  it  to  us  unchanged  in  any  essential 
particular.  The  point  on  which  most  obscurity  and  uncer- 
tainty rests  is  that  of  scriptural  chronology;  and  this  is  not 
one  that  affects  Christian  faith  or  practice. 


214  COMPANION   TO   THE   BIBLE 


SECOND  DIVISIOI^:  PARTICULAR  INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER  XYIII. 

The  Books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  Whole. 

1.  The  province  of  Particular  Introduction  is  to  consider  the 
books  of  the  Bible  separately,  in  respect  to  their  atithorship, 
date,  contents,  and  the  place  which  each  of  them  holds  in  the 
system  of  divine  truth.  Here  it  is  above  all  things  important 
that  we  begin  Avith  the  idea  of  the  unity  of  divine  revelation — 
that  all  the  parts  of  the  Bible  constitute  a  gloriously  perfect 
whole,  of  which  God  and  not  man  is  the  author.  No  amount 
of  study  devoted  to  a  given  book  or  section  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, with  all  the  help  that  modern  scholarship  can  furnish, 
will  give  a  true  comprehension  of  it,  until  we  understand  it  in 
its  relations  to  the  rest  of  Scripture.  We  cannot,  for  example, 
understand  the  book  of  Genesis  out  of  connection  with  the 
four  books  that  follow,  nor  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  separated 
from  the  four  that  precede.  Nor  can  we  fully  understand  the 
Pentateuch  as  a  whole  except  in  the  light  of  the  historical  and 
prophetical  books  which  follow ;  for  these  unfold  the  divine  pur- 
pose in  the  establishment  of  the  Theocracy  as  recorded  in  the 
Pentateuch.  The  Pentateuch  itself  gives  us  only  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Theocracy.  The  books  that  follow,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  New  Testament,  reveal  its  office  in  the  plan  of 
redemption ;  and  not  till  we  know  this  can  we  be  said  to  have 
an  intelligent  comprehension  of  the  theocratic  system.  The 
same  is  true  of  every  other  part  of  revelation. 

The  words  of  the  apostle  :  "Ever  learning,  and  never  able  to  come  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  truth  "  (2  Tim.  3:7),  apply  to  many  learned  commen- 
taries.    Their  authors  have  brought  to  them  much  accurate  scholarship 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  215 

and  research  ;  but  they  have  not  seen  the  nnity  of  divine  truth.  They 
have  written  mainly  in  an  antiquarian  spirit  and  interest,  regarding  the 
work  under  consideration  simply  as  an  ancient  and  venerable  record. 
They  have  diligently  sought  for  connections  in  philology,  in  antiquities, 
and  in  history.  In  these  respects  they  have  thrown  much  light  on  the 
sacred  text.  But  they  have  never  once  thought  of  inquiring  what  place 
the  book  which  they  have  undertaken  to  interpret  holds  in  the  divine  sys- 
tem of  revelation — perhaps  have  had  no  faith  in  such  a  system.  Conse- 
quently they  cannot  unfold  to  others  that  which  they  do  not  themselves 
apprehend.  On  a  hundred  particulars  they  may  give  valuable  information, 
but  that  which  constitutes  the  veiy  life  and  substance  of  the  book  remains 
hidden  from  their  view. 

2.  It  is  necessary  that  we  ■understand,  first  of  all,  the  relation 
of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  whole  to  the  system  of  revealed  truth. 
It  is  a  preparatory  revelation  introductory  to  one  that  is  final. 
This  the  New  Testament  teaches  in  explicit  terms.  "Wlien 
the  fulness  of  the  time  was  come,  God  sent  forth  his  Son." 
Gal.  4 : 4.  Christ  could  not  have  come  in  the  days  of  Enoch 
before  the  flood,  nor  of  Abraham  after  the  flood,  because  "  the 
fulness  of  the  time"  had  not  yet  arrived.  Nor  was  the  way  for 
his  advent  prepared  in  the  age  of  Moses,  or  David,  or  Isaiah, 
or  Ezra.  The  gospel  everywhere  assumes  that  when  the  Sav- 
iour appeared,  men  had  attained  to  a  state  of  comparative 
maturity  in  respect  to  both  the  knowledge  of  God  and  the  prog- 
ress of  human  society.  The  attentive  reader  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament cannot  fail  to  notice  how  fully  its  writers  avail  them- 
selves of  all  the  revelations  which  God  had  made  in  the  Old 
Testament  of  himself,  of  the  course  of  his  providence,  and  of 
his  purposes  towards  the  human  family.  The  unity  of  God, 
especially,  is  assumed  as  a  truth  so  firmly  established  in  the 
national  faith  of  the  Jews,  that  the  doctrine  of  our  Lord's  deity, 
and  that  of  the  Holy  Sj^irit,  can  be  taught  without  the  danger 
of  its  being  misunderstood  in  a  polytheistic  sense — as  if  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  were  three  gods.  It  is 
certain  that  this  could  not  have  been  done  any  time  before  the 
Babjdonish  captivity.  The  idea  of  vicarious  sacrifice,  more- 
over— that  great  fundamental  idea  of  the  gospel  that  "without 
shedding  of  blood  there  is  no  remission  " — the  writers  of  the 


216  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

New  Testament  found  ready  at  hand,  and  in  its  liglit  they 
interpreted  the  mission  of  Christ.  Upon  his  very  first  appear- 
ance, John  the  Baptist,  his  forerunner,  exclaimed  to  the  assem- 
bled multitudes:  "Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketli 
away  the  sin  of  the  world."  To  the  Jew,  with  his  training 
under  the  Mosaic  system  of  sacrifices,  how  significant  were 
these  words!  Without  such  a  previous  training,  how  meaning- 
less to  him  and  to  the  world  for  which  Christ  died !  Then 
again  the  gospel,  in  strong  contrast  with  the  Mosaic  law,  deals 
in  general  jprinciples.  Herein  it  assumes  a  comparative  matu- 
rity of  human  thought — a  capacity  to  include  many  particulars 
under  one  general  idea.  A  beautiful  illustration  of  this  is  our 
Lord's  summary  of  social  duties :  "  Therefore  all  things  what- 
soever ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to 
them:  for  this  is  the  law  and  the  prophets."  Matt.  7  :  12.  We 
may  add  (what  is  indeed  implied  in  the  preceding  remark)  that 
the  gospel  required  for  its  introduction  a  to  ell-developed  state  of 
civilization  and  culture,  as  contrasted  with  one  of  rude  barba- 
rism. Now  the  Hebrews  were  introduced,  in  the  beginning  of 
their  national  existence,  to  the  civilization  of  Egypt;  which, 
with  all  its  defects,  was  perhaps  as  good  a  type  as  then  existed 
in  the  world.  Afterwards  they  were  brought  successively  into 
intimate  connection  with  Babylonian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and 
Roman  civilization ;  particularly  with  the  last  two.  This  was, 
moreover,  at  a  time  when  their  national  training  under  the 
Mosaic  institutions  had  given  them  such  maturity  of  religious 
character  that  they  were  not  in  danger  of  being  seduced  into 
the  idolatrous  worship  of  these  nations.  Dispersed  throughout 
all  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  they  still  maintained 
firmly  the  religion  of  their  fathers;  and  their  synagogues  every- 
where constituted  central  points  for  the  introduction  of  the 
gospel,  and  its  diffusion  through  the  Gentile  world.  Such  are 
some  of  the  many  ways  in  which  the  world  was  prepared  for 
the  Redeemer's  advent.  This  is  a  vast  theme,  on  which  vol- 
umes could  be  written.  The  plan  of  the  present  work  will  only 
admit  of  the  above  brief  hints. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  217 

Our  Lord's  command  is  :  "Go  ye  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the 
gospel  to  every  creature."  The  history  of  missions  shows  that  the  gospel 
can  be  preached  with  success  to  the  most  degraded  tribes — to  the  Hotten- 
tots of  South  Africa  and  the  cannibals  of  the  South  sea  islands,  and  that 
this  is  the  only  remedy  for  their  barbarism.  But  the  gospel  did  not  begin 
among  savages,  nor  does  it  have  its  centres  of  power  and  influence  among 
them.  Christ  came  at  the  culminating  point  of  ancient  civilization  and 
culture  ;  not  that  he  might  conform  his  gospel  to  existing  institutions  and 
ideas,  but  that  he  might  through  his  gospel  infuse  into  them  (as  far  as  they 
contained  elements  of  truth)  the  purifying  and  transforming  leaven  of 
divine  truth.  As  the  gospel  began  in  the  midst  of  civiHzation,  so  does  its 
introduction  among  barbarous  tribes  always  bring  civilization  in  its 
train. 

3.  When  we  have  learned  to  regard  the  revelation  of  which 
we  have  a  record  in  the  Old  Testament  as  preparatory  to  the 
gospel,  we  see  it  in  its  true  light.     This  view  furnishes  both 
the  key  to  its  character  and  the  answer  to  the  objections  com- 
monly urged   against  it.     It  is  not  a  revelation  of  abstract 
truths.     These  would  neither  have  excited  the  interest  of  the 
people,  nor  have  been  apprehended  by  them.    God  made  known 
to  the  covenant  people  his  character  and  the  duties  which  he 
required  of  them  by  a  series  of  mighty  acts  and  a  system  of 
positive  laius.     The  Old  Testament,  is,  therefore,  in  an  eminent 
degree   documentary — a    record   not  simply  of   opinions,   but 
rather  of  actions  and  institutions.     Of  these  actions  and  insti- 
tutions we  are  to  judge  from  the  character  of  the  people  and 
the  age  in  connection  with  the  great  end  proposed  by  God. 
This  end  was  not  the  material  prosperity  of  Israel,  but  -the 
preparation  of  the  nation  for  its  high  office  as  the  medium 
through  which  the  gospel  should  afterwards  be  given  to  the 
world.     The  people  were  rebellious  and  stiff-necked,  and  sur- 
rounded by  polytheism  and  idolatry.     Their  trainiDg  required 
severity,  and  all  the  severity  employed  by  God  brought  forth 
at  last  its-  appropriate  fruits.     The  laws  imposed  upon  them 
were  stern  and  burdensome  from  their  multiplicity.     But  nc 
one  can  show  that  in  either  of  these  respects  they  could  have 
been  wisely  modified ;  for  the  nation  was  then  in  its  childhood 
and  pupilage  (Gal.  4 : 1-3).,  and  needed  to  be  treated  accordingly. 

'■■in.p.  to  BIMc.  JQ 


218  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

An  objection  nmcli  insisted  on  by  some  is  the  exclusive  cliar- 
acter  of  the  Mosaic  institutions — a  religion,  it  is  alleged,  for 
onlj  one  nation,  while  all  the  other  nations  were  left  in  igno- 
rance. To  this  a  summary  answer  can  be  given.  In  selecting 
Israel  as  his  covenant  people,  God  had  in  view  the  salvation  of 
the  whole  world  :  "  In  thee  shall  all  families  of  the  earth  be 
blessed "  (Gen.  12  :  3) — snch  was  the  tenor  of  the  covenant 
from  the  beginning.  His  plan  was  to  bring  one  nation  into 
special  relation  to  himself,  establish  in  it  the  true  religion, 
prepare  it  for  the  advent  of  Christ,  and  then  propagate  the 
gospel  from  it  as  a  centre  throughout  all  nations.  If  men  are 
to  be  dealt  with  in  a  moral  way,  as  free,  responsible  subjects  of 
law  (and  this  is  the  only  way  in  which  God  deals  with  men 
under  a  system  of  either  natural  or  revealed  religion),  can  the 
objector  propose  any  better  way?  He  might  as  well  object  to 
the  procedure  of  a  military  commander  that,  instead  of  spread- 
ing his  army  over  a  whole  province,  he  concentrates  it  on  one 
strong  point.  Let  him  wait  patiently,  and  he  will  find  that  in 
gaining  this  point  the  commander  gains  the  whole  country. 

4.  Having  seen  the  relation  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  whole 
to  the  system  of  divine  revelation,  we  are  now  prepared  to  con- 
sider the  place  occupied  by  its  several  divisions. 

(1.)  To  prepare  the  way  for  our  Lord's  advent,  one  nation 
was  to  be  selected  and  trained  up  under  a  system  of  divine  laws 
and  ordinances — the  theocracy  established  under  Moses.  The 
Pentateucli  records  the  estaUishment  of  the  theocracy,  with  the  pre- 
vious steps  that  led  to  it,  and  the  historical  events  immediately 
connected  with  it.  Hence  the  five  books  of  Moses  are  called 
emphatically  the  Laiv ;  and  as  such,  their  province  in  the  Old 
Testament  is  clear  and  well  defined. 

(2.)  The  end  of  the  Mosaic  law  being  the  preparation 
of  the  Israelitish  people,  and  through  them  the  world,  for 
Christ's  advent,  it  was  not  the  purpose  of  God  that  it  should 
be  hidden  as  a  dead  letter  beside  the  ark  in  the  inner  sanctii- 
ary.  It  was  a  code  for  practice,  not  for  theory.  It  contained 
the  constitution  of  the  state,  civil  as  well  as  religious;  and 


THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.  219 

God's  almighty  power  and  faithfulness  were  pledged  that  it 
should  accomplish  in  a  thorough  way  the  office  assigned  to  it. 
The  theocracy  must  therefore  have  a  history  ;  and  with  the  rec- 
ord of  this  the  historical  hooks  are  occupied. 

(3.)  God  did  not  leave  the  development  of  this  history 
to  itself.  He  watched  over  it  from  the  beginning,  and  directed 
its  course,  interposing  from  time  to  time,  not  only  in  a  provi- 
dential way,  but  also  by  direct  revelation.  Sometimes,  for  spe- 
cific ends,  he  revealed  himself  immediately  to  particular  indi- 
viduals, as  to  Gideon,  and  Manoali  and  his  wife.  But  more 
commonly  his  revelations  were  made  to  the  rulers  or  peoj^le  at 
large  through  persons  selected  as  the  organs  of  his  Spirit;  that 
is,  through  prophets.  The  prophet  held  his  commission  imme- 
diately from  God.  Since  God  is  the  author,  not  of  confusion, 
but  of  order,  he  came  to  the  people  under  the  Law,  not  above 
it ;  and  his  messages  were  to  be  tried  by  the  Law.  Deut. 
13 : 1-5.  No  prophet  after  Moses  enjoyed  the  same  fulness  of 
access  to  God  which  was  vouchsafed  to  him,  or  received  the 
same  extent  of  revelation.  Numb.  12:6-8;  Deut.  34:10-12. 
Nevertheless,  the  prophet  came  to  rulers  and  people,  like  Moses, 
with  an  authority  derived  immediately  from  God,  introducing 
his  messages  with  the  words :  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord."  In  God's 
naitie  he  rebuked  the  people  for  their  sins ;  explained  to  them 
the  true  cause  of  the  calamities  that  befell  them  ;  recalled  them 
to  God's  service  as  ordained  in  the  Law,  unfolding  to  them  at 
the  same  time  its  true  nature  as  consisting  in  the  spirit,  and 
not  in  the  letter  only— 1  Sam.  15:22;  Isa.  1:11-20;  57:15; 
66:2;  Jer.4:4;  Ezek.  18:31;  Hoseal0:12;  14:2;  Joel  2:12, 
13  ;  Amos  5  :  21-24 ;  Micah  6 :  6-8 — denounced  upon  them  the 
awful  judgments  of  God  as  the  punishment  of  continued  diso- 
bedience ;  and  promised  them  the  restoration  of  his  favor  upon 
condition  of  hearty  repentance.  In  the  decline  of  the  Theoc- 
racy, it  was  the  special  province  of  the  prophets  to  comfort  the 
pious  remnant  of  God's  people  by  unfolding  to  them  the  future 
glory  of  Zion — the  true  "  Israel  of  God,"  and  her  dominion  over 
all  the  earth.     From  about  the  reign  of  Uzziah  and  onward,  as 


220  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE, 

already  remarked  (cli.  15.  12),  the  prophets  began,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  reduce  their  prophecies  to  wri- 
ting, and  thus  arose  the  series  of  iDToplietical  hooks  that  form  a 
prominent  part  of  the  Old  Testament  canon.  Their  office  is 
at  once  recognized  by  every  reader  as  distinct  from  that  of 
either  the  Pentateuch  or  the  historical  books  ;  although  these 
latter  were,  as  a  general  rule,  written  by  prophets  also. 

(4.)  There  is  a  class,  more  miscellaneous  in  character, 
that  may  be  described  in  general  terms  as  the  ^joetical  hooks,  in 
which  the  elements  of  meditation  and  reflection  predominate. 
It  includes  the  book  of  Job,  which  has  for  its  theme  divine 
providence,  as  viewed  from  the  position  of  the  Old  Testament; 
the  book  of  Psalms,  that  wonderful  treasury  of  holy  thought 
and  feeling  embodied  in  sacred  song  for  the  use  of  God's  peo- 
ple in  all  ages ;  the  book  of  Proverbs,  with  its  inexhaustible 
treasures  of  practical  wisdom  ;  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes,  having 
for  its  theme  the  vanity  of  this  world  when  sought  as  a  satisfy- 
ing good;  and  the  book  of  Canticles,  which  the  church  has 
always  regarded  as  a  mystical  song  having  for  its  ground-idea, 
under  the  Old  Testament,  that  God  is  the  husband  of  Zion,  and 
under  the  New,  that  the  church  is  the  bride  of  Christ.  How 
high  a  place  this  division  of  the  canon  holds  in  the  system  of 
divine  revelation  ever}^  pious  heart  feels  instinctively.  Without 
it,  the  revelation  of  the  Old  Testament  could  not  have  been 
complete  for  the  work  assigned  to  it. 

5.  We  have  seen  the  relation  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a 
whole  to  the  entire  system  of  revelation,  and  also  the  place 
occupied  by  its  several  divisions.  It  will  further  appear,  as  we 
proceed,  that  each  particular  book  in  these  divisions  contrib- 
utes its  share  to  the  perfection  of  the  whole. 

6.  Although  the  revelation  contained  in  the  Old  Testament 
was  preparatory  to  the  fuller  revelation  of  the  New,  we  must 
guard  against  the  error  of  supposing  that  it  had  not  a  proper 
significance  and  use  for  the  men  of  its  own  time.  "  Unto  us," 
says  the  apostle,  "  was  the  gospel  preached,  as  luell  as  unto 
them.''     Heb.  4:2.     And  again  :  *' These  all  died  in  faith,  not 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  221 

having  received  tlie  promises,  but  having  seen  them  afar  off, 
and  were  persuaded  of  them,  and  embraced  them,  and  con- 
fessed that  they  were  strangers  and  pilgrims  on  the  earth." 
"And  these  all,  having  obtained  a  good  report  through  faith, 
received  not  the  promise  :  God  having  provided  some  better 
thing  for  us,  that  they  ivithout  us  should  not  he  made  ijerfect,'* 
Heb.  11 :  13,  39,  40.  They  had  a  part  of  the  truth,  but  not  its 
fulness  ;  and  the  measure  of  revelation  vouchsafed  to  them  was 
given  for  their  personal  salvation,  as  well  as  to  prepare  the  way 
for  further  revelations.  The  promise  made  to  Abraham — "  In 
thy  seed  shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be  blessed" — was 
fulfilled  in  Christ.  In  this  respect  Abraham  "  received  not  the 
promise."  Nevertheless,  it  was  a  promise  made  for  his  benefit, 
as  well  as  for  that  of  future  ages.  Into  the  bosom  of  the  patri- 
arch it  brought  light  and  joy  and  salvation.  "Your  father 
Abraham,"  said  Jesus,  "rejoiced  to  see  my  day  ;  and  he  saw  it, 
and  was  glad."  John  8  :  ^Q.  "  He  believed  in  the  Lord,"  says 
the  inspired  record,  "  and  he  counted  it  to  him  for  righteous- 
ness." Gen.  15 : 6.  The  deliverance  of  Israel  from  Egypt 
typified  the  redemption  of  Christ ;  and  it  was,  moreover,  one 
of  the  grand  movements  that  prepared  the  way  for  his  advent. 
But  it  was  neither  all  type  nor  all  preparation.  To  the  cove- 
nant people  of  that  day  it  was  a  true  deliverance ;  and  to  the 
believing  portion  of  them,  a  deliverance  of  soul  as  well  as  of 
body.  "  The  law,"  says  Paul,  "  was  our  school-master  to  bring 
us  unto  Christ,  that  we  might  be  justified  by  faith."  Gal.  3  :  24. 
But  while  it  had  this  preparatory  ofiice,  it  was  to  the  Israelitish 
nation  a  true  rule  of  life ;  and  under  it  many,  through  faith, 
anticipated  its  end.  The  prophets  prophesied  for  the  men  of 
their  own  age,  as  well  as  for  distant  generations.  The  sweet 
psalmist  of  Israel,  while  he  foreshadowed  the  Messiah's  reign, 
sung  for  the  comfort  and  edification  of  himself  and  his  contem- 
poraries ;  and  Solomon  gave  rules  of  practical  wisdom  as  valid 
for  his  day  as  for  ours.  The  revelation  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  not  complete,  like  that  which  we  now  possess ;  but  it  was 
sufficient  for  the  salvation  of  every  sincere  inquirer  after  truth. 


222  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

When  the  rich  man  in  hell  besought  Abraham  that  Lazarus 
might  be  sent  to  warn  his  five  brethren  on  the  ground  that,  if 
one  went  to  them  from  the  dead  they  would  repent,  Abraham 
answered  :  "  If  they  hear  not  Moses  and  the  prophets,  neither 
will  they  be  persuaded  though  one  rose  from  the  dead." 

7.  There  is  another  practical  error  against  which  Christians 
of  the  present  day  need  to  be  warned.  It  is  the  idea  that  the 
full  revelation  of  the  New  Testament  supersedes  in  a  great 
measure  the  necessity  of  studying  the  previous  revelation  con- 
tained in  the  Old  Testament.  Few  will  openly  avow  this,  but 
too  many  inwardly  cherish  the  delusion  in  a  vague  and  unde- 
fined form  ;  and  it  exerts  a  pernicious  influence  upon  them,  lead- 
ing them  to  undervalue  and  neglect  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures. Even  if  the  idea  under  consideration  were  in  accordance 
with  truth,  it  would  still  be  to  every  earnest  Christian  a  matter 
of  deep  historical  interest  to  study  the  way  by  which  God  pre- 
pared the  world  for  the  full  light  of  the  gospel.  But  it  is  not 
true.  It  rests  on  a  foundation  of  error  and  delusion.  For,  (1.) 
The  system  of  divine  revelation  constitutes  a  tvJiole,  all  the  parts 
of  which  are  connected,  from  beginning  to  end,  so  that  no  sin- 
gle part  can  be  truly  understood  without  a  knowledge  of  all  the 
rest.  The  impenetrable  darkness  that  rests  on  some  portions 
of  Scripture  has  its  ground  in  the  fact  that  the  plan  of  redemp- 
tion is  not  yet  completed.  The  mighty  disclosures  of  the  future 
can  alone  dissipate  this  darkness. 

' '  God  is  his  own  interpreter, 
And  he  will  make  it  plain. " 

(2.)  We  know  that  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  con- 
stantly refer  to  the  Old  for  arguments  and  illustrations.  A 
knowledge  of  the  Old  Testament  is  necessary,  therefore,  for  a 
full  comprehension  of  their  meaning.  How  can  the  reader,  for 
example,  understand  the  epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Galatians, 
or  that  to  the  Hebrews,  without  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
"  Moses  and  the  prophets,"  to  which  these  epistles  have  such 
constant  reference  ?  (3.)  The  Old  Testament  is  occupied  with 
the  record  of  God's  dealings  with  men.     Such  a  record  must 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  223 

be  a  perpetual  revelation  of  God's  infinite  attributes,  and  of 
liuman  character  also,  and  the  course  of  human  society,  every . 
part  of  which  is  luminous  with  instruction.  (4.)  Although  the  old 
theocracy,  with  its  particular  laws  and  forms  of  worship,  has  pass- 
ed away,  yet  the  princijples  on  which  it  rested,  which  interpene- 
trated it  in  every  part,  and  which  shone  forth  with  a  clear  light 
throughout  its  whole  history — these  principles  are  eternal  veri- 
ties, as  valid  for  us  as  for  the  ancient  patriarchs.  Some  of  these 
principles — for  example,  God's  unity,  personality,  and  infinite 
perfections ;  his  universal  providence ;  his  supremacy  over  all 
nations ;  the  tendency  of  nations  to  degeneracy,  and  the  stern 
judgments  employed  by  God  to  reclaim  them — are  so  fully 
unfolded  in  the  Old  Testament  that  they  needed  no  repetition 
in  the  New.  There  they  became  axioms  rather  than  doctrines. 
(5.)  "The  manifold  wisdom  of  God"  in  adapting  his  dealings 
with  men  to  the  different  stages  of  human  progress  cannot  be 
seen  without  a  diligent  study  of  the  Old  Testament  as  well  as 
the  New.  Whoever  neglects  the  former,  will  want  breadth  and 
comprehensiveness  of  Christian  culture.  All  profound  Chris- 
tian writers  have  been  well  versed  in  "  the  whole  instrument  of 
each  Testament,"  as  TertuUian  calls  the  two  j)arts  of  revela- 
tion.    Chap.  13,  No.  2. 

Modern  skepticism  begins  with  disparaging  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  ends  with  denying  the  divine  authority  of  both  the 
Old  and  the  New.  In  this  work  it  often  unites  a  vast  amount 
of  learning  in  regard  to  particulars  with  principles  that  are 
superficial  and  false. 


22^  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

The  Pentateuch, 

1.  The  unity  of  the  Pentateuch  lias  already  been  considered 
(Cli.  9,  No.  12),  and  will  appear  more  fully  as  we  proceed  with 
the  examination  of  the  separate  books  included  in  it.  Even  if 
we  leave  out  of  view  the  authority  of  the  New  Testament,  this 
unity  is  too  deep  and  fundamental  to  allow  of  the  idea  that  it 
is  a  patchwork  of  later  ages.  Under  divine  guidance  the  writer 
goes  steadily  forward  from  beginning  to  end,  and  his  work 
when  finished  is  a  symmetrical  whole.  Even  its  apparent  in- 
congruities, like  the  interweaving  of  historical  notices  with  the 
laws,  are  marks  of  its  genuineness ;  for  they  prove  that,  in 
those  parts  at  least,  events  were  recorded  as  they  transpired. 
Such  a  blending  of  history  with  revelation  does  not  impair  the 
unity  of  the  work  ;  for  it  is  a  unity  which  has  its  ground  not  in 
severe  logical  arrangement  and  classification,  but  in  a  divine  plan 
historically  developed.  "Whether  the  division  of  the  Penta- 
teuch into  five  books  (whence  its  Greek  name  Pentateuchos,  five- 
fold hook)  was  original,  proceeding  from  the  author  himself,  or 
the  work  of  a  later  age,  is  a  question  on  which  biblical  scholars 
are  not  agreed.  It  is  admitted  by  all  that  the  division  is  natural 
and  appropriate.  The  Hebrew  titles  of  the  several  books  are 
taken  from  prominent  words  standing  at  or  near  the  beginning 
of  each.  The  Greek  names  are  expressive  of  their  prominent 
contents ;  and  these  are  followed  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  and  in 
our  English  version,  only  that  the  name  of  the  fourth  book  is 
translated. 

I.     GENESIS. 

2.  The  Hebrews  name  this  book  Bereshith,  in  the  hegi7ining, 
from  the  fii'st  word.     Its  Greek  name  Genesis  signifies  genera' 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  225 

tion^  genealogy.  As  the  genealogical  records  with  which  the 
book  abounds  contain  historical  notices,  and  are,  in  truth,  the 
earliest  form  of  history,  the  word  is  applied  to  the  history 
of  the  creation,  and  of  the  ancient  patriarchs,  as  well  as  to 
the  genealogical  lists  of  their  families.  Gen.  2:4;  25 :  19  ; 
37  : 2,  etc.  In  the  same  wide  sense  is  it  applied  to  the  book 
itself. 

3.  Genesis  is  the  introductory  hooh  to  the  Pentateuch,  with- 
out which  our  understanding  of  the  following  books  w^ould  be 
incomplete.  Let  us  suppose  for  a  moment  that  we  had  not  this 
book.  We  open  the  book  of  Exodus  and  read  of  "  the  children 
of  Israel  which  came  into  Egypt ;"  that  "  Joseph  was  in  Egypt 
already,"  and  that  "  there  arose  up  a  new  king  over  Egypt, 
w^hich  knew  not  Joseph."  Who  were  these  children  of  Israel  ? 
we  at  once  ask  ;  and  how  did  they  come  to  be  in  Egypt  ?  Who 
was  Joseph?  and  what  is  the  meaning  of  the  notice  that  the 
new  king  knew  not  Joseph  ?  All  these  particulars  are  explained 
in  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  without  them  w^e  must  remain  in 
darkness.  But  the  connection  of  this  book  with  the  following 
is  not  simply  explanatory ;  it  is  organic  also,  entering  into  the 
very  substance  of  the  Pentateuch.  We  are  told  (Ex.  2 :  24,  25)  • 
that  God  heard  the  groaning  of  his  people  in  Egypt,  and  "  God 
remembered  his  covenant  with  Abraham,  with  Isaac,  and  with 
Jacob ;  and  God  looked  upon  the  children  of  Israel,  and  God 
had  respect  unto  them."  The  remembrance  of  his  covenant 
with  their  fathers  is  specified  as  the  ground  of  his  interposition. 
Now  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham,  and  afterwards  renew- 
ed to  Isaac  and  Jacob,  was  not  a  mere  incidental  event  in  the 
history  of  the  patriarchs  and  their  posterit3\  It  constituted 
the  very  essence  of  God's  peculiar  relation  to  Israel ;  and,  as 
such,  it  was  the  platform  on  w^hich  the  whole  theocracy  was 
afterwards  erected.  The  nation  received  the  law  at  Sinai  iu 
loursuance  of  the  original  covenant  made  with  their  fathers  ; 
and  unless  we  understand  the  nature  of  this  covenant,  we  fail  , 
to  understand  the  meaning  and  end  of  the  law  itself.  The  very 
information  which  we  need  is  contained  in  Genesis  ;  for  from 

10* 


226  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  twelfth  chapter  onward  this  book  is  occupied  with  an 
account  of  this  covenant,  and  of  God's  deahngs  with  the  patri- 
archs in  connection  with  it.  The  story  of  Joseph,  which  unites 
such  perfect  simpHcitj  with  such  deep  pathos,  is  not  thrown  in 
as  a  pleasing  episode.  Its  end  is  to  show  how  God  accom- 
plished his  purpose,  long  before  announced  to  Abraham  (ch. 
15:13),  that  the  Israelites  should  be  "  a  stranger  in  a  land  not 
theirs." 

But  the  Abrahamic  covenant  itself  finds  its  explanation  in 
the  previous  history.  For  two  thousand  years  God  had  admin- 
istered the  government  of  the  world  without  a  visible  church. 
And  what  was  the  result?  Before  the  flood  the  degeneracy  of 
the  human  family  w^as  universal.  God,  therefore,  swept  them 
all  away,  and  began  anew  with  Noah  and  his  family.  But  the 
terrible  judgment  of  the  deluge  was  not  efficacious  to  prevent 
the  new  world  from  following  the  example  of  the  old.  In  the 
days  of  Abraham  the  worship  of  God  had  been  corrupted 
through  polytheism  and  idolatry,  and  ignorance  and  wicked- 
ness were  again  universal.  The  time  had  manifestly  come  for 
the  adoption  of  a  new  economy,  in  which  God  should,  for  the 
time  being,  concentrate  his  special  labors  upon  a  single  nation 
but  with  ultimate  reference  to  the  salvation  of  the  whole  world. 
Thus  we  have  in  the  book  of  Genesis  in  a  certain  measure  (for 
we  may  not  presume  to  speak  of  God's  counsels  as  fully  appre- 
hended by  us)  an  explanation  of  the  Abrahamic  covenant,  and. 
in  this,  of  the  Mosaic  economy  also. 

4.  In  accordance  with  the  above  view,  the  book  of  Genesis 
falls  into  two  unequal,  but  natural  divisions.  The  first  part 
extends  through  eleven  chapters,  and  is  occupied  with  the  his- 
tory of  tlie  liuman  family  as  a  ivliole.  It  is  the  oldest  record  in 
existence,  and  its  contents  are  perfectly  unique.  It  describes 
in  brief  terms :  the  order  of  creation ;  the  institution  of  the 
Sabbath  and  marriage ;  the  probation  to  which  man  was  sub- 
jected, with  its  disastrous  result  in  his  fall  and  expulsion  from 
Eden;  the  murder  of  Abel  by  Cain,  and,  in  connection  with 
thisj  the  divisioii  of  mankind  into  two  families ;  man's  univer- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  227 

sal  clegenerac}^ ;  the  deluge ;  the  covenant  made  by  God  with 
the  earth  through  Noah,  and  the  law  of  murder  ;  the  confusion 
of  tongues  at  Babel,  and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the  dif- 
ferent families  of  men,  a  particular  account  of  which  is  given 
by  way  of  anticipation  in  the  tenth  chapter.  In  addition  to 
these  notices  there  are  two  genealogical  tables ;  the  first  from 
Adam  to  Noah  (ch.  5),  the  second  from  Shem  to  Abraham 
(ch.  11). 

The  second  part  comprises  the  remainder  of  the  book.  In 
this  we  have  no  longer  a  history  of  the  whole  race,  but  of 
Abraham's  family,  with  only  incidental  notices  of  the  nations 
into  connection  with  whom  Abraham  and  his  posterity  were 
brought.  It  opens  with  an  account  of  the  call  of  Abraham  and 
the  covenant  made  with  him ;  notices  the  repeated  renewal  of 
this  covenant  to  Abraham,  with  the  institution  of  the  rite  of 
circumcision  ;  its  subsequent  renewal  to  Isaac  and  Jacob  ;  and 
the  exclusion,  first  of  Ishmael  and  afterwards  of  Esau,  from  a 
share  in  its  privileges.  In  immediate  connection  with  the  cove- 
nant relation  into  which  God  took  Abraham  and  his  family, 
we  have  the  history  of  the  patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  sometimes  with  much  detail,  but  always  with  reference 
to  the  peculiar  prerogative  conferred  upon  them.  The  book 
closes  with  an  account  of  the  wonderful  train  of  providences 
by  which  Israel  was  brought  into  Egypt. 

Thougli  Islimael  and  Esau  were  exduded  from  the  covenant,  yet,  appa- 
rently in  consequence  of  their  near  relation  to  the  patriarchs,  genealogical 
tables  are  devoted  to  them  ;  to  Ishmael,  ch.  25  :  12-18  ;  to  Esau,  the  whole 
of  ch.  36. 

5.  The  Mosaic  author  ship  of  Genesis  has  already  been  con- 
sidered ;  and,  in  connection  with  this,  the  question  whether 
.  the  Pentateuch,  and  especially  Genesis,  contains  any  clauses  of 
a  later  date,  Ch.  9,  No.  11.  Some,  as  Hengstenberg  and  his  fol- 
lowers, deny  the  existence  of  such  clauses  ;  but  others  think 
that  a  few  must  be  admitted,  which  were  afterwards  added,  as 
needful  explanations,  by  prophetical  men.     We  are  at  liberty 


228  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

to  decide  either  way  concerning  them  according  to  the  evi- 
dence before  us.  On  the  question  whether  Moses  made  use  of 
earlier  written  documents,  see  Ch.  9,  No.  11. 

The  clauses  for  wliicli  a  later  date  can  with  any  show  of  reason  be 
claimed  are  few  in  number,  and  none  of  them  enter  essentially  into  the 
texture  of  the  book.  They  are  Just  such  extraneous  remarks  as  the  neces' 
sities  of  a  later  age  required  ;  for  example,  Gen.  36  :  31 ;  Ex.  16  :  35.  On 
the  last  of  these,  Graves,  who  considers  it  ^'plainly  a  passage  inserted  hy  a 
later  Jiand,''  says  :  "I  contend  that  the  insertion  of  such  notes  rather  con- 
firms than  imi^eaches  the  integrity  of  the  original  narrative.  If  this  were 
a  compilation  long  subsequent  to  the  events  it  records  "  (according  to  the 
false  assumption  of  some  reipecting  the  origin  of  the  Pentateuch),  "such 
additions  would  not  have  been  plainly  distinguishable,  as  they  now  are, 
from  the  main  substance  of  the  original."  On  the  Pentateuch,  Appendix, 
sec.  1,  No.  13. 

6.  The  contents  of  the  first  part  of  this  book  are  pecuHar. 
It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  we  should  encounter  difficulties 
in  the  attempt  to  interpret  them.  To  consider  these  difiicul- 
ties  in  detail  Avould  be  to  write  a  commentary  on  the  first 
eleven  chapters.  Only  some  general  remarks  can  here  be 
ofi'ered.  Some  difficulties  are  imaginary,  the  inventions  of 
special  pleading.  In  these  the  commentaries  of  modern  ra- 
tionalists abound.  They  are  to  be  set  aside  by  fair  inter- 
pretation. But  other  difficulties  are  real,  and  should  not  be 
denied  or  ignored  by  the  honest  expositor.  If  he  can  give  a 
valid  explanation  of  them,  well  and  good  ;  but  if  not,  let  him 
reverently  wait  for  more  light,  in  the  calm  assurance  that  the 
divine  authority  of  the  Pentateuch  rests  on  a  foundation  that 
cannot  be  shaken.  To  deny  a  well-authenticated  narrative  of 
facts  on  the  ground  of  unexplained  difficulties  connected  with 
it  is  to  build  on  a  foundation  of  error. 

(A. )  Of  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  first  jDart  of  Genesis  some  are 
scientific.  Such  is  the  narrative  of  the  creation  of  the  world  in  six  days. 
Respecting  this  it  has  already  been  remarked  (Ch,  10,  No.  3)  that  with  all 
who  believe  in  the  reality  of  divine  revelation  the  question  is  not  respecting 
the  truth  of  this  narrative,  but  respecting  the  interx^retation  of  it.  As  long 
ago  as  the  time  of  Augustine  the  question  was  raised  whether  these  days 


THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.  229 

are  to  be  understood  literally,  or  symbolically  of  long  periods  of  time. 
The  latter  was  his  view,  and  it  is  strengthened  by  the  analogy  of  the  pro- 
phetic days  of  prophecy. 

Another  difficulty  relates  to  the  age  of  the  antediluvian  patriarchs, 
which  was  about  tenfold  the  present  term  of  life  for  robust  and  healthful 
men.  According  to  the  laws  of  physiology  we  must  sujDpose  that  the  period 
of  childhood  and  youth  was  protracted  in  a  corresponding  manner  ;  since 
in  man,  as  in  all  the  higher  animals,  the  time  of  physical  growth — physical 
growth  in  the  widest  sense,  the  process  of  arriving  at  physical  maturity — 
has  a  fixed  relation  to  the  whole  term  of  existence.  After  the  deluge,  in 
some  way  not  understood  by  us,  the  whole  course  of  human  life  began  to 
be  gradually  quickened — to  run  its  round  in  a  shorter  time — till  the  age  of 
man  was  at  last  reduced  to  its  present  measure.  All  that  we  can  say  here 
is  that  we  do  not  know  how  God  accomplished  this  result.  He  accom- 
phshed  it  in  a  secret  and  invisible  way,  as  he  does  so  many  other  of  his 
operations  in  nature.  On  the  discreiDancy  between  the  Masoretic  Hebrew 
text,  the  text  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  and  that  of  the  Septuagint, 
in  respect  to  the  genealogical  tables  in  Genesis,  see  below. 

The  unity  of  the  human  race  is  everywhere  assumed  in  Scrij)tuKe.  Some 
modern  scientific  men  have  denied  this,  but  their  arguments  for  a  diver- 
sity of  origin  do  not  amount  to  positive  proof.  They  are  theoretic  rather 
than  demonstrative,  and  the  weight  of  evidence  is  against  them.  We  must 
remember,  moreover,  that  man  lives  under  a  supernatural  dispensation. 
The  narrative  in  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Genesis  seems  to  imply  that  God 
interposed  miraculously  to  confound  human  speech,  in  accordance  with 
his  i)lan  to  scatter  men  "abroad  upon  the  face  of  all  the  earth."  In  like 
manner  he  may  have  interposed  in  a  secret  way  to  intensify  the  diversity 
in  the  different  races  of  men.  It  does  not  appear  certain,  however,  on 
physiological  grounds,  that  any  miraculous  interposition  was  needed  ;  and 
we  may  leave  the  question  of  the  manner  in  which  the  present  diversity 
among  the  children  of  Adam  was  i^roduced  among  the  secret  things  of 
which  it  is  not  necessary  that  we  should  have  an  explanation. 

The  question  of  the  universality  of  the  deluge  is  with  believers  in  revela- 
tion one  of  words  only,  on  which  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  waste  time.  The 
end  of  the  deluge  was  the  complete  destruction  of  the  human  race,  all  but 
Noah  and  his  family.  This  it  accomplished,  and  why  need  we  raise  any 
further  inquiries ;  as,  for  example,  whether  the  polar  lands,  where  no  man 
has  ever  trod,  were  submerged  also  ?  "All  the  high  hills  under  the  whole 
heaven  "  doubtless  included  all  the  high  hills  where  man  lived,  and  which, 
therefore,  were  known  to  man. 

(B.)  Another  class  of  difficulties  is  historical,  consisting  in  alleged 
inconsistencies  and  disagreements  between  different  parts  of  the  narrative. 
For  the  details  of  these,  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  commentaries. 


230  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

One  or  two  only  can  be  noticed  as  specimens  of  the  whole.  It  is  said  that 
the  second  account  of  the  creation  (Gen.  2  :  4r-25)  is  inconsistent  with  the 
first ;  the  order  of  creation  in  the  first  being  animals,  then  man ;  in  the 
second,  man,  then  animals.  But  the  answer  is  obvious.  In  the  first 
account,  the  order  of  succession  in  the  several  parts  of  creation  is  one  of 
the  main  features.  It  distinctly  announces  that,  after  God  had  finished 
the  rest  of  his  works,  he  made  man  in  his  own  image.  The  second  account, 
on  the  other  hand,  which  is  introductory  to  the  narrative  of  man's  sin  and 
expulsion  from  Eden,  takes  no  notice  of  the  order  of  creation  in  its  several 
parts.  In  this,  man  is  the  central  object,  and  other  things  are  mentioned 
incidentally  in  their  relation  to  man.  The  writer  has  no  occasion  to  speak 
of  trees  good  for  food  till  a  liome  is  sought  for  Adam ;  nor  of  beasts  and 
birds  till  a  companion  is  needed  for  him.  Then  each  of  these  things  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  him.  No  candid  interpreter  can  infer  from 
this  that  the  second  account  means  to  give,  as  the  veritable  order  of  crea- 
tion— man,  the  garden  of  Eden,  beasts  and  birds  ! 

A  difficulty  has  been  alleged,  also,  in  regard  to  Cain's  wife.  But  this 
growls  simply  out  of  the  brevity  of  the  sacred  narrative.  The  children  of 
Adam  must  have  intermarried,  brothers  and  sisters.  The  fact  that  no 
daughter  is  mentioned  as  born  to  Adam  before  Seth,  is  no  evidence  against 
the  birth  of  daughters  long-before.  In  the  fourth  chapter  no  individuals 
are  mentioned  except  for  special  reasons — Cain  and  Abel,  with  a  genea- 
logical list  of  Cain's  family  to  Lamech,  because  he  was  the  head  of  one 
branch  of  the  human  race  before  the  deluge.  In  the  fifth  chapter  none 
are  named  but  sons  in  the  line  of  Noah,  with  the  standing  formula  of  ' '  sons 
and  daughters  "  born  "afterwards.  We  are  not  to  infer  from  this  that  no 
sons  or  daughters  were  born  before  ;  otherwise  we  should  exclude  Cain  and 
Abel  themselves.  At  the  time  of  the  murder  of  Abel,  the  two  brothers 
were  adult  men.  What  was  their  age  Ave  cannot  tell.  It  may  have  been  a 
hundred  years  or  more ;  for  our  first  parents  were  created  not  infants,  but 
in  the  maturity  of  their  powers,  and  Adam  was  one  hundred  and  thirty 
years  old  when  the  next  son  after  Abel's  murder  was  born.  Gen.  4  :  25. 
At  all  events,  the  interval*  between  Abel's  birth  and  death  must  have  been 
long,  and  we  cannot  reasonably  supi^ose  that  during  this  period  no  daugh- 
ters were  born  to  Adam. 

(C.)  The  clironology  of  the  book  of  Genesis  involves,  as  is  well  known, 
some  difficult  questions.  In  the  genealogical  tables  contained  in  the  fifth 
and  eleventh  chapters,  the  texts  of  the  Masoretic  Hebrew  (which  is  fol- 
lowed in  our  version),  Hebrew-Samaritan,  and  Septuagiut,  diff"er  in  a 
remarkable  manner. 

(1.)  A?itediluvian  Genealogij.  According  to  the  Septuagint,  no  patriarch 
has  a  son  before  the  age  of  one  hundred  years.  It  adds  tc  the  age  of  each 
of  the  five  patriarchs  that  preceded  Jared,  and  also  to  the  age  of  Enoch, 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  231 

one  hundred  years  before  tlie  birth  of  his  son,  deducting  the  same  from 
his  Hfe  afterwards.  To  the  age  of  Lamech  it  adds  six  years  before  the 
birth  of  Noah,  deducting  thirty  years  afterwards.  In  resx)ect  to  the  age  of 
Methuselah  when  Lamech  was  born,  there  is  a  difference  of  t^venty  years 
betw^een  the  Vatican  and  the  Alexandrine  manuscripts.  The  latter  agr<^,es 
with  the  Masoretic  text :  the  former  gives  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
instead  of  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven.  Thus  the  Septuagint  makes  the 
period  from  the  creation  to  the  deluge  2262  years  (according  to  the  Vati- 
can manuscript  2242  years)  against  the  1656  of  our  Masoretic  text. 

The  Samaritan-Hebrew  text  agrees  with  the  Masoretic  for  the  first  five 
patriarchs  and  for  Enoch.  From  the  age  of  Jared  it  deducts  one  hundred 
years ;  from  that  of  Methuselah  one  hundred  and  twenty  (one  hundred 
according  to  the  Vatican  manuscript  of  the  Septuagint)  ;  and  from  that  of 
Lamech,  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine — three  hundred  and  forty-nine 
years  in  all — before  the  birth  of  their  respective  sons.  This  places  the 
deluge  in  the  year  of  the  world  1307. 

(2.)  Genealogy  from  Noah  to  Abraham.  Chap.  11.  Here  the  Samari- 
tan-Hebrew and  the  Septuagint  (which  Josephus  follows  with  some  varia- 
tions) give  a  much  longer  period  than  the  Masoretic  text.  They  both  add 
to  the  age  of  each  of  the  six  patriarchs  after  Shem  one  hundred  years 
before  the  birth  of  his  son.  To  the  age  of  Nahor  the  Samaritan-Hebrew 
adds  fifty,  and  the  Sei)tuagint  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  latter 
also  inserts  after  Arphaxad  a  Gainan  who  was  one  hundred  and  thirty 
years  old  at  the  birth  of  Salah. 

In  respect  to  the  variations  in  these  two  genealogical  tables  (chaps.  5 
and  11)  it  is  to  be  remarked  :  (1)  that  the  authority  of  the  Masoretic 
text  is,  oh  general  grounds,  higher  than  that  of  the  Septuagint  or  Samar- 
itan Pentateuch ;  (2)  that  in  the  present  case  there  is  reason  to  suspect 
systematic  change  in  these  two  latter  texts  ;  strong  external  corroboration 
alone  could  warrant  us  in  adopting  the  longer  chronology  of  the  Septua- 
gint ;  (3)  that  any  uncertainty  which  may  rest  on  the  details  of  numbers  in 
the  Pentateuch  ought  not  to  affect  our  confidence  in  the  Mosaic  record  as 
a  whole,  for  here,  as  it  is  well  known,  there  is  a  peculiar  liability  to  varia- 
tions. With  these  brief  remarks  we  must  dismiss  this  subject.  The  reader 
will  find  the  question  of  scriptural  chronology  discussed  at  large  in  the 
treatises  devoted  to  the  subject.  For  more  compendious  views,  see  in  Alex- 
ander's Kitto  and  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  the  articles  entitled 
Chronology. 

II.     EXODUS. 

7.  The  Hebrew  name  of  this  book  is :   Ve-elle  shemoth,  Noio 
these  [are]  tlie  names ;  or  more  briefly:  SJiemoth,  names.     The 


232  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

word  Exodus  (Greek  Exodos,  whence  tlie  Latin  Exodus)  signifies 
going  forth,-  departure,  namely,  of  Israel  from  Egypt.  With  the 
book  of  Exocliis  begins  the  history  of  Israel  as  a  nation.  It  has 
perfect  unity  of  plan  and  steady  progress  from  beginning  to 
end=  The  narrative  of  the  golden  calf  is  no  exception ;  for 
this  records  in  its  true  order  an  interruption  of  the  divine  legis- 
lation. The  book  consists  of  two  parts  essentially  connected 
with  each  other.  The  contents  of  the  first  part  (chaps.  1-18) 
are  briefly  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  and  their 
journey  to  Sinai,  as  preparatory  to  their  national  covenant  with 
God  there.  More  particularly  this  part  contains :  (1)  an  account 
of  the  multiplication  of  the  people  in  Egypt ;  their  oppression 
by  the  Egyptians ;  the  birth  and  education  of  Moses,  his  abor- 
tive attempt  to  interpose  in  behalf  of  his  people,  his  flight  to 
Midian,  and  his  residence  there  forty  j^ears  (chaps.  1,  2); 
(2)  God's  miraculous  appearance  to  Moses  at  Horeb  under  the 
name  JEHOVAH ;  his  mission  to  Pharaoh  for  the  release  of 
Israel,  in  which  Aaron  his  brother  was  associated  with  him ; 
the  execution  of  this  mission,  in  the  progress  of  which  the 
Egyptians  were  visited  with  a  succession  of  plagues,  ending  in 
the  death  of  all  the  first-born  of  man  and  beast  in  Egypt;  the 
final  expulsion  of  the  people,  and  in  connection  with  this  the 
establishment  of  the  feast  of  the  passover  and  the  law  respect- 
ing the  first-born  of  man  and  beast  (chaps.  3-13);  (3)  the 
journey  of  the  Israelites  to  the  Eed  sea  under  the  guidance  of 
a  cloudy  pillar ;  their  passage  through  it,  with  the  overthrow 
of  Pharaoh's  host;  the  miraculous  supply  of  manna  and  of 
water ;  the  fight  with  Amalek,  and  Jethro's  visit  to  Moses. 

The  second  part  contains  the  establishment  of  the  3Ioscdc  econ- 
omy, tvith  its  tabernade  and  priesthood.  At  Sinai  God  enters 
into  a  national  covenant  with  the  people,  grounded  on  the  pre- 
ceding Abrahamic  covenant ;  promulgates  in  awful  majesty  the 
ten  commandments,  which  he  afterwards  writes  on  two  tables 
of  stone,  and  adds  a  code  of  civil  regulations.  Chaps.  19-23. 
The  covenant  is  then  written  and  solemnlj-  ratified  by  the  blood 
of  sacrifices.     Chap.  24.     After  this  follows  a  direction  which 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  233 

contains  in  itself  the  whole  idea  of  the  sanctuary :  "  Let  them 
make  me  a  sanctuary;  that  I  may  divell  among  them.''  Chap.  25  :  8. 
The  remainder  of  the  book  is  mainly  occupied  with  the  struc- 
ture of  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  Levitical  priesthood.  Directions  are  given  for  the 
priestly  garments,  and  the  mode  of  inauguration  is  prescribed  ; 
but  the  inauguration  itself  belongs  to  the  following  book.  The 
narrative  is  interrupted  by  the  sin  of  the  people  in  the  matter 
of  the  golden  calf,  with  the  various  incidents  and  precepts  con- 
nected with  it  (chaps.  32-34),  and  a  repetition  of  the  law  of  the 
Sabbath  is  added.  Chap.  31 :  12-17.  The  office,  then,  which 
the  book  of  Exodus  holds  in  the  Pentateuch  is  definite  and 
clear. 

8.  With  regard  to  the  time  of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt,  two  opin- 
ions are  held  among  biblical  scholars.  The  words  of  God  to 
Abraham  :  "  Know  of  a  surety  that  thy  seed  shall  be  a  stranger 
in  a  land  that  is  not  theirs,  and  shall  serve  them  ;  and  they 
shall  afflict  them  four  hundred  years,"  "but  in  the  fourth  gen- 
eration they  shall  coine  hither  again"  (Gen.  45  :  13,  16) ;  and 
also  the  statement  of  Moses  :  "Now  the  sojourning  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  who  dwelt  in  Egypt,  was  four  hundred  and  thirty 
years"  (Exod.  12  :40),  seem  to  imply  that  they  spent  four  hun- 
dred and  thii'ty  years  in  Egypt  (a  round  number  being  put  in 
the  former  passage  for  the  more  exact  specification  of  the  lat- 
ter). It  has  been  thought,  also,  that  the  vast  increase  of  the 
people  in  Egypt — to  six  hundred  thousand  men  (Exod.  12  :  37), 
which  shows  that  the  v/hole  number  of  souls  was  over  two  mill- 
ions— required  a  sojourn  of  this  length.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  apostle  Paul  speaks  of  the  law  as  given  "  four  hundred  and 
thirty  years  after  "  the  promise  to  Abraham.  Gal.  3  :  17.  In  this 
he  follows  the  Jewish  chronology,  which  is  also  that  of  the 
Septuagint  and  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  for  they  read  in  Exod. 
12  :  40  :  "  who  dwelt  in  Egypt  and  in  the  land  of  Canaan."  The 
words,  "in  the  land  of  Canaan,"  are  undoubtedly  an  added 
gloss;, but  the  question  still  remains  whether  they  are  not  a 
correct  gloss.    The  genealogy  of  Levi's  family  (Exod.  6  :  16-20) 


234  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

decidedly  favors  tlie  interpretation,  which  divides  the  period 
of  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  between  Egypt  and  the  land 
of  Canaan.  To  make  this  table  consistent  with  a  sojourn  of 
four  hundred  and  thirty  years  in  Egypt,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  assume,  with  some,  that  it  is  an  epitome,  not  a  full  list,  which 
does  not  seem  probable. 

Before  we  can  draw  any  certain  argument  from  the  increase  of  the  peo- 
ple in  Egypt,  we  must  know  the  basis  of  calculation.  It  certainly  includes 
not  only  the  seventy  male  members  of  Jacob's  family,  -with  their  wives  and 
children,  but  also  the  families  of  their  male-servants  (chcumcised  accord- 
ing to  the  law,  Gen.  17  :  12,  13,  and  therefore  incorporated  with  the  cove- 
nant people) .  From  the  notices  contained  in  Genesis,  we  learn  that  the 
famihes  of  the  patriarchs  were  very  numerous.  Gen.  14  :  14 ;  26  :  14  ; 
32  :  10  ;  36  :  6,  7.  If  Abraham  was  able  to  arm  three  hundred  and  eigh- 
teen "trained  servants  born  in  his  own  house," how  large  an  aggregate 
may  we  reasonably  assume  for  the  servants  connected  with  Jacob's  family, 
now  increased  to  seventy  male  souls  ?  We  must  not  think  of  Jacob  going 
.  into  Egypt  as  a  humble  personage.  He  was  a  rich  and  prosperous  emir, 
with  his  children  and  grandchildren,  and  a  great  train  of  servants.  With 
the  special  blessing  pf  God  upon  his  children  and  all  connected  with  them, 
we  need  find  no  insuperable  difficulty  in  then-  increase  to  the  number  men- 
tioned at  the  exodus. 

Provision  Avas  made  in  a  miraculous  way  for  the  sustenance  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  wilderness.  The  question  has  been  raised  :  Hoav  were  their 
flocks  and  herds  jDrovided  for  ?  In  answer  to  this,  the  following  remarks 
are  in  point :  (1.)  We  are  not  to  understand  the  word  "wilderness  "  of  an 
absolutely  desolate  region.  It  affords  j)asturage  in  x)atches.  Eobinson 
describes  Wady  Feiran,  northwest  of  Sinai,  as  well  watered,  with  gardens 
of  fruit  and  palm  trees  ;  and  he  was  assured  by  the  Arabs  that  in  rainy 
seasons  grass  springs  up  over  the  whole  face  of  the  desert.  The  whole 
northeastern  part  of  the  wilderness,  where  the  Israelites  seem  to  have  dwelt 
much  of  the  thirty-eight  years,  is  capable  of  cultivation,  and  is  still  culti- 
vated by  the  Arabs  in  patches.  (2.)  The  Israelites  undoubtedly  marched 
not  in  a  direct  line,  but  from  pasture  to  pasture,  as  the  modern  Arabs  do, 
and  spreading  themselves  out  over  the  adjacent  region.  When  Moses 
besought  his  father-in-law  not  to  leave  him,  but  to  go  with  him  that  he 
might  be  to  the  people  instead  of  eyes  (Numb.  10  :  31),  we  may  well  sup- 
l^ose  that  he  had  in  view  Hobab's  knowledge  of  the  places  where  water  and 
pasturage  were  to  be  found.  (3.)  There  is  decisive  evidence  that  this  region 
was  once  better  watered  than  it  is  now,  and  more  fruitful.  The  planks  of 
acacia-wood,  the  shittim-wood,  which  were  employed  in  the  construction 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  235 

of  the  tabernacle,  were  a  cubit  and  a  lialf  in  width ;  that  is,  in  Enghsh 
measure,  something  more  than  two  and  a  half  feet.  No  acacia-trees  of 
this  size  are  now  found  in  that  region.  The  cutting  away  of  the  primitive 
forests  seems  to  have  been  followed,  as  elsewhere,  by  a  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  rain.  But,  however  this  may  be,  we  know  that,  for  some  reason, 
this  part  of  Arabia  was  once  more  fertile  and  23opulous.  In  its  northeast- 
ern part  are  extensive  ruins  of  former  habitations,  and  enclosed  fields.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  region  around  Beersheba  and  south  of  it.  Here  Rob- 
inson found  ruins  of  former  cities,  as  Eboda  and  Elusa.  Of  the  latter 
place  he  says  :  "  Once,  as  we  judged  upon  the  spot,  this  must  have  been  a 
city  of  not  less  than  twelve  or  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants.  Now,  it  is  a 
X3erfect  field  of  ruins,  a  scene  of  unutterable  desolation ;  across  which  the 
j)assing  stranger  can  with  difiiculty  find  his  way."  Vol.  1,  p.  197.  And 
of  Eboda,  farther  south  :  "  The  large  church  marks  a  numerous  Christian 
population."  "But  the  desert  has  resumed  its  rights  ;  the  intrusive  hand 
of  cultivation  has  been  driven  back ;  the  race  that  dwelt  here  have  per- 
ished ;  and  their  works  now  look  abroad  in  loneliness  and  silence  over  the 
mighty  waste. "  Vol.  1,  p.  194.  Bitter,  the  most  accomplished  of  mod- 
ern geographers,  afSrms  that  from  the  present  number  of  the  thin  and 
negligent  population,  we  can  draw  no  certain  conclusion  res^Decting  the 
former  condition  of  the  country.     Erdkunde,  vol.  14,  p.  927. 

Of  the  numerous  objections  urged  by  Colenso  against  the  Pentateuch, 
and  the  book  of  Exodus  in  particular,  many  are  imaginary,  and  vanish 
upon  the  fair  interpretation  of  the  passages  in  question.  Others,  again, 
rest  on  false  assumptions  in  regard  to  facts.  Eor  the  details,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  works  written  in  reply. 

III.     LEVITICUS. 

9.  The  Hebrews  call  this  book  Vayyikra,  and  [God]  called. 
Later  Jewish  designations  are,  tlie  laiu  of  priests,  and  the  laio  of 
offerings.  The  Latin  name  Leviticus  (from  the  Greek  Leuitikon, 
Levitical,  pertaining  to  the  Levites)  indicates  that  its  contents 
relate  to  the  duties  of  the  Levites,  in  which  body  are  included 
all  the  priests.  The  book  of  Leviticus  is  immediately  connect- 
ed with  that  which  precedes,  and  follows  in  the  most  natural 
order.  The  tabernacle  having  been  reared  up  and  its  furniture 
arranged,  the  services  p)ertaining  to  it  are  next  ordained,  and  in 
connection  with  these,  various  regulations,  most  of  which  come 
within  the  sphere  of  the  priestly  office.  Hence  we  have  (1)  the 
law  for  the  various  offerings,  followed  by  an  account  of  the 


236  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

anointing  of  tlie  tabernacle,  and  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and 
liis  sons  to  the  priestly  office,  with  the  death  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu  for  offering  strange  fire  before  the  Lord  (chaps.  1-10) ; 
(2)  precepts  concerning  clean  and  unclean  beasts,  and  clean- 
ness and  uncleanness  in  men  from  whatever  source,  followed 
by  directions  for  the  annual  hallowing  of  the  sanctuary  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  and  also  in  respect  to  the  place  where 
animals  must  be  slain,  and  the  disposition  to  be  made  of  their 
blood  (chaps.  11-17);  (3)  laws  against  sundry  crimes,  which 
admitted,  in  general,  of  no  expiation,  but  must  be  visited  with 
the  penalty  of  the  law  (chaps.  18-20) ;  (4)  various  ordinances 
pertaining  to  the  purity  of  the  priestly  office,  the  character  of 
the  sacrifices,  the  yearly  festivals,  the  arrangements  for  the 
sanctuary,  etc.,  with  the  law  for  the  sabbatical  year  and  the 
year  of  jubilee  (chaps.  22-26 : 2) ;  (5)  a  wonderful  prophetic 
chapter,  announcing  for  all  coming  ages  the  blessings  that 
should  follow  obedience,  and  the  curses  which  disobedience 
should  bring  upon  the  people  (chap.  26  :  3-46).  There  is  add- 
ed, as  a  sort  of  appendix,  a  chapter  concerning  vows  and  tithes. 
Chap.  27. 

10.  The  priestly  office,  with  its  sacrifices,  was  the  central 
part  of  the  Mosaic  economy,  for  it  prefigured  Christ  our  great 
High  Priest,  with  his  all-perfect  sacrifice  on  Calvary  for  the 
sins  of  the  world.  On  this  great  theme  much  remains  to  be 
said  in  another  place.  It  is  sufficient  to  remark  here  that  the 
book  of  Leviticus  gives  the  divine  view  of  expiation.  If  the 
expiations  of  the  Levitical  law  were  typical,  the  types  were  true 
figures  of  the  great  Antitype,  which  is  Jesus  Christ,  "  the  Lamb 
of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world."  No  view  of 
his  death  can  be  true  which  makes  these  types  empty  and 
unmeaning. 

IV.     NUMBEKS. 

11.  Bemidhbar,  in  the  wilderiiess,  is  the  Hebrew  name  of  this 
book,  taken  from  the  fifth  word  in  the  original.  It  is  also 
called  from  the  first  word  Vayi/edhahber,  and  [God]  sjoaJce.    The 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  237 

English  version,  after  the  example  of  the  Latin,  translates  the 
Greek  name  Arifhmoi,  numbers,  a  title  derived  from  the  num- 
bering of  the  people  at  Sinai,  with  which  the  book  opens,  and 
which  is  repeated  on  the  plains  of  Moab.  Chap.  26.  This 
book  records  the  journeyings  of  the  Israelites  from  Sinai  to  the 
borders  of  the  promised  land,  and  their  sojourn  in  the  wilderness 
of  Arabia,  with  the  various  incidents  that  befell  them,  and  the 
neiv  ordinances  that  were  from  time  to  time  added,  as  occasion 
required.  It  embraces  a  period  of  thirty-eight  ^^ears,  and  its 
contents  are  necessarily  of  a  very  miscellaneous  character.  The 
unity  of  the  book  is  chronological,  history  and  legislation  alter- 
nating with  each  other  in  the  order  of  time.  A  full  enumera- 
tion of  the  numerous  incidents  which  it  records,  and  of  the 
new  ordinances  from  time  to  time  enacted,  is  not  necessary. 
In  the  history  of  these  thirty-eight  years  we  notice  three  salient 
points  or  epochs.  They^r.s^  is  that  of  the  departure  from  Sinai. 
Of  the  preparations  for  this,  with  the  order  of  the  march  and 
whatever  pertained  to  it,  a  full  account  is  given.  Then  follow 
the  incidents  of  the  journey  to  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  with 
some  additional  laws.  Chaps.  1-12.  The  second  epoch  is  that 
of  the  rebellion  of  the  people  upon  the  report  of  the  twelve 
spies  whom  Moses  had  sent  to  search  out  the  land,  for  which 
sin  the  whole  generation  that  came  out  of  Egypt,  from  twenty 
years  old  and  upward,  was  rejected  and  doomed  to  perish  in 
the  wilderness.  Chaps.  13,  14.  This  was  in  the  second  year 
of  the  exodus.  Of  the  events  that  followed  to  the  thirty-eighth 
year  of  the  exodus,  we  have  only  a  brief  notice.  With  the 
exception  of  the  punishment  of  the  Sabbath-breaker,  Korah's 
rebellion  and  the  history  connected  with  it,  and  also  a  few 
laws  (chaps.  15-19),  this  period  is  passed  by  in  silence.  The 
nation  was  under  the  divine  rebuke,  and  could  fulfil  its  part  in 
the  plan  of  God  only  by  dying  for  its  sins  with  an  unrecorded 
history.  The  tliird  epoch  begins  with  the  second  arrival  of 
Israel  at  Kadesh,  and  this  is  crowded  with  great  events — the 
death  of  Miriam,  the  exclusion  of  Moses  and  Aaron  from  the 
promised  land,  with  the  death  of  the  latter  at  Mount  Hor,  tho 


238  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

refusal  of  Eclom  to  allow  a  passage  through  his  territory,  the 
wearisome  journey  of  the  people  "to  compass  the  land  of 
Edom,"  with  their  sins  and  sufferings,  the  conquest  of  Arad, 
Sihon,  and  Og,  and  thus  the  arrival  of  the  people  at  the  plains 
of  Moab  opposite  Jericho.  Chaps.  20-22  : 1.  Then  follows  the 
history  of  Balaam  and  his  prophecies,  the  idolatry  and  punish- 
ment of  the  people,  a  second  numbering  of  the  people,  the 
appointment  of  Joshua  as  the  leader  of  the  people,  the  conquest 
of  the  Midianites,  the  division  of  the  region  beyond  Jordan  to 
the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh, 
and  a  review  of  the  journeyings  of  the  people.  With  all  this 
are  intermingled  various  additional  ordinances. 

V.  DEUTEEONOMY. 

12.  The  Jewish  name  of  this  book  is  File  JiaddehJiarim,  these 
are  the  words.  The  Greek  name  D eider onomion,  whence  the  Latin 
Deideronomium  and  the  English  Deuteronomy,  signifies  second 
law,  or  repetition  of  the  law,  as  it  is  also  called  by  the  later  Jews. 
The  book  consists  of  discourses  delivered  by  Moses  to  Israel  in 
the  plains  of  Moab  over  against  Jericho,  in  the  eleventh  month 
of  the  fortieth  year  of  the  exodus.  Deut.  1:1,  3.  The  peculiar 
character  of  this  book  and  its  relation  to  the  preceding  books 
have  been  already  considered  in  the  first  part  of  the  present 
work  (Chap.  9,  No.  10),  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  It  is 
generally  divided  into  three  parts.  Th.Q  first  is  mainly  a  recap- 
itulation of  the  past  history  of  Israel  under  Moses,  with  appro- 
priate warnings  and  exhortations,  followed  by  a  notice  of  the 
appointment  of  three  cities  of  refuge  on  the  east  side  of  Jordan. 
Chaps.  1-4.  The  second  discourse  begins  with  a  restatement 
of  the  law  given  on  Sinai.  Exhortations  to  hearty  obedience 
follow,  which  are  full  of  fatherly  love  and  tenderness.  Various 
precepts  of  the  law  are  then  added,  with  some  modifications 
and  additions,  such  as  the  altered  circumstances  of  the  people 
required.  Chaps.  5-26.  In  the  third  part  the  blessings  and 
the  curses  of  the  law  are  prominently  set  forth  as  motives  to 
obedience.    Chaps.  27-30.    The  remainder  of  the  book  is  occu- 


THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.  239 

pied  with  Moses'  charge  to  Joshua,  his  direction  for  depositing 
the  law  in  the  sanctuary  by  the  side  of  the  ark,  his  song  writ- 
ten by  divine  direction,  his  blessing  upon  the  twelve  tribes,  and 
the  account  of  his  death  and  burial  on  mount  Nebo. 

13,  As  the  book  of  Genesis  constitutes  a  suitable  introduc- 
tion to  the  Pentateuch,  without  which  its  very  existence,  as  a 
part  of  the  divine  plan,  would  be  unintelligible,  so  does  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy  bring  it  to  a  sublime  close.  From  the 
goodness  and  faithfulness  of  God,  from  his  special  favor  be- 
stowed upon  Israel,  from  the  excellence  of  his  service,  from  the 
glorious  rewards  of  obedience  and  the.  terrible  penalties  of  dis- 
obedience, it  draws  motives  for  a  deep  and  evangelical  obe- 
dience— an  obedience  of  the  spirit  and  not  of  the  letter  only. 
Thus  it  adds  the  corner-stone  to  the  whole  system  of  legisla- 
tion, completing  it^on  the  side  of  the  motives  by  which  it  chal- 
lenges obedience,  and  investing  it  with  radiant  glory.  The 
Pentateuch,  then,  is  a  whole.  The  first  book  is  inseparable 
from  it  as  an  introduction ;  the  last  as  a  close.  The  three  inter- 
mediate books  contain  the  legislation  itself,  and  in  this  each  of 
them  has  its  appropriate  province. 


COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTEE  XX. 

The  Historical  Books. 

1.  In  tlie  Pentateuch  we  have  the  estabhshment  of  the 
Theocracy,  with  the  preparatory  and  accompanying  history 
pertaining  to  it.  The  province  of  the  historical  books  is  to 
unfold  its  practical  ivorJcing,  and  to  show  how,  under  the  divine 
superintendence  and  guidance,  it  accompHshed  the  end  for 
which  it  was  given.  They  contain,  therefore,  primarily,  a  his- 
tory of  God's  dealings  with  the  covenant  people  under  the 
economy  which  he  had  imposed  upon  them.  They  look  at  the 
course  of  human  events  on  the  divine  rather  than  the  human 
side,  and  in  this  respect  they  differ  widely  from  all  other  his- 
torical writings.  Human  histories  abound  with  the  endless 
details  of  court  intrigues,  of  alliances  and  wars,  of  material  civ- 
ilization and  progress,  and  whatever  else  pertains  to  the  welfare 
of  men  considered  simply  as  the  inhabitants  of  this  world.  But 
the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  written  by  prophet- 
ical men  illumined  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  unfold  with  w^onderful 
clearness  the  mighty  movements  of  God's  providence,  by  which 
the  divine  plan  proposed  in  the  Mosaic  economy  was  steadily 
carried  forward,  alike  through  outward  prosperity  and  adver- 
sity, towards  the  fulfilment  of  its  high  office.  After  a  lon^ 
series  of  bloody  struggles,  the  Theocracj^  attained  to  its  zenith 
of  outward  power  and  splendor  under  David  and  Solomon. 
From  that  time  onward  the  power  of  the  Israelitish  people 
declined,  till  they  were  at  last  deprived  of  their  national  inde- 
pendence, and  subjected  to  the  yoke  of  foreign  conquerors. 
But  in  both  the  growth  of  the  national  power  under  the  The- 
ocracy, and  its  decline,  the  presence  of  God  and  his  supremacy, 
as  well  over  the  covenant  people  as  over  the  surrounding 
nations,  were  gloriously  manifested,  and  their  training  for  the 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  241 

future  advent  of  the  Messiah  was  steadily  carried  forward. 
Thus  we  have  in  these  historical  books  a  wonderful  diversity  of 
divine  manifestations,  which  alike  charm  and  instruct  the  pious 
mind. 

2.  It  has  already  been  shown  (Chap.  15,  No.  7)  that  the 
books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  contain  only  selections  from  a 
large  mass  of  materials.  The  same  is  probably  true  of  the 
books  of  Judges  and  Samuel.  The  sacred  writers  did  not  pro- 
pose to  give  a  detailed  account  of  all  the  events  belonging  to 
the  periods  over  which  their  histories  extended,  but  only  of 
those  which  were  specially  adapted  to  manifest  God's  presence 
and  guidance  in  the  affairs  of  the  covenant  people.  The  his- 
tory of  some  persons  is  given  very  fully ;  of  others  with  extreme 
brevity.  But  we  may  say,  in  general,  that  this  divine  his'tory, 
extending  over  a  period  of  a  thousand  years,  is  the  most  con- 
densed in  the  world,  as  well  as  the  most  luminous  with  the 
divine  glory.  The  student  rises  from  the  perusal  of  it  with 
such  clear  views  of  God's  presence  and  supremacy  in  the  course 
of  human  affairs,  as  cannot  be  gained  from  all  the  ponderous 
tomes  of  secular  history.  Each  book,  moreover,  presents  some 
special  phase  of  God's  providential  movements,  and  contains, 
therefore,  its  special  lessons  of  instruction.  With  few  excep- 
tions, the  authors  of  the  historical  books  are  unknown.  We 
only  know  that  they  were  prophetical  men,  who  wrote  under 
the  illumination  and  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

I.     JOSHUA. 

3.  This  book  records  the  conquest  xyf  the  land  of  Canaan  by 
the  Israelites  under  Joshua,  and  its  distribution  by  lot  among 
the  tribes  that  received  their  inheritance  on  the  west  side  ol 
the  Jordan.  It  connects  itself,  therefore,  immediately  with  th 
Pentateuch;  for  it  shows  how  God  fulfilled  his  promise  to 
Abraham  that  he  would  give  to  his  posterity  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan for  an  inheritance  (Gen.  17 : 8),  a  promise  often  repeated 
afterwards,  and  kept  constantly  in  view  in  the  whole  series  of 
Mosaic  legislation.     The  book  naturally  falls  into  two  parts. 

('owvi.  to  Bibif,  Xl 


212  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  Jlrst  twelve  chapters  contain  the  history  of  the  conquest 
itself,  with  the  movements  preparatory  thereto.  Joshua,  who 
had  been  previously  designated  as  the  leader  of  the  people 
(Numb.  27:15-23),  receives  a  solemn  charge  to  pass  over  the 
Jordan  and  take  possession  of  the  promised  land ;  the  people 
prepare  themselves  accordingly ;  two  spies  are  sent  out  to  take 
a  survey  of  Jericho;  the  Israelites  pass  over  the  Jordan  dry- 
shod,  its  waters  having  been  miraculously  divided;  they  en- 
camp at  Gilgal,  and  are  there  subjected  to  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision. Chaps.  1-5.  Then  follows  an  account  of  the  overthrow 
of  Jericho,  the  trespass  of  Achan  with  the  calamity  which  it 
brought  upon  the  people,  the  conquest  of  Ai,  the  ratification  of 
the  law  at  mount  Ebal  with  the  erection  of  the  stones  on  which 
the  law  was  written,  the  artifice  of  the  Gibeonites  by  which 
they  saved  their  lives,  the  overthrow  of  the  combined  kings  of 
the  Canaanites  at  Gibeon,  and  the  conquest,  first  of  the  south- 
ern and  afterwards  of  the  northern  kings  of  Canaan.  Chaps. 
6-12. 

The  second  part  gives  an  account  of  the  division  of  the  land 
by  lot  among  the  several  tribes.  This  work  was  b6gun  as  is 
described  in  chapters  13-17,  and  after  an  interruption  through 
the  dilatoriness  of  the  people,  for  which.  Joshua  rebuked  them, 
was  continued  and  completed  at  Shiloh.  Chaps.  18,  19.  Six 
cities  of  refuge  were  then  appointed,  three  on  each  side  of  the 
Jordan ;  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  by  lot  to  the  Levites ; 
and  the  two  and  a  half  tribes  that  had  received  their  inheri- 
tance on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan  (Numb.,  chap.  32)  were 
sent  home.  Chaps.  20-22.  The  twenty-third  chapter  contains 
Joshua's  charge  to  the  elders  of  Israel,  and  the  twenty-fourth 
his  final  charge  at  Shechem  to  the  assembled  tribes,  on  which 
occasion  there  was  a  solemn  renewal  of  the  national  covenant. 
The  whole  book  is  brought  to  a  close  b}^  a  brief  notice  of  the 
death  of  Joshua  and  Eleazar,  and  the  interment  of  the  bones 
of  Joseph  in  Shechem.  This  brief  survey  of  the  contents  of 
the  book  reveals  at  once  its  unity,  its  orderly  plan,  and  the 
place  which  it  holds  in  the  history  of  the  Theocracy. 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT.  243 

4.  The  author sliiii  of  the  book  cannot  be  determined  from 
the  title  alone,  any  more  than  that  of  the  two  books  which 
bear  the  name  of  Samuel.  Jewish  tradition  ascribes  it  to 
Joshua  himself,  except  the  last  five  verses.  But  it  records 
some  transactions  which,  according  to  the  most  obvious  inter- 
pretation of  them,  occurred  after  Joshua's  death.  Among  these 
are  the  conquest  of  Hebron  (chap.  15  :  16-19,  Compared  with 
Judges  1 :  12-15),  and  especially  the  excursion  of  the  Danitefc 
(chap.  19  :  47),  which  must  be  regarded  as  identical  with  that 
described  in  the  eighteenth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Judges. 
Unless  we  assume  that  this  notice  of  the  Danites  is  an  addition 
made  by  a  later  hand,  Ave  must  suppose  that  the  book  was 
written  by  some  unknown  prophetical  man  after  Joshua's  death. 
He  may  well  have  been  one  of  the  elders  who  overlived  Joshua, 
since  at  the  time  of  his  writing  Eahab  was  yet  living  among 
the  Israelites.     Chap.  6  :  25. 

The  eighteenth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Judges,  which  records  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Danites,  is  evidently  an  appendix,  introduced  by  the  words  : 
"In  those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel ;"  and  that  this  invasion  took 
place  not  long  after  the  settlement  of  the  people  in  Canaan,  is  manifest 
from  the  object  proposed  by  it.  Judges  18  : 1.  At  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest, Rahab  was  a  young  woman,  and  may  well  have  survived  that  event 
forty  years  or  more.  The  only  apparent  indication  of  a  still  later  compo- 
sition of  the  book  is  that  found  in  the  reference  to  the  book  of  Jasher, 
chap.  10 :  13.  From  2  Sam.  1  :  18,  we  learn  (according  to  the  most  ap- 
proved interpretation  of  the  passage)  that  David's  elegy  on  the  death  of 
Saul  and  Jonathan  was  written  in  the  book  of  Jasher.  But  we  are  not 
warranted  in  affirming  that  this  title  was  api^lied  to  a  book  of  definitely 
determined  contents.  It  may  have  been  a  collection  of  national  songs, 
enlarged  from  age  to  age. 

Though  Joshua  does  not  appear  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  book  in 
its  present  form,  we  may  well  suppose  that  the  writer  employed,  in  part  at 
least,  materials  that  came  from  Joshua's  pen.  When  the  land  was  divided 
by  lot  among  the  several  tribes,  the  boundaries  of  each  inheritance,  with 
the  cities  pertaining  to  it,  must  have  been  carefully  described  in  writing 
by  Joshua  himself,  or  by  persons  acting  under  his  direction.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  these  descriptions  were  copied  by  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Joshua ;  and  this  is  sufficient  to  account  for  any  diversity  of  diction  that 
may  exist  in  this  part  of  the  book  as  compared  with  the  purely  historic 


2U  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

parts.  Nothing  in  the  style  and  diction  of  this  book,  or  in  that  of  the  two 
following  books  of  Judges  and  Euth,  indicates  that  they  belong  to  a  later 
age  of  Hebrew  literature.  Certain  peculiarities  of  expression  which  occa- 
sionally appear  in  them  may  be  naturally  explained  as  provincialisms,  or 
us  belonging  to  the  language  of  conversation  and  common  life. 

5.  The  book  of  Joshua  bears  every  internal  mark  of  authen- 
ticity and  credibility.  The  main  transaction  which  it  records — 
the  extirpation  of  the  Canaanites  by  the  immediate  help  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  gift  of  their  countrj^  to  the  Israelites — was 
contemplated  from  the  very  first  by  the  Abrahamic  covenant 
(Gen.  13  :  14,  15 ;  15  :  18-21 ;  17  :  8,  etc.),  and  also  by  the  entire 
l)ody  of  the  Mosaic  laws.  Why  God  chose  to  accomplish  this 
by  the  sword  of  his  covenant  people,  has  been  already  suffi- 
ciently considered.  Chap.  10,  No.  7.  The  stupendous  miracles 
i-ecorded  in  the  book  of  Joshua  are  in  harmony  with  the  entire 
plan  of  redemption,  the  great  and  decisive  movements  of  which 
have  been  especially  marked  by  signal  manifestations  of  God's 
presence  and  power.  The  man  who  denies  the  credibility  of 
this  book  on  the  ground  of  these  miracles,  must,  for  consist- 
ency's sake,  go  much  farther,  and  deny  altogether  the  super- 
natural manifestations  of  God  recorded  in  the  Bible,  including 
the  mission,  miraculous  works,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  himself. 

In  chap.  10  :  12-14  we  read  that,  at  the  word  of  Joshua,  the  sun  stood 
still  and  the  moon  stayed  in  the  midst  of  heaven  about  a  whole  day,  so  that 
"there  was  no  day  like  that  before  it  or  after  it,  that  the  Lord  hearkened 
unto  the  voice  of  a  man."  Some  have  sought  to  explain  the  whole  pas- 
sage as  a  quotation  from  "the  book  of  Jasher "  expressed  in  the  language 
of  poetic  hyperbole  ;  and  they  have  compared  with  it  such  poetic  amplifi- 
cations as  those  contained  in  Psa.  18  :  7-16  ;  Hab.,  chap.  3,  etc.  But  this 
interpretation  is  forced  and  unnatural;  and  besides  this,  there  remains 
the  analogous  event  of  which  we  have  a  double  record  in  2  Kings  20  : 8-11; 
Isa.  38  :  7,  8,  and  which  is  expressly  ascribed  to  divine  power  :  "Behold, 
I  will  bring  again  the  shadow  of  the  degrees,  which  is  gone  dow^n  in  the 
sun-dial  of  Ahaz,  ten  degrees  backward."  Here  it  is  manifest  that  to 
human  vision  the  sun,  and  with  it  the  shadow,  went  backward  ten  degrees. 
How  this  was  accomplished  we  need  not  attempt  to  determine.  We  are 
not  shut  up  to  the  supposition  that  the  earth  was  turned  back  on  her  axis 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT.  215 

ten  degrees,  nor  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  were  miraculouyly  deflected  ten 
degrees  (which  would  change  his  apparent  position  in  the  heavens  ten 
degrees),  nor  to  any  other  particular  hypothesis.  If  God  chose  that  the 
sun  should  to  human  vision  go  backward  ten  degrees,  he  could  accomplish 
it  by  means  inscrutable  to  us  ;  and  so  also  if  he  chose  that  it  should  stand 
still  in  the  midst  of  heaven  about  a  whole  day, 

II.     JUDGES  AND   RUTH. 

6.  The  book  of  Judges  is  so  called  because  it  is  occupied 
with  the  history  of  the  Israelites  during  the  period  when  they 
were  under  the  general  administration  of  Judges.  These  men 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  ordinary  judges  under  the 
Theocracy,  of  the  appointment  of  which  we  have  an  account  in 
Exodus,  chap.  18.  They  were  men  specially  raised  up  by  God 
and  endowed  by  him  wdth  extraordinary  qualifications  for  their 
office,  which  was  general  and  political  rather  than  municipal. 
Many  of  them  w^ere  military  leaders,  called  to  their  work  in 
times  of  national  calamity.  In  times  of  peace  they  stood  at 
the  head  of  public  affairs,  although  with  regard  to  some  of 
them  it  is  generally  thought  that  their  jurisdiction  extended  to 
only  a  part  of  the  Israelitish  people.  Thus  Jephthah  and  the 
three  succeeding  judges  seem  to  have  exercised  their  office  in 
northeastern  Israel,  while  the  scene  of  Samson's  exploits  was 
southwestern  Israel,  and  he  was,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  con- 
temporary with  Eli,  who  judged  Israel  at  Shiloh.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  nation  during  the  period  of  the  Judges  is  described 
as  one  in  which  "there  w^as  no  king  in  Israel."  Chap.  18: 1; 
19 : 1.  There  was  no  regularly  organized  central  power  which 
could  give  unity  to  the  movements  of  the  people.  The  tribes 
seem  to  have  acted  in  a  great  measure  independently  of  each 
other,  as  in  the  expedition  of  the  Danites.  Chap.  18.  It  was 
only  on  special  occasions,  like  that  of  the  sin  and  punishment 
of  the  Benjamites  (chaps.  19-21),  that  there  was  a  general  con- 
cert among  them.  This  state  of  affairs  was  not  favorable  to 
the  development  of  the  military  power  of  the  nation,  but  it 
was  well  suited  to  the  high  moral  and  religious  ends  which  the 
Theocracy  had  in  view;   for  it  compelled  the  people   to  feel 


216  COMrANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

their  constant  dependence  on  God's  presence  and  help  for 
defence  against  their  enemies.  Sin,  and  oppression  by  the 
surrounding  nations  ;  repentance,  and  deliverance  by  God's 
immediate  interposition — this  is  the  oft-repeated  story  of  the 
book  of  Judges.  All  this  was  in  accordance  with  the  promises 
and  threatenings  of  the  Law,  and  it  illustrated  alike  the  per- 
verseness  of  the  nation  and  God's  faithfulness  in  the  fulfilment 
of  his  covenant.  The  incidents  recorded  in  this  book  are  of  a 
peculiarly  checkered  character,  and  many  of  them  are  full  of 
romantic  interest.  In  the  history  of  redemption,  the  book  of 
Judges  has  a  well-defined  place.  It  unfolds  to  our  view  the 
operation  of  the  Theocracy  in  the  first  stage  of  the  nation's 
existence,  and  under  its  first  outward  form  of  government. 

7.  As  it  respects  the  arrangement  of  materials,  the  book  of 
Judges  opens  with  a  two-fold  introduction,  giving,  first,  a  brief 
notice  of  the  wars  carried  on  against  the  Canaanites  by  certain 
tribes  after  Joshua's  death,  of  the  failure  of  the  people  to  effect 
a  complete  extirpation  of  the  Canaanites,  and  of  the  reproof 
administered  to  them  by  an  angel  of  the  Lord  (chap.  1 — 2 : 5) ; 
secondly,  a  survey  of  the  course  of  events  during  the  time  of 
the  judges,  with  especial  reference  to  God's  faithfulness  in  the 
fulfilment  of  his  promises  and  threatenings.  Chap.  2  :  6 — 3  :  6. 
Then  follows  the  hody  of  the  ivork,  giving  an  account  of  the 
seven  servitudes  to  which  the  people  were  subjected  for  their 
sins,  and  of  the  judges  raised  up  by  God  for  their  deliverance, 
with  some  incidental  notices,  as  the  history  of  Abimelech, 
(chap.  9)  and  the  quarrel  of  the  men  of  Ephraim  with  Jeph- 
thah.  Chap.  12: 1-6..  The  book  closes  with  a  two-fold  appen- 
dix, recording,  first,  the  conquest  of  Laish  by  the  Danites,  and 
in  connection  with  this  the  story  of  Micah  and  his  idolatrous 
establishment  (chaps.  17,  18) ;  secondly,  the  punishment  of  the 
Benjamites  for  espousing  the  cause  of  the  wicked  men  of  Gib- 
eah  (chaps.  19-21).  These  events  are  not  to  be  conceived  of 
as  subsequent  to  those  recorded  in  the  body  of  the  book,  but 
as  contemporaneous  with  them. 

8.  The  remark  :  "In  those  days  tliere  was  no  king  in  Israel" 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  217 

(chaps.  18 : 1 ;  19  : 1)  plainly  implies  tliat  the  date  of  the  book  of 
Judges  must  be  assigned  to  a  period  after  the  establishment  of 
the  kingdom.  The  statement,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
children  of  Benjamin  did  not  drive  out  the  Jebusites  from  Jeru- 
salem, "but  the  Jebusites  dwell  with  the  children  of  Benjamin 
in  Jerusalem  unto  this  day  (chap.  1 :  21),  limits  the  time  of  its 
composition  to  the  period  before  David's  conquest  of  the  city. 
2  Sam.  5 :  6-9.  The  author  of  the  book  is  unknown.  Jewish 
tradition  ascribes  it  to  Samuel.  It  may  well  have  been  written 
during  his  life,  and  possibly  under  his  supervision,  though  on 
this  point  we  can  affirm  nothing  positively.  The  writer  must 
have  availed  himself  of  earlier  written  documents.  See  Chap. 
15,  Ko.  5. 

9.  The  chronology  of  the  book  of  Judges  is  a  matter  of 
debate  among  biblical  scholars.  Some  contend  for  a  longer 
period,  in  accordance  with  the  reckoning  of  the  apostle  Paul, 
who  says  that  after  God  had  divided  to  the  people  the  land  of 
Canaan  by  lot,  "  he  gave  unto  them  judges  about  the  space  of 
four  hundred  and  fifty  years,  until  Samuel  the  prophet."  Acts 
13 :  20.  Others  seek  to  reduce  the  period  so  as  to  bring  it  into 
harmony  with  the  statement  in  1  Kings  6  : 1,  that  Solomon 
began  to  build  the  temple  "in  the  four  hundred  and  eightieth 
year  after  the  children  of  Israel  were  come  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt." 

If  we  sui^pose  tliat  tlie  oppression  of  the  Israelites  by  the  PhiHstines, 
described  in  the  beginning  of  the  first  book  of  Samuel,  is  the  same  as  the 
forty  years'  oppression  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Judges,  and  that  the 
judgeship  of  Samson  falls  within  the  same  period  (Judges  15:20),  it  is 
easy  to  make  out  the  four  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  the  apostle's  reckon- 
ing. From  the  beginning  of  the  first  servitude  under  Cushan-rishathaim 
to  the  close  of  the  last  under  the  Philistines,  we  have,  reckoning  the  years 
of  servitude  and  rest  in  succession,  and  allowing  three  years  for  the  reign 
of  Abimelech,  three  hundred  and  ninety  years.  For  the  remaining  sixty 
years  we  have  (1)  the  time  from  the  division  of  the  land  by  lot  to  the  death 
of  the  elders  who  overlived  Joshua  ;  (2)  the  time  from  the  close  of  the  last 
servitude  to  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  possibly  (3)  a  furtlier 
period  for  Shamgar's  judgeship,  though  it  is  more  probable  that  this  falls 
within  the  eighty  years  of  rest  after  the  oppression  of  the  Moabites.    Those 


248  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

who  adopt  a  shorter  chronology,  assume  that  the  forty  years'  dominion  o« 
the  PhiHstines  was  contemporaneous  with  the  oppression  of  ihe  northeast- 
ern tribes  by  the  Ammonites  and  the  period  during  which  Jephthah, 
Ibzan,  Elon,  and  Abdon  judged  Israel ;  their  jurisdiction  being,  as  they 
suppose,  restricted  to  the  northeastern  part  of  the  land.  For  both  the 
longer  and  shorter  chronology,  there  are  several  variously  modified 
schemes,  the  details  of  which  the  student  can  find  in  works  devoted  to  the 
subject  of  biblical  chronology. 

10.  The  incidents  of  the  hooh  of  Ruth  belong  to  the  period 
of  the  Judges,  so  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  in  some  sort  an 
appendix  to  the  book  of  Judges,  though  probably  not  written 
by  the  same  author.  It  contains  a  beautiful  sketch  of  domestic 
life  in  the  early  period  of  the  Theocracy,  written  with  charm- 
ing simplicity  and  graphic  vividness.  Yet  it  is  not  on  this 
ground  alone  or  chiefly  that  it  has  a  place  in  the  sacred  canon. 
It  records  also  the  sublime  faith  of  Kutli  the  Moabitess,  which 
led  her  to  forsake  her  own  country  and  kindred  to  trust  under 
the  wings  of  the  Lord  God  of  Israel  (ch.  2  :  12),  and  which 
was  rewarded  by  her  being  made  the  ancestress  of  David  and 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Thus  the  book  connects  itself  im- 
mediately with  "  the  house  and  lineage  of  David,"  and  may  be 
regarded  as  supplementary  to  the  history  of  his  family.  It  was 
evidently  written  after  David  was  established  on  the  throne. 
Further  than  this  we  have  no  certain  knowledge  respecting  its 
date ;  nor  can  its  author  be  determined. 

III.     THE  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL. 

11.  The  two  books  of  Samuel  constituted  originally  one 
work.  The  division  was  made  by  the  Greek  translators  as  a 
matter  of  convenience,  so  as  to  close  the  first  book  with  the 
death  of  Saul,  and  begin  the  second  with  David's  accession  to 
the  throne.  This  division  was  followed  by  the  Yulgate,  and 
was  introduced  by  Daniel  Bomberg  into  the  printed  Hebrew 
text.  To  the  original  whole  work  the  name  of  Samuel  was 
appropriately  given ;  for  he  is  not  only  the  central  personage 
in  the  history  wliich  it  records  to  the   establishment  of  the 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT.  24;) 

kingdom,  but  it  was  also  through  him,  as  the  acknowledged 
prophet  of  the  Theocracy,  that  both  Saul  and  David  were  desig- 
nated and  anointed  for  the  kingly  office.  The  Greek  Septua- 
gint  designates  these  books  from  their  contents,  Firf^t  and  Second 
of  the  Kingdoms,  and  the  Yulgate,  First  and  Second  of  Kings. 

12.  In  the  history  of  the  plan  of  redemption  these  two  books 
have  a  well-defined  province.  They  are  occupied  with  tJie 
establishment,  under  God's  direction  and  guidance,  of  the  kingly 
form  of  government  in  the  Theocracy.  All  the  events  recorded 
before  the  inauguration  of  Saul  were  preparatory  to  that  event 
and  explanatory  of  it.  Since,  moreover,  Saul  was  afterwards 
rejected  with  his  family  on  account  of  his  disobedience,  and 
David  and  his  family  were  chosen  in  his  stead,  it  was  in  the 
person  of  David  that  the  kingdom  was  first  fully  established, 
and  with  ''the  close  of  his  reign  the  work  accordingly  ends. 
The  period  included  in  this  history,  though  comparatively  brief, 
was  most  eventful.  Samuel,  himself  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
prophets,  established  a  school  of  the  prophets,  and  from  his 
day  onward  the  prophetical  order  assumed  an  importance  and 
permanency  in  the  Theocracy  that  was  before  unknown.  See 
above,  Ch.  15,  No.  11.  The  change  to  the  kingly  form  of  gov- 
ernment  constituted  a  new  era  in  the  Hebrew  commonwealth. 
Although  the  motives  which  led  the  people  to  desire  a  king- 
were  low  and  unworthy,  being  grounded  in  worldliness  and 
unbelief,  yet  God,  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  own  purposes, 
was  pleased  to  grant  their  request.  The  adumbration  in  the 
Theocracy  of  the  kingly  office  of  the  future  Messiah,  not  less 
than  of  his  priestly  and  prophetical  office,  was  originally  con- 
templated in  its  establishment ;  and  now  the  full  time  for  this 
had  come.  While  David  and  his  successors  on  the  throne  were 
true  civil  and  military  leaders  in  a  secular  and  earthly  sense, 
their  headship  over  God's  people  also  shadowed  forth  the 
higher  headship  of  the  long  promised  Kedeemer,  the  great 
Antitype  in  whom  all  the  types  contained  in  the  Mosaic  econ- 
omy find  at  once  their  explanation  and  their  fulfilment.  Under 
David  the  Hebrew  commonwealth  was  rescued  from  the  oppres- 

11* 


250  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

sion  of  the  surrounding  nations,  and  speedily  attained  to  its 
zenith  of  outward  power  and  splendor. 

13.  The  contents  of  the  books  of  Samuel  naturally  fall  under 
three  main  divisions.  The  introductory  part  takes  up  the  his- 
tory of  the  commonwealth  under  Eli  and  continues  it  to  the 
time  when  the  people  demanded  of  Samuel  a  king.  1  Sam. 
chaps.  1-7.  This  period  properly  belongs  to  that  of  the 
judges,  but  its  history  is  given  here  because  of  its  intimate 
connection  with  the  events  that  follow.  It  describes  the  birth 
and  education  of  Samuel;  the  disorders  that  prevailed  under. 
Eli's  administration,  for  which  God  denounced  upon  his  family 
severe  judgments ;  the  invasion  of  the  land  by  the  Philistines, 
with  the  capture  and  restoration  of  the  ark ;  Samuel's  adminis- 
tration, and  the  deliverance  of  the  people  under  him  from  the 
oppression  of  the  Philistines.  The  second  part,  extending 
through  the  remainder  of  the  first  book,  opens  with  an  account 
of  the  abuses  which  led  the  people  to  desire  a  king,  and  then 
gives  an  account  of  the  selection,  anointing,  and  inauguration 
of  Saul  as  king  of  Israel,  with  a  notice  of  his  exploit  in  deliver- 
ing the  people  of  Jabesh-gilead  from  the  Ammonites.  Chaps. 
8-12.  It  then  gives  an  account  of  his  first  sin  at  Gilgal,  for 
which  Samuel  threatened  him  with  the  loss  of  his  kingdom,  and 
of  his  victory  over  the  Philistines,  with  a  general  summary  of 
the  events  of  his  reign.  Chaps.  13,  14.  For  his  second  sin  in 
the  matter  of  the  Amalekites  Saul  is  rejected,  and  David  is 
anointed  by  Samuel  as  his  successor  ;  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord 
forsakes  Saul,  and  an  evil  spirit  from  God  troubles  him  ;  David 
becomes  his  minstrel,  is  in  high  favor  with  him,  slays  Goliath 
in  the  presence  of  the  two  armies  of  Israel  and  the  Philistines, 
returns  in  triumph  to  the  camp  of  Saul,  marries  Michal  his 
daughter,  but  becomes  an  object  of  his  jealousy  and  hatred 
because  he  has  supplanted  him  in  the  affections  of  the  people. 
Chaps.  15-18:9.  The  remainder  of  the  first  book  is  mainly 
occupied  with  an  account  of  the  persecutions  to  which  David 
was  subjected  on  the  part  of  Saul,  and  of  the  wonderful  way 
in  which  God  delivered  him.     It  closes  with  an  account  of 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  251 

Saul's  distress  througli  the  iDvasion  of  the  Philistines,  of  his 
resort  in  trouble  to  a  woman  that  had  a  familiar  spirit,  of  the 
terrible  message  that  he  received  at  the  lips  of  the  risen  Sam- 
uel, of  the  defeat  of  the  armies  of  Israel  by  the  Philistines,  and 
of  the  death  of  Saul  and  his  three  sons  on  Mount  Gilboa. 
The  tliird  part  occupies  the  whole  of  the  second  book.  It 
records  the  reign  of  David,  first  at  Hebron  over  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  wdth  the  accompanying  war  betw^een  the  house  of  Saul 
and  the  house  of  David,  and  then,  after  Ishbosheth's  death, 
over  all  Israel  at  Jerusalem.  "With  the  fidelity  of  truth  the 
sacred  historian  describes  not  only  David's  many  victories  over 
the  enemies  of  Israel,  but  also  his  grievous  sin  in  the  matter  of 
Uriah,  with  the  terrible  chastisements  that  it  brought  upon 
him  and  his  kingdom — Amnon's  incest,  the  murder  of  Amnon 
by  Absalom,  Absalom's  rebellion,  pollution  of  his  father's  con- 
cubines, and  death  in  battle.  The  closing  years  of  David's 
reign  w^ere  saddened  also  by  David's  sin  in  numbering  the 
people,  for  which  there  fell  in  pestilence  seventy  thousand  of 
his  subjects. 

14.  For  the  evidence  that  the  author  of  these  books  availed 
himself  of  the  writings  of  the  prophets  contemporary  with  the 
events  described,  see  above,  Chap.  15,  No.  6.  In  1  Chron. 
29:29  we  read:  "Now  the  acts  of  David  the  king,  first  and 
last,  behold  they  are  written  in  the  book  of  Samuel  the  seer, 
and  in  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  in  the  book  of 
Gad  the  seer."  If,  as  some  think,  our  present  books  of  Sam- 
uel were  composed  shortly  after  David's  death,  the  author  may 
"well  have  been  one  of  the  last  two  of- the  above-named  proph- 
ets ;  but  there  are  some  indications  that  he  lived  after  the  divis- 
ion of  the  Israelitish  people  into  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah 
and  Israel. 

In  1  Sam.  27  :  6  we  read  that  Acliish  gave  Ziklag  to  David  ;  **  where- 
fore," adds  the  sacred  historian,  "Ziklag  pertaineth  unto  the  kings  of 
Judah  unto  this  day."  The  only  natural  interpretation  of  these  words  is 
that  the  kings  of  Judah — not  any  particular  king  of  Judah,  but  the  kings 
of  Judah  as  a  line — are  named  in  contrast  with  the  kings  of  Israel.     In 


252  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

several  other  passages,  where  he  is  speaking  of  events  that  occurred  hefore 
the  separation  of  the  two  kingdoms,  he  puts  Judah  and  Israel  in  contrast. 
1  Sam.  11 :  8  ;  17  :  52  ;  18  :  16  ;  2  Sam.  3  :  10  ;  24  : 1.  But  this  may,  per- 
haps, be  explained  from  the  fact  that  during  the  seven  years  of  David's 
reign  at  Hebron  there  was  an  actual  separation  of  Judah  from  the  other 
tribes.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  while  the  full  term  of  David's  reign  is 
given  (2  Sam.  5:4,  5),  which  implies  that  the  writer  lived  after  its  close, 
no  notice  is  taken  of  his  death.  The  reason  of  this  omission  cannot  be 
known.  As  the  fii:st  book  of  Kings  opens  with  an  account  of  David's  last 
days  and  death,  some  have  conjectured  that  it  was  designedly  omitted  from 
the  books  of  Sa^muel  as  superfluous,  when  the  historical  books  were  arran- 
ged in  the  sacred  canon. 


IV.     THE  BOOKS  OF  KINGS. 

15.  These  two  books,  like  the  two  of  Samuel,  originally- 
constituted  a  single  work.  The  division  was  first  made  by  the 
Greek  translators,  was  followed  by  the  Yulgate,  and  was  finally 
admitted  by  Daniel  Bomberg  into  the  printed  Hebrew  text. 
The  Greek  version  of  the  Seventy  and  the  Latin  version,  having 
called  the  books  of  Samuel,  the  former,  First  and  Second  of  the 
Kingdoms,  the  latter,  First  and  Second  of  the  Kings,  designate 
these  books  as  Third  and  Fourth  of  the  Kingdoms  or  Kings. 
Each  of  the  historical  books  presents  the  covenant  people 
under  a  new  aspect,  and  imparts  new  lessons  of  instruction. 
In  the  book  of  Joshua  w^e  see  them  taking  triumphant  posses- 
sion of  the  promised  land  through  the  mighty  assistance  of 
Jehovah ;  the  book  of  Judges  describes  the  course  of  affairs  in 
the  Hebrew  commonwealth  before  the  existence  of  a  central 
kingly  government ;  in  the  books  of  Samuel  we  learn  how  such 
a  central  government  was  established,  and  how  under  the  leign 
of  David  the  nation  was  raised  from  the  deep  degradation  of 
servitude  to  the  summit  of  worldly  power.  But  the  Theocracy 
was  only  a  preparatory,  and  therefore  a  temporary  form  of 
God's  visible  , earthly,  kingdom.  From  the  days  of  David  and 
Solomon  it  began  to  decline  in  outward  power  and  splendor, 
and  it  is  with  the  history  of  this  decline  that  the  books  of 
Kings  are  occupied.     In  the  view  which  the}'  present  of  the 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.      '  '2o'^ 

divine  plan  they  are  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  preceding 
books  of  Samuel ;  but  in  respect  to  the  manner  of  execution 
they  differ  widely.  The  books  of  Samuel  give  the  history  of 
Samuel,  Saul,  and  David,  with  great  fulness  of  detail,  and 
never  refer  the  reader  to  other  sources  of  information.  The 
books  of  Kings,  on  the  contrary,  give  professedly  only  certain 
portions  of  the  history  of  the  people  under  the  successive 
kings,  always  adding,  at  the  close  of  each  monarch's  reign 
after  Solomon,  that  the  rest  of  his  acts  may  be  found,  for  the 
kings  of  Judah,  in  "  the  book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  kings  of 
Judah ;"  and,  for  the  kings  of  Israel,  in  "the  book  of  the 
Chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Israel."  The  Chronicles  referred  to 
are  not  our  present  books  of  Chronicles,  as  has  been  already 
shown.  Chap.  15,  No.  8,  but  a  larger  collection  of  writings, 
from  which  the  authors  both  of  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chron- 
icles drew  materials,  in  part  at  least,  for  their  respective  works. 
The  history  contained  in  the  books  of  Kings  may  be  conveni- 
ently divided  into  three  periods — (1)  the  reign  of  Solomon  over 
all  Israel ;  (2)  the  history  of  the  coexisting  kingdoms  of  Judah 
and  Israel ;  (3)  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  after  the 
extinction  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

16.  The  history  of  the  first  period  opens  with  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  which  excelled  that  of  David  in  outward  magnifi- 
cence, as  it  did  that  of  every  succeeding  king.  1  Kings  3  :  13. 
The  great  event  of  his  reign,  constituting  an  epoch  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Theocracy,  was  the  erection  of  the  tem/ple  on  Mount 
Moriah,  which  took  the  place  of  the  ancient  tabernacle  con- 
structed by  divine  direction  in  the  wilderness.  Thus  Solomon 
added  to  the  public  services  of  the  sanctuary  an  outward  splen- 
dor and  dignity  corresponding  with  the  increased  wealth  and 
glory  of  the  nation.  But  in  the  case  of  his  kingdom,  as  often 
elsewhere,  the  zenith  of  magnificence  came  after  the  zenith  of 
true  power.  Had  his  profuse  expenditures  ceased  with  the 
erection  of  the  temple  and  his  own  house,  it  would  have  been 
well ;  but  the  maintenance  of  such  a  household  as  his,  embra- 
cing *'  seven   hundred   wives,  princesses,  and  three  hundred 


254  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

concubines,"  corrupted  his  religion  and  that  of  the  nation,  bur- 
dened the  people  with  heavy  taxes,  and  thus  prepared  the 
way  for  the  division  of  his  kingdom  that  followed  immediately 
after  his  death,  as  recorded  in  1  Kings  12. 

17.  With  the  division  of  Solomon's  kingdom  under  his  son 
Kehoboam  into  two  hostile  nations  begins  the  second  period  of 
the  history.  This  division  was  brought  about  by  God's 
appointment  as  a  chastisement  for  Solomon's  sins,  and  in  it 
the  national  power  received  a  blow  from  which  it  never  recov- 
ered. The  religious  effect  also  was  unspeakably  calamitous  so 
far  as  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  was  concerned ;  for  Jero- 
boam, the  first  king  of  Israel,  established  idolatry  as  a  matter 
of  state  ijolicy,  thus  corrupting  the  religion  of  his  whole  king- 
dom with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  his  own  power,  a  sin 
in  which  he  was  followed  by  every  one  of  his  successors.  The 
sacred  historian  carries  forward  the  history  of  these  two  king- 
doms together  with  wonderful  brevity  and  power.  Sometimes, 
as  in  the  days  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  the  history  of  the  ten 
tribes  assumes  the  greater  prominence,  because  it  furnishes 
the  fuller  illustrations  of  God's  presence  and  power ;  but  as  a 
general  fact  it  is  kept  in  subordination  to  that  of  Judah.  It  is 
a  sad  record  of  wicked  dynasties,  each  established  in  blood 
and  ending  in  blood,  until  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  by 
the  Assyrians  about  two  hundred  and  fifty-four  j^ears  after  its 
establishment.     Meanwhile  there  was  in  Judah  an  alternation 

\of  pious  with  idolatrous  kings,  and  a  corresponding  struggle 
between  the  true  religion  and  the  idolatry  of  the  surrounding 
nations,  which  the  sacred  writer  also  describes  briefly  but  vividly. 

18,  It  was  during  the  reign  of  the  good  king  Hezekiah  that 
the  extinction  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  took  place,  and  the 
/7«>cZ  period  of  the  history  began.  Hezekiah's  efforts  for  the 
restoration  of  the  true  religion  were  vigorous  and  for  the  time 
successful.  But  after  his  death  the  nation  relapsed  again  into 
idolatry  and  wickedness.  The  efforts  of  Josiah,  the  only  pious 
monarch  that  occupied  the  throne  after  Hezekiah,  could  not 
avail  to  stay  the  progress  of  national  degeneracy,  and  the  king- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  255 

dom  of  Judah  was,  in  its  turn,  overthrown  by  the  Chaldeans, 
and  the  people  carried  captive  to  Babylon. 

19.  The  chronology  of  certain  parts  of  the  history  embraced 
in  the  books  of.  Kings  is  perplexed  and  uncertain.  But  the 
beginning  of  the  Babylonish  captivity  is  generally  placed  B.  c. 
588,  three  hundred  and  eighty-seven  years  after  the  beginning 
of  Kehoboam's  reign,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  years 
after  the  extinction  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Reckoning  in 
the  forty  years  of  Solomon's  reign,  we  have  for  the  period 
included  in  the  books  of  Kings  to  the  beginning  of  the  captiv- 
ity four  hundred  and  twenty-seven  years.  To  this  must  be 
added  twenty- six  more  years  for  the  thirtj^-seventh  year  of 
Jehoiachin's  captivity  (2  Kings  25 :  27),  the  last  date  given  by' 
the  sacred  historian.  The  author  of  the  books  of  Kings  is 
unknown.  Jewish  tradition  ascribes  them  to  Jeremiah,  per- 
haps on  the  ground  that  the  last  chapter  of  Jeremiah  is  mostly 
a  repetition  of  2  Kings  from  chap.  24 :  18  to  the  end  of  the 
book.  But  Jeremiah  and  the  author  of  these  books  may  both 
have  made  use  of  common  documents.  We  only  know  that  the 
writer  lived  after  the  accession  of  Evil-merodach  to  the  throne 
of  Babylon  (2  Kings  25  :  27),  and  during  the  full  pressure  of  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  since  he  nowhere  gives  any  intimation  of 
its  approaching  close. 

V.     THE  BOOKS  OF  CHEONICLES. 

20.  These  books,  which  originally  constituted  a  single 
work,  are  called  by  the  Hebrews :  Words  of  the  Baijs  ;  that  is, 
History  of  the  Events  of  the  Times,  or  Chronicles,  as  they  were 
fir^t  called  by  Jerome.  The  Greek  name  Paraleipomena,  things 
omitted,  has  its  ground  in  the  false  supposition  that  they  were 
designed  to  be  supplementary  to  the  books  of  Kings,  whereas 
they  constitute  an  independent  work  having  its  own  plan  and 
end.  The  author  of  the  books  of  Kings  doubtless  looked  for-  - 
ward  to  the  future  restoration  of  his  nation  ;  but  the  time  for 
that  joyous  event  was  jei  distant,  and  he  could  have  no  imme- 
diate reference  to  the  wants  of  the  returning  exiles.     His  aim 


256  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

was  simply  to  set  forth  the  course  of  events  under  the  The- 
ocracy from  Solomon  to  the  captivity  as  an  illustration  of 
God's  faithfulness  in  the  fulfilment  of  both  his  promises  and 
his  threatenings.  But  the  author  of  the  books  of  Cbrpnicles 
wrote,  as  all  agree,  during  the  process  of  the  restoration.  In 
addition  to  the  common  aim  of  all  the  historical  writers,  he 
had  a  particular  object  in  view,  which  was  to  furnish  the  re- 
stored captives  with  such  information  as  would  be  especially 
interesting  and  important  to  them,  engaged  as  the}^  were  in  the 
reestablishment  of  the  commonwealth.  Hence  we  may  natu- 
rally explain  the  peculiarities  of  these  books  as  compared  with 
the  books  of  Kings. 

(1.)  The  writer  gives  particular  attention  to  the  matter  of 
genealogy.  The  first  nine  chapters  are  occupied  with  genealo- 
gical tables  interspersed  with  short  historical  notices,  which 
the  author  took,  for  the  most  part  at  least,  from  documents 
that  have  long  since  perished.  To  the  returning  exiles  the  lin- 
eage of  their  ancestors  must  have  been  a  matter  of  general 
interest.  A  knowledge  of  the  descent  of  the  families  of  the 
different  tribes  would. greatly  facilitate  the  people  in  regaining 
their  former  inheritances.  To  the  priests  and  Levites,  espe- 
cially, it  was  of  the  highest  importance  that  they  should  be 
able  to  show  their  lineage  ;  since  upon  this  depended  their 
right  to  minister  in  holy  things.     Ezra  2  :  61-63. 

(2.)  The  books  of  Chronicles  are  very  full  on  all  that 
loertains  io  the  temple  service.  The  writer  devotes,  for  example, 
eight  chapters  to  an  account  of  David's  preparations  for  the 
erection  of  the  temple,  and  of  his  elaborate  arrangements  for 
all  the  different  parts  of  the  service  pertaining  to  the  sanctu- 
ary. 1  Chron.  chaps.  22-29.  He  gives  a  particular  descrip- 
tion of  the  solemn  covenant  made  by  the  people  with  Jehovah 
under  Asa's  direction,  2  Chron.  15  :  1-15 ;  of  the  reformatory 
labors  and  faith  of  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chron.  19,  20 ;  of  Hezekiah,  ■ 
2  Chron.  chaps.  29-31 ;  and  he  adds  to  the  account  of  Josiah's 
efforts  against  the  idolatrous  practices  of  his  day,  a  notice  of 
his  solemn  observance  of  the  passover,  2  Chron.  35  : 1--19. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  257 

(3.)  He  oimts,  on  the  other  hand,  the  history  of  the  hing- 
dom  of  Israel,  giving  only  a  notice  of  its  establishment,  and  of 
certain  parts  of  its  history  which  were  connected  with  that  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah.  The  apparent  ground  of  this  is,  that 
the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes  furnished  no  example  which 
could  be  available  to  the  people  in  the  work  of  reestablishing 
the  commonwealth.  It  is  to  be  noticed,  moreover,  that  he 
passes  over  in  silence  the  adultery  of  David  with  its  calamitous 
consequences,  and  the  idolatry  of  Solomon.  This  is,  perhaps, 
due  to  the  brevity  of  the  history  before  the  division  of  the  king- 
dom ;  for  he  does  not  spare  the  sins  of  the  pious  monarchs  that 
followed.    See  2  Chron.  16  :  7-12  ;  19  :  2  ;  32  :  25,  31 ;  35  :  21,  22. 

21.  In  the  Hebrew  canon  the  books  of  Chronicles  stand  last 
in  order.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  they  were  written,  after 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  by  Ezra, 
wdio  had  all  the  qualifications  for  such  a  work.  Whatever  use 
he  may  have  made  of  the  earlier  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings, 
it  is  plain  that  these  were  not  his  chief  sources,  for  he  records 
many  things  not  found  in  them.  He  and  the  author  of  the 
books  of  Kings  had  access  to  the  same  public  records,  and  each 
of  them  made  such  selections  from  them  as  suited  his  purposes. 
Hence  the  matter  contained  in  the  two  works  agrees  in  part, 
and  is  partly  different.     See  above.  Chap.  15,  Nos.  7,  8. 

22.  That  there  are  some  discrepancies  between  the  books  " 
of  Samuel  and  Kings  and  the  books  of  Chronicles,  arising  from 
errors  in  transcribing,  is  generallj^  admitted.  These  relate, 
however,  mainly  to  dates,  and  do  not  affect  the  general  integ- 
rity of  the  works.  But  most  of  the  disagreements  between  the 
earlier  and  later  histories  are  only  apparent,  arising  from  their 
brevity,  and  from  the  fact  that  their  authors  frequently  select 
from  the  same  reign  different  events,  the  one  passing  by  in 
silence  what  the  other  records ;  or  that,  where  they  record  the 
same  events,  various  accompanying  circumstances  are  omitted. 

An  example  of  apjDarent  error  in  transcription  is  2  Sam.  24 :  13  com- 
pared Avitli  1  Chron.  21  :  12 ;  the  former  passage  specifying  seven  years  of 
famine,  tlie  latter  three  years.     For  other  examples  see  2  Sam.  8  : 4  com- 


258  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

pared  with  1  Cliron.  18  : 4 ;  2  Sam.  23  : 8  with  1  Chron.  11 :11 ;  1  Kings 
4  :  26  with  2  Chron.  9  :  25.  We  are  not  to  infer,  however,  that  all  cases  of 
apparent  disagreement  involve  error  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  records. 
When  the  events  of  a  whole  campaign,  for  example,  are  crowded  into  sin- 
gle sentences,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  different  narratives  should  con- 
tain seeming  discrepancies  which  a  full  knowledge  of  the  details  would 
enable  us  to  reconcile.  The  separate  discussion  of  the  difficulties  pre- 
sented by  the  books  of  Chronicles,  as  compared  with  the  earlier  histories, 
belongs  to  the  commentator.  It  is  sufficient  to  remark  here,  that  inde- 
pendent parallel  histories  always  exhibit,  with  substantial  agreement, 
minor  diversities  which  it  is  sometimes  not  easy  to  harmonize.  It  has  not 
pleased  God  that  in  this  respect  the  sacred  narratives  of  either  the  Old  or 
the  New  Testament  should  constitute  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 
The  parallel  narratives  of  our  Lord's  hfe  contain  as  many  and  as  great 
diversities  as  those  of  the  old  Hebrew  commonwealth.  Though  we  may 
not  always  be  able  to  show  how  these  are  to  be  brought  into  harmony, 
they  constitute  no  valid  objection  to  the  authenticity  of  the  histories  in 
the  one  case  any  more  than  in  the  other. 

VI.  EZEA  AND  NEHEMIAH. 
23.  In  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Neliemiali,  wliicli  record  the 
most  important  events  connected  with  the  restoratio7i  of  the 
Hehreiv  commomuealth,  we  have  unfolded  to  our  view  a  new  era 
in  the  history  of  the  Theocracy.  The  contrast  between  the 
relation  of  the  Israelitisli  people  to  the  heathen  world  in  the 
days  of  Joshua,  and  of  Ezra  and  Neliemiah  is  as  great  as  pos- 
sible. Under  Joshua  the  people  marched,  sword  in  hand,  as 
invincible  conquerors,  to  the  possession  of  the  promised  land, 
while  the  hearts  of  their  enemies  melted  before  them.  After 
the  captivity  they  returned  in  weakness  and  fear,  by  the  per- 
mission of  their  heathen  rulers  and  under  their  patronage  and 
protection.  But  in  the  latter  case,  not  less  than  in  the  former, 
the  Theocracy  was  steadily  advancing  under  God's  guidance 
towards  the  accomplishment  of  its  high  end,  which  w^as  the 
preparation  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  through  them  the  world, 
for  the  advent  of  the  promised  Messiah.  In  the  beginning  oi 
the  Mosaic  economy,  and  during  the  earlier  part  of  its  course, 
it  was  altogether  appropriate  that  God  should  make  stupen- 
dous supernatural  manifestations  of  his  infinite  perfections  and 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  259 

of  his  supreme  power  over  the  nations  of  the  world.  Thus  he 
revealed  himself  as  the  only  living  and  true  God  in  the  sight 
of  all  men.  But  as  the  history  of  the  covenant  people  went 
forward,  there  was  a  gradual  return  to  the  ordinary  providen- 
tial administration  of  the  divine  government.  God's  miracu- 
lous interventions  were  never  made  for  mere  display.  They 
always  had  in  view  a  high  religious  end.  As  that  end  ap- 
proached its  accomplishment,  they  were  more  and  more  with- 
drawn, and  soon  after  the  captivity  they  ceased  altogether 
until  the  final  and  perfect  manifestation  of  God  in  Christ. 
From  Malachi  to  Christ  was  the  last  stage  of  the  Theocracy, 
when,  in  the  language  of  the  New  Testament,  it  was  waxing 
old  and  ready  to  vanish  away.  Heb.  8 :  13.  It  was  neither 
needful  nor  proper  that  its  history  should  be  dignified  by  such 
displays  of  God's  miraculous  power  as  marked  its  earlier 
periods. 

24.  But,  although  the  age  of  miracles  ceased  after  the  Bab- 
ylonish captivity,  the  Theocracy  went  steadily  forward  in  the 
accomplishment  of  its  divine  mission.  In  truth  it  was  now 
that  it  secured  for  the  first  time,  as  a  permanent  result,  the 
high  end  proposed  by  it  from  the  beginning,  that  of  rescuing  a 
whole  nation  from  idolatrous  practices  and  making  it  steadfast 
in  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  at  least  so  far  as  the  outward 
life  is  concerned.  By  the  permanent  subjection  of  the  Jewish 
people  to  heathen  rulers,  their  national  pride  was  humbled, 
and  they  were  placed  in  such  a  relation  to  heathenism  as  in- 
clined them  to  abhor  rather  than  imitate  its  rites.  The  fulfil- 
ment of  the  terrible  threatenings  contained  in  the  law  of  Moses 
in  the  complete  overthrow,  first  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and 
afterwards  of  that  of  Judah,  and  their  long  and  bitter  bondage 
in  Babylon,  administered  to  them  severe  but  salutary  lessons 
of  instruction,  under  the  influence  of  which  they  were,  by  God's 
blessing,  finally  reclaimed  from  idolatrous  practices.  In  con- 
nection with  the  restoration,  the  synagogue  service  was  estab- 
lished, in  which  the  law  and  the  prophets  were  regularly  read 
and  expounded  to  the  people  throughout  the  land.     To  this, 


250  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

more  than  to  any  other  human  instrumentality,  was  due  that 
steadfastness  which  the  Jewish  people  ever  afterwards  mani- 
fested in  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Thus,  while  the  out- 
ward glory  of  the  Theocracy  declined,  it  continued  to  accom- 
plish the  true  spiritual  end  for  which  it  was  established. 

25.  The  book  of  Ezra  embraces  a  period  of  about  seventy- 
nine  years,  from  the  accession  of  Cyrus  to  the  throne  of  Persia 
to  the  close  of  Ezra's  administration,  or  at  least  to  the  last 
transaction  under  it  of  which  we  have  a  record.  The  first 
six  chapters  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  course  of  events  among 
the  restored  captives  before  Ezra's  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  espe- 
cially their  activity  in  rebuilding  the  temple,  the  formidable 
opposition  which  they  encountered  from  the  neighboring  peo- 
ple, and  how  that  opposition  was  finally  overcome.  The  last 
four  chapters  contain  the  history  of  Ezra's  administration,  the 
chief  event  of  which  w^as  the  putting  away  by  the  jDrinces  and 
people  of  the  heathen  wives  whom  they  had  married.  That 
Ezra  was  the  author  of  this  book  is  generally  acknowledged. 
The  first  three  verses  are  a  repetition,  with  some  unessential 
variations,  of  the  last  two  verses  of  Chronicles,  of  which  he  is 
also  believed,  on  good  grounds,  to  have  been  the  author.  In 
certain  passages  he  speaks  of  himself  in  the  third  person; 
Ch.  7 : 1-26 ;  ch.  10 ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  denj^,  on  this 
ground,  that  he  was  their  author.  Jeremiah  changes,  in  like 
manner,  employing  sometimes  the  first  and  sometimes  the 
third  person.  Certain  parts  of  this  book,  which  are  mainly 
occupied  with  public  documents  respecting  the  building  of  the 
temple  and  the  orderly  arrangement  of  its  services,  are  written 
in  the  Chaldee  language,  namely:  chaps.  4:8 — 6:18;  7:12-26. 

Ill  respect  to  the  Persian  monarchs  mentioned  in  this  and  the  two  fol- 
lowing books,  there  is  not  an  entire  agreement  among  biblical  scholars. 
The  following  table,  formed  in  accordance  with  the  vicAvs  that  seem  to  be 
best  supported,  will  be  useful  to  the  reader.  It  contains,  arranged  in 
three  parallel  columns,  first  the  names  of  the  Persian  kings  in  their  order 
of  succession,  as  given  by  profane  historians ;  secondly,  their  scriptural 
names ;  thirdly,  the  dates  of  their  accession  to  the  throne,  according  to 
the  received  chronology. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  261 

Cyrus,  Cyrus,  Ezra  1 : 1,  etc.,  B.C.  536. 

Cambyses,  Ahasuerus,  Ezra  4:6,  "   529. 

Smerdis,*  Artaxerxes,  Ezra  4  :  7-23,  *«   522. 

Darius  Hystaspis,  Darius,  Ezra  4  :  24 — 6  :  15,t  *'   521. 

Xerxes,^  Ahasuerus,  Esther  throughout,  J  "   485. 

Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  Artaxerxes,  Ezra  7 : 1,  etc. ;  Neh.  2:1,  etc. ,     ' '   464. 

26.  The  book  of  Nehemiali  continues  the  history  of  the  Jew- 
ish people  after  the  restoration,  beginning  with  the  commission 
which  Nehemiali  received  from  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  king 
of  Persia,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign  (b.  c.  446),  to  go 
to  Jerusalem  in  the  capacity  of  Tirshatha,  or  civil  governor,  for 
the  purpose  of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  and  setting 
in  order  the  affairs  of  the  commonwealth.  The  book  naturally 
falls  into  three  divisions.  The  first  division  contains  the  his- 
tory of  his  labors  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of  the  city  and  put- 
ting an  end  to  the  practice  of  usury,  and  of  the  violent  oppo- 
sition and  intrigues  of  the  surrounding  people.  Chaps.  1 — 7  : 4. 
To  this  is  appended  a  genealogical  list,  which  is  the  same  for 
substance  as  that  contained  in  the  second  chapter  of  Ezra. 
Ch.  7:5-73. 

Upon  a  comparison  of  the  two  catalogues,  we  find  various  differences 
in  respect  to  names  and  numbers.  The  differences  of  names  may  be  ex- 
plained from  the  fact  that  it  was  common  for  men  to  bear  different  titles, 
particularly  if  they  were  persons  of  distinction ;  as,  for  example,  Daniel 
and  Belteshazzar,  Zerubbabel  and  Sheshbazzar.  It  is  not  certain  upon 
what  principle  the  differences  in  numbers  are  to  be  explained.  The  sum 
total  of  both  catalogues  is  the  same,  namely,  42,360  :  from  which  it  is  plain 
that  the  lists  are  in  both  cases  partial,  since  neither  of  them  amounts  to 
this  sum.  We  add  the  following  suggestion  from  Grey's  Key  as  quoted 
by  Scott :  ' '  The  sum  of  the  numbers,  as  separately  detailed,  will  corre- 
spond, if  to  the  29,818  specified  by  Ezra,  w^e  add  the  1,765  persons  reck- 
oned by  Nehemiah  which  Ezra  has  omitted ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
the  31,089  enumerated  by  Nehemiah,  add  the  494,  which  is  an  overplus  in 
Ezra,  nDE  noticed  by  Nehemiah  ;  both  writers  including  in  the  sum  total 
10,777  of  the  mixed  multitude,  not  particularized  in  the  individual  detail," 

"^  He  was  a  usurper  who  reigned  less  than  a  year. 

t  But  in  Neh.  12  :  22,  Darius  Nothus  or  Darius  Codomanus  roust  be  referred 
to. 

I  Some  suppose  Darius,  others  Artaxerxes,  to  have  been  the  Ahasuerus  of 
Esther. 


232  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

In  the  second  division  we  have  an  account  of  the  solemn 
public  reading  of  the  law  of  Moses  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
and,  in  connection  with  this,  of  the  renewal  of  the  national 
covenant  with  Jehovah  through  the  signature  and  seal  of  the 
princes,  Levites,  and  priests,  irT  their  own  behalf  and  that  of 
the  people.  Chaps.  8-10.  In  this  religious  and  ecclesiastical 
transaction,  Ezra  the  priest  was  the  leader;  Nehemiah,  as  the 
Tirshatha,  or  civil  governor,  simply  taking  the  lead  of  the 
princes  in  the  act  of  sealing. 

The  tliird  division  contains,  along  with  some  genealogical 
lists,  an  account  of  the  measures  taken  by  Neherniah  and  the 
princes  to  increase  the  number  of  residents  in  Jerusalem,  of 
the  solemn  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  the  rec- 
tification of  various  abuses  which  had  crept  in  partly  during 
Nehemiah's  absence  at  the  court  of  Persia.     Chaps.  11-13. 

The  date  of  Nehemiah's  commission  to  rebuild  the  -walls  of  Jerusalem 
is  important  on  account  of  its  connection  with  the  seventy  prophetic  weeks 
of  Daniel,  which  are  reckoned  "from  the  going  forth  of  the  commandment 
to  restore  and  to  build  Jerusalem."  Dan.  9  :  25.  It  cannot  be  considered 
as  exactly  ascertained,  but  may  be  placed  somewhere  from  b.  c.  454  to  b.  c. 
446.  See  the  commentators  on  Dan.  9  :  24-27.  How  long  Nehemiah's 
administration  continued  after  his  visit  to  the  court  of  Persia,  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  his  rule,  is  not  known. 

27.  The  book,  as  its  title  testifies,  was  written  by  Nehe- 
miah,  not  earlier  than  his  return  from  the  court  of  Persia  (ch. 
13 :  6 ;  5  :  14) ;  how  much  later  cannot  be  known.  From  the 
general  character  of  style  and  diction  which  belongs  to  the 
second  division  (chaps.  8-10),  as  well  as  from  the  absence  of 
Nehemiah's  peculiar  forms  of  speech,  some  have  thought  that 
Ezra,  as  the  chief  actor  in  the  reading  of  the  law  and  renewal 
of  the  national  covenant,  wrote  the  account  of  the  transaction, 
and  that  Nehemiah  incorporated  it  into  his  work.  To  this 
supposition  there  is  no  serious  objection.  We  must  remember, 
however,  that  arguments  based  on  supposed  differences  of  style 
cannot  amount  to  much  where  the  materials  from  which  a  con- 
clusion is  to  be  drawn  are  so  scanty. 


THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.  2G3 

Tlie  genealogical  notice  in  cli.  12  :  10,  11,  wliicli  gives  the  lineage  of 
the  high  priests  from  Joshua  to  Jaddua,  who  is  apparently  the  high  priest 
described  by  Josephus  as  having  met  Alexander  the  Great  on  his  march  to 
Jerusalem,  is  thought  by  many  to  be  an  addition  made  after  Nehemiah's 
death  as  a  matter  of  public  interest.  See  above,  Chap.  15,  No.  17.  The 
same  judgment  is  passed  by  some  on  1  Chron.  3  :  19-24.  But  the  inter- 
pretation of  this  latter  passage  is  very  uncertain. 

.       VII.  ESTHER. 

28.  This  book,  the  author  of  whicli  is  unknown,  records  the 
"wonderful  manner  in  which  the  plot  of  Haman  the  Agagite  to 
destroy  the  Jews  was  not  only  overthrown,  but  turned  to  their 
enlargement  and  honor.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  author 
refrains  throughout  from  mentioning  the  name  of  God,  although 
he  manifestly  designs  to  represent  this  deliverance  as  effected 
by  his  providence,  and  that  too  in  answer  to  the  fervent  pray- 
ers of  the  Jews  in  connection  with  a  fast  of  three  days'  contin- 
uance. He  prefers,  as  it  would  seem,  to  let  the  facts  speak  for 
themselves.  The  book  closes  with  an  account  of  the  establish- 
ment, under  the  auspices  of  Mordecai  and  Esther,  of  the  feast 
of  Purim,  in  commemoration  of  the  deliverance  which  it 
records ;  and  we  are  perhaps  warranted  in  saying  that  the 
immediate  occasion  of  writing  the  book  was  to  show  the  his- 
toric origin  of  that  festival — a  festival  mentioned  in  the  second 
book  of  Maccabees,  under  the  title  of  Blordecais  day  (chap. 
15  :  36),  and  observed,  according  to  Josephus,  by  the  Jews 
throughout  the  whole  world.     Antiq.,  11,  6.  13. 

29.  Among  the  various  opinions  respecting  the  Ahasuerus 
of  this  book,  the  best  sustained  is  that  which  identifies  him 
with  the  celebrated  Xerxes  of  profane  history.  With  this  agrees 
all  that  is  said  of  the  splendor  and  extent  of  his  dominions, 
extending  "from  India  even  unto  Ethiopia,  over  a  hundred 
and  seven  and  twenty  provinces  "  (1 : 1),  and  of  his  passionate, 
capricious,  and  sensual  character. 

To  us,  who  are  accustomed  to  a  government  of  law,  in  which  the  rulers 
are  restrained  from  the  exercise  of  arbitrary  power,  and  are  kept  under 
constant  restraint  by  popular  opinion,  the  incidents  recorded  in  this  book 


264  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

seem  very  strange.  But  it  gives  a  true  and  faithful  portraiture  of  tlie 
course  of  affairs  at  the  court  of  a  Persian  despot,  where  the  monarch 
knows  no  law  but  his  ow^n  arbitrary  will,  suddenly  elevates  his  favorites  to 
the  highest  places  of  power  and  trust,  as  suddenly  consigns  them  to  the 
hand  of  the  executioner,  and  gives  himself  up  to  the  unbridled  indulgence 
of  his  passions.  The  history  of  Haman's  sudden  rise  and  fall  is  that  of 
many  an  oriental  courtier  since  his  day.  The  Jews,  we  are  told,  "  slew  of 
their  foes  seventy  and  five  thousand."  This  was  a  very  great  slaughter  ; 
but  we  must  remember  that  it  was  distributed  through  all  the  provinces  of 
the  kingdom.  Ch.  9  :  16.  The  permission  which  they  had  received  was 
' '  in  every  city  to  gather  themselves  together,  and  to  stand  for  their  life  ; 
to  destroy,  to  slay,  and  to  cause  to  perish,  all  the  jDower  of  the  people  and 
province  that  w^ould  assault  them,  both  little  ones  and  women,  and  to  take 
the  spoil  of  them  for  a  prey  "  (ch.  8 :  11) ;  all  which,  except  the  last  clause, 
seems  to  have  been  carried  into  execution.  We  are  not  required  to  vindi- 
cate the  wisdom  of  this  severe  decree,  or  to  deny  that  the  Jews  may  have 
used  to  excess  the  terrible  power  thus  conferred  upon  them.  On  the  side 
of  God's  providence,  the  vengeance  that  fell  upon  the  Jews'  enemies  was 
righteous  ;  but  on  the  side  of  the  human  instrumentalities  employed  by 
him,  there  may  have  been  much  imperfection,  or  even  folly  and  wicked- 
ness. So  it  has  ever  been  in  the  history  of  human  affairs,  and  so  it  is  at 
the  present  day. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  265 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

The  Poetical  ^ooks  (including  also  Ecclesiastes 
AND   Canticles). 

1.  The  Hebrews  reckon  but  three  books  as  poetical,  namely: 
Job,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs,  which  are  distinguished  from  the 
rest  by  a  stricter  rhythm — the  rhythm  not  of  feet,  but  of 
clauses  (see  below.  No.  3) — and  a  peculiar  system  of  accentua- 
tion. It  is  obvious  to  every  reader  that  the  poetry  of  the  Old 
Testament,  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word,  is  not  restricted  to 
these  three  books.  But  they  are  called  poetical  in  a  special 
and  technical  sense.  In  any  natural  classification  of  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  those  of  Ecclesiastes  and  Canticles  will 
fall  into  the  division  which  contains  the  books  of  Job,  Psalms, 
and  Proverbs. 

The  Hebrew  system  of  accentuation  is  very  subtle  and  comiDlicated, 
and  there  is  nothing  corresponding  to  it  in  our  western  languages.  These 
so-called  accents  are  quite  numerous,  one  of  them  resting,  as  a  general 
rule,  upon  each  word.  Certain  of  them  are  peculiar  to  the  poetical  books, 
and  are  called  poetical  accents.  They  serve  a  threefold  oflfice.  (1.)  They 
guide  the  modulated  flow  of  the  voice  in  cantillaiion,  thus  serving,  in  a  cer- 
tain sense,  as  musical  notes.  Some  think  that  this  was  their  primary  office. 
(2.)  They  indicate  the  logical  relation  to  each  other  of  the  words  and 
clauses,  thus  performing  the  office  of  marks  of  interpunction.  (3.)  They 
rest,  with  certain  exceptions,  on  the  tone  syllable,  and  thus  serve  as  accents 
in  our  restricted  sense  of  the  word. 

In  the  first  division  of  the  present  chapter,  the  cliaracteyis- 
tics  of  Hebrew  poetry  will  be  briefly  considered  in  respect  to  its 
spirit,  its  form,  and  its  offices.  Then  will  follow,  in  the  second 
division,  a  notice  of  the  contents  of  the  several  boohs. 

Comp.  to  riihie.  -I  Q 


266  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

(A.)   CHARACTEEISTICS  OF  HEBREW  POETRY. 

2.  As  it  respects  the  spirit  of  Hebrew  poetry,  we  notice, 
first  of  all,  its  perfect  harmony  ivifh  the  spirit  of  the  Theocracy. 
It  is,  in  truth,  an  outgrowth  of  the  Theocracy  in  the  souls  of 
holy  men  educated  under  its  influence  and  thoroughly  imbued 
with  its  spirit.  The  God  of  Moses  and  Aaron  is  also  the  God 
of  David,  Asaph,  and  Solomon ;  of  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Habak- 
kuk.  In  his  boldest  flights  the  Hebrew  poet  always  remains 
loyal  to  the  institutions  of  Moses,  not  in  their  letter  alone,  but 
much  more  in  their  spirit,  of  which  he  is  the  inspired  interpre- 
ter. The  same  Jehovah  who  thundered  from  Sinai  and  spake 
to  the  people  by  Moses,  speaks  also  by  the  sweet  psalmist  of 
Israel,  by  the  wisdom  of  Solomon,  and  by  the  whole  succession 
of  the  prophets.  Hence  the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews  is  radiant 
throughout  with  the  pure  monotheism  of  the  Theocracy.  It 
exhibits  God  in  his  infinite  perfections,  as  the  Creator  and 
sovereign  Ruler  of  the  world,  without  a  single  taint  of  panthe- 
ism or  polytheism,  and  that  in  an  age  when  pantheism  and 
polytheism  were  the  reigning  forms  of  religion  without  the  pale 
of  the  covenant  peojole. 

Another  distinguishing  mark  of  Hebrew  poetry  is  the  vivid 
consciousness  of  God's  joresence  by  which  it  is  pervaded.  In  this 
respect  it  runs  entirely  parallel  with  Hebrew  history.  It  has 
already  been  remarked  (Ch.  20,  No.  1)  that  Hebrew  history 
differs  widely  from  all  other  historical  writings  in  its  habit  of 
looking  at  the  course  of  human  events  from  the  Divine  side, 
rather  than  the  human ;  that  while  secular  history  is  mainly 
occupied  with  the  endless  details  of  human  combinations  and 
alliances,  and  the  progress  of  material  civilization,  the  histor- 
ical books  of  the  Old  Testament  unfold  to  us  with  wonderful 
clearness  God's  presence  and  power  as  shaping  the  course  of 
human  events  in  the  interest  of  his  great  plan  of  redemption. 
Take,  for  example,  that  small  section  of  Hebrew  history  com- 
prehended under  the  title.  Affinity  luith  Ahah.  No  Christian  can 
read  it  without  feelings  of  holy  awe,  for  it  is  radiant  through- 


THE   OLD   TESTAMENT.  2G7 

out  witli  the  presence  of  that  righteous  God  who  renders  to 
every  man  according  to  his  works,  and  visits  the  iniquity  of 
the  fathers  upon  the  children  to  the  third  and  fourth  genera- 
tion. In  it  the  retributive  justice  of  God  shines  forth,  like  the 
lightning,  from  one  end  of  heaven  to  the  other.  Just  so  is 
Hebrew  poetry  also  filled  with  the  presence  and  glory  of  God. 
When  the  Hebrew  bard  sweej)S  his  lyre,  all  nature  gives  signs- 
of  her  Maker's  presence.  The  heavens  rejoice  before  him,  the 
earth  is  glad,  the  sea  roars,  the  mountains  and  hills  break 
forth  into  singing,  and  all  the  trees  of  the  field  clap  their 
hands.  He  looks  on  the  earth,  and  it  trembles;  he  touches 
the  hills,  and  they  smoke.  Nor  less  conspicuous  is  his  pres- 
ence in  providence  and  in  the  human  soul.  He  is  seen  in  awful 
majesty  high  above  the  tumult  of  the  nations,  directing  their 
movements  to  the  accomplishment  of  his  own  infinitely  wise 
purposes ;  making  the  wrath  of  man  to  praise  him,  and  restrain- 
ing the  remainder  of  it.  Meanwhile  his  presence  shines  in  the 
believer's  soul,  like  the  sun  in  his  strength,  filling  it  with 
strength,  light,  and  gladness.  In  a  w^ord,  over  the  whole  do- 
main of  Hebrew  poesy,  whether  its  theme  be  God  or  nature 
or  human  society  or  the  human  spirit,  is  heard  continually  the 
solemn  cry  of  the  seraphim :  "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  is  the  Lord 
of  hosts :  the  whole  earth  is  full  of  his  glory." 

Originality  is  another  feature  of  Hebrew  poetry.  It  cannot 
indeed  be  said  that  this  quality  belongs  to  all  the  Hebrew 
poets.  With  such  divinely  perfect  models  as  the  later  writers 
had  before  them,  models  with  which  they  had  been  familiar 
from  childhood,  it  was  natural  that  they  should  imitate  them. 
The  spirit  of  inspiration  did  not  prevent  this,  for  it  was"  not 
necessary  to  the  ends  of  revelation  that  it  should  be  prevented. 
Yet  even  among  the  later  poets  we  have  some  striking  exam- 
ples of  originality ;  and  Hebrew  poetry,  taken  as  a  whole,  is 
original  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word,  borrowing  nothing 
that  we  know  of  from  any  other  nation.  Not  to  anticipate  the 
question  of  the  age  to  which  the  book  of  Job  belongs,  and 
passing  by  some  gems  of  poetry  contained  in  the  book  of  Gen- 


263  COMPANION  TO   THE   BIBLE. 

esis,  we  may  say  that  the  oldest  recorded  song  of  certain  date 
which  the  world  possesses  is  that  of  the  Israelites  upon  their 
deliverance  at  the  Ked  sea.  Exod.,  ch.  15.  Next  in  order  (to 
pass  by  the  poetic  effusions  of  Balaam,  and  some  other  frag- 
ments, Numb.,  chaps.  21-24)  come  the  song  which  Moses  wrote 
for  the  children  of  Israel  just  before  his  death  (Deut.,  ch.  32), 
and  (according  to  the  title,  the  genuineness  of  which  there  is 
no  valid  reason  for  doubting)  "  the  prayer  of  Moses  the  man 
of  God,"  contained  in  the  ninetieth  psalm.  In  the  period  of 
the  judges  we  hare  only  the  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak.  The 
perfect  originality  of  all  these  primitive  songs  is  acknowledged 
})y  all.  It  constitutes  indeed  one  of  their  chief  charms.  With 
"  the  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel"  began  'the  era  of  lyric  song ;  with 
Solomon  that  of  didactic,  and  with  Hosea,  Joel,  Isaiah,  and 
their  contemporaries,  that  of  prophetic  poetry.  The  poets  to 
whom,  under  the  illumination  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  these  differ- 
ent forms  of  Hebrew  poetry  owe  their  origin,  are  all  distin- 
guished for  their  originality.  So  is  also  the  book  of  Job,  that 
great  didactic  song  so  perfectly  unique  in  its  character. 

The  wonderful  freshness  and  simplicity  of  ihougld  in  Hebrew 
poetr}'  is  Id  separably  connected  with  its  originality.  A  thought 
is  fresh  when  it  bursts  forth  directly  from  the  inner  fountain  of 
the  soul  just  as  it  was  conceived  there.  But  the  moment  the 
man  pauses  to  remould  it  and  shape  it  to  some  artificial  stand- 
ard of  propriety,  it  loses  its  originality  and  its  freshness  to- 
gether. It  is  no  longer  the  living,  glowing  conception  as  it 
existed  in  his  bosom,  but  rather  what  he  thinks  it  ought  to 
have  been.  In  the  process  of  working  it  over  he  has  killed,  if 
not  its  life,  at  least  its  power.  But  the  Hebrew  poet  opens,  so 
to  speak,  the  floodgates  of  his  heart,  and  pours  forth  the  stream 
of  his  thoughts  and  emotions  just  as  they  have  sprung  into 
being  there.  Because  he  is  under  the  sanctifying  and  illumi- 
nating influence  of  the  divine  Spirit,  they  are  high  and  holy 
thoughts.  Because  they  come  forth  in  their  primitive  form, 
they  are  natural  and  fresh ;  and  for  this  reason  the  lapse  of 
ages  does  not  diminish  their  power  over  the  human  spirit. 


THE  OLD   TESTAMENT.  25:) 

Intimately  connected  also  with  the  originality  of  Hebrew 
poetry  is  its  charming  variety.  The  Hebrew  poets  are  exceed- 
ingly unlike  each  other  in  native  character,  in  training,  in  sur- 
rounding circumstances,  and  in  the  nature  of  the  work  laid 
upon  them  by  the  Spirit  of  inspiration.  And  as  they  all  write 
in  a  natural  and  appropriate  way,  it  follows  that  their  writings 
must  exhibit  great  diversities.  No  two  writers  can  well  bo 
more  unlike  each  other  than  Isaiah  and  the  author  of  the  book 
of  Job.  With  Isaiah  the  central  object  of  thought  is  always 
Zion,  in  whose  interest  he  sees  God  governing  the  world,  and 
whose  future' glory  is  revealed  to  him  in  prophetic  vision.  But 
Zion  is  not  an  individual.  She  is  a  divine  organization  which 
God  has  destined  to  universal  victory,  and  around  which  re- 
volve, under  his  almighty  guidance,  the  great  movements  of 
the  heathen  nations.  The  prophet,  accordingly,  has  to  do  not 
so  much  with  particular  persons,  as  with  the  destiny  of  society, 
which  is  involved  in  that  of  Zion.  He  describes  her  present 
conflicts  and  her  future  triumphs  in  his  own  peculiar  and  gor- 
geous imagery.  But  the  problem  before  the  author  of  the 
book  of  Job  is  GocVs  providence  toiuards  individuals,  as  viewed 
from  the  position  of  the  Old  Testament  before  the  fuller  reve- 
lations of  the  New.  He  is  occupied  with  the  destiny  of  par- 
ticular persons,  rather  than  of  nations  or  of  human  society  at 
large.  To  the  solution  of  the  question  of  God's  justice  towards 
individual  man  he  directs  all  his  energy,  and  he  discusses  this 
great  theme  in  a  manner  as  efiective  as  it  is  original.  His 
imagery  is  as  forcible  as  that  of  Isaiah,  but  how  different,  and 
how  powerfully  adapted  to  his  end !  A  few  passages  from  each 
of  these  great  poets,  set  side  by  side,  will  exhibit  the  contrast 
be*tween  them  in  a  striking  manner. 

JOB.  ISAIAH 

THE  PEOSPEBITY  OF  THE  RIGHTEOUS.  THE  PROSPERITY  OF  ZION, 

He  shall  deliver  thee  in  six  troub-  Violence  shall  no  more  be  heard 

les  :  yea,  in  seven  there  shall  no  evil  in  thy  land,  wasting  nor  destruction 

touch  thee.     In  famine  he  shall  re-  within  thy  borders ;  but  thou  shalt 

deem  thee  from  death  :  and  in  war  call  thy  walls  Salvation,  and  thy  gates 


270 


COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


from  the  power  of  the  sword.  Thou 
shalt  be  hid  from  the  scourge  of  the 
tongue  :  neither  shalt  thou  be  afraid 
of  destruction  when  it  cometh.  At 
destruction  and  famine  thou  shalt 
laugh  :  neither  shalt  thou  be  afraid 
of  the  beasts  of  the  earth.  For  thou 
shalt  be  in  league  with  the  stones  of 
the  field  :  and  the  beasts  of  the  field 
shall  be  at  peace  with  thee.  And 
thou  shalt  know  that  thy  tabernacle 
shall  be  in  peace ;  and  thou  shalt 
visit  thy  habitation,  and  shalt  not 
sin.  Thou  shalt  know  also  that  thy 
seed  shall  be  great,  and  thine  off- 
spring as  the  grass  of  the  earth. 
Thou  shalt  come  to  thy  grave  in  a 
full  age,  like  as  a  shock  of  corn  com- 
eth in  in  his  season.     Ch.  5  :  19-26. 

JOB. 

THE  OVEBTHEOW  OF  THE  WICKED. 

He  shall  flee  from  the  iron  weap- 
on, and  the  bow  of  steel  shall  strike 
him  through.  It  is  drawn,  and  com- 
eth out  of  the  body ;  yea,  the  glitter- 
ing sword  cometh  out  of  his  gall : 
terrors  are  upon  him.  All  darkness 
shaU  be  hid  in  his  secret  jjlaces  :  a 
fire  not  blown  shall  consume  him ; 
it  shall  go  ill  with  him  that  is  left  in 
his  tabernacle.  The  heaven  shall  re- 
veal his  iniquity;  and  the  earth  shall 
rise  up  against  him.  The  increase 
of  his  house  shall  depart,  and  his 
goods  shall  fiow  away  in  the  day  of 
his  wrath.     Ch.  20  :  24^28. 


Praise.  The  sun  shall  be  no  more 
thy  light  by  day  ;  neither  for  bright- 
ness shall  the  moon  give  Hght  unto 
thee:  but  the  Lord  shall  be  unto  thee 
an  everlasting  light,  and  thy  God  thy 
glory.  Thy  sun  shall  no  more  go 
down  ;  neither  shall  thy  moon  with- 
draw itself  :  for  the  Lord  shall  be 
thine  everlasting  light,  and  the  days 
of  thy  mourning  shall  be  ended. 
Thy  people  also  shall  be  aU  right- 
e6us :  they  shall  inherit  the  land  for- 
ever, the  branch  of  my  planting,  the 
work  of  my  hands,  that  I  may  be 
glorified.  A  little  one  shall  become 
a  thousand,  and  a  small  one  a  strong 
nation  :  I  the  Lord  will  hasten  it  in 
his  time.     Ch.  60  :  18-22. 


ISAIAH. 

THE  OVEKTHKOW  OF  ZION's  ENEMIES. 

For  he  bringeth  down  them  that 
dwell  on  high  ;  the  lofty  city,  he  lay- 
eth  it  low  ;  he  layeth  it  low,  even  to 
the  ground ;  he  bringeth  it  even  to 
the  dust.  The  foot  shall  tread  it 
down,  even  the  feet  of  the  poor,  and 
the  steps  of  the  needy.     Ch.  26:5,  6. 

For  I  will  contend  with  him  that 
contendeth  with  thee,  and  I  will  save 
th}^  children.  And  I  will  feed  them 
that  oppress  thee  with  their  own 
flesh ;  and  they  shall  be  drunken 
with  their  own  blood,  as  with  sweet 
wine :  and  all  flesh  shall  know  that  I 
the  Lord  am  thy  Saviour  and  thy 
Redeemer,  the  mighty  one  of  Jacob. 
Ch.  49  :  25,  26. 


•  If  now  we  open  tlie  book  of  Psalms,  we  find  ourselves  in  a 
new  world  of  poetry,  as  different  from  that  of  Isaiali  as  it  is 
from  that  of  the  book  of  Job.     David  was  anointed  bv  God  to 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  271 

be  the  head  and  leader  of  Israel.  As  sucli  he  had  a  perpetual 
outward  conflict  with  powerful,  crafty,  and  malicious  foes,  who 
sought  his  life  and  his  kingdom.  This  brought  to  him  a  per- 
petual inward  conflict  with  doubts  and  fears.  Under  the  pres- 
sure of  this  double  conflict  he  penned  those  wonderful  psalms, 
wliLch  are  the  embodiment  of  his  whole  religious  life.  And 
since  heart  answers  to  heart,  as  face  to  face  in  water,  they  are 
the  embodiment  of  religious  life  in  all  ages.  The  songs  of 
David  and  his  illustrious  collaborators,  Asaph  and  the  sons  of 
Korah,  are  emphatically  the  poetry  of  religious  experience. 
As  such  they  can  never  grow  old.  They  are  as  fresh  to-day  as 
when  they  were  written.  God  has  given  them  to  his  church  as 
a  rich  treasury  for  "  the  service  of  song  in  the  house  of  the 
Lord,"  in  the  family,  and  in  the  closet.  If  we  turn  from  the 
book  of  Psalms  to  the  book  of  Proverbs,  we  have  still  another 
type  of  poetry,  unlike  any  one  of  the  forms  hitherto  consid- 
ered. It  is  the  poetry  of  reflection  on  the  course  of  human  life, 
as  seen  in  the  light  of  God's  law  and  God's  providence.  It  is, 
therefore,  didactic  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word — the  poetry 
of  practical  life.  The  maxims  of  heavenly  wisdom  embodied  in 
the  book  of  Proverbs  will  make  all  who  study  them,  believe 
them,  and  obey  them,  prosperous  in  this  life  and  happy  in  the 
life  to  come.  This  contrast  between  the  great  Hebrew  poets 
might  be  carried  through  the  whole  galaxy,  but  the  above  hints 
must  suffice. 

Diversity  of  themes  often  coincides  with  difference  in  the 
character  of  the  poets.  Where  the  theme  is  the  same,  each 
writer  will  still  pursue  his  own  peculiar  method.  If  that  theme 
be  the  vengeance  of  God  on  the  wicked,  the  style  will  naturally 
be  rugged  and  abrupt.  Yet  the  ruggedness  and  abruptness  of 
David  will  not  be  that  of  Hosea  or  Nahum.  But  where  both 
the  theme  and  the  character  of  the  poet  differ,  there  the  diver- 
sity of  style  becomes  very  striking.  To  illustrate  this,  take  the 
two  following  passages : 


272 


COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE, 


NAHUM. 

god's  vengeance  on  the  wicked. 

The  mountains  quake  at  him,  and 
the  hills  melt,  and  the  earth  is  burn- 
ed at  his  presence,  yea,  the  world, 
and  all  that  dwell  therein.  Who  can 
stand  befoj-e  his  indignation  ?  and 
who  can  abide  in  the  fierceness  of 
his  anger  ?  his  fury  is  poured  out 
like  fire,  and  the  rocks  are  thrown 
down  by  him.  The  Lord  is  good,  a 
strong  hold  in  the  day  of  trouble  ; 
and  he  knoweth  them  that  trust  in 
him.  But  with  an  overrunning 
flood  he  will  make  an  utter  end  of 
the  place  thereof,  and  darkness  shall 
pursue  his  enemies.     Nahum  1 : 5-8. 


DAVID. 

god's  EAVOl;  TO  THE  EIGHTEOUS. 

The  Lord  is  my  shepherd  ;  I  shall 
not  want.  He  maketh  me  to  lie 
down  in  green  j^astures  :  he  leadeth 
me  beside  the  still  waters.  He  re- 
storeth  my  soul :  he  leadeth  me  in 
the  paths  of  righteousness  for  his 
name's  sake.  Yea,  though  I  walk 
through  tlie  valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death,  I  will  fear  no  evil :  for  thou 
art  .with  me;  thy  rod  and  thy  staff 
they  comfort  me.  Thou  preparest 
a  table  before  me  in  the  presence  of 
mine  enemies  :  thou  anointest  my 
head  with  oil ;  my  cup  runneth  over. 
Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  fol- 
low me  all  the  days  of  my  life  ;  and 
I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord 
for  ever.     Psa.  23. 


The  passage  from  Nalmm  is  like  a  pent-up  mountain  stream 
leaping  from  precipice  to  precipice.  The  psalm  is  like  the 
same  stream  escaped  to  the  plain,  and  winding  its  way  gently 
and  placidly  through  green  meadows  and  shady  groves  vocal 
with  the  songs  of  birds.  This  subject  might  be  pursued  to  an 
indefinite  extent.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Hebrew  poetry  has  the 
charm  of  endless  variety,  always  with  graceful  adaptation  to 
the  nature  of  the  theme. 

The  oriental  imagery  in  which  Hebrew  poetry  abounds  im- 
parts to  it  a  peculiar  and  striking  costume.  Palestine  was,  in 
an  emphatic  sense,  the  Hebrew  poet's  world.  It  was  the  land 
given  by  God  to  his  fathers  for  an  everlasting  possession ;  about 
which  all  his  warm  affections  clustered ;  with  whose  peculiar 
scenery  and  climate,  employments  and  associations,  all  his 
thoughts  and  feelings  had  been  blended  from  childhood.  It 
followed  of  necessity  that  these  must  all  wear  an  oriental  cos- 
tume. As  soon  as  he  opens  his  mouth  there  comes  forth  a 
stream   of  eastern  imagery,  very  natural  and  appropriate  to 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  2/,'] 

liim,  but  much  of  it  very  strange  to  us  of  these  western  regions. 
To  understand  the  extent  of  this  characteristic  one  has  only  to 
peruse  the  Song  of  Solomon.  The  bride  is  black  but  comely 
as  the  tents  of  Kedar,  as  the  curtains  of  Solomon.  She  is  a 
dove  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock ;  her  hair  is  as  a  flock  of  goats, 
that  appear  from  Mount  Gilead ;  her  teeth  are  like  a  flock  of 
sheep  which  come  from  the  washing ;  her  lips  are  like  a  thread 
of  scarlet ;  her  temples  are  like  a  piece  of  a  pomegranate  ;  her 
stature  is  like  a  palm  tree,  and  her  breasts  like  clusters  of 
grapes  —  all  thoroughly  oriental.  So  also  the  bridegroom  is 
like  a  roe  or  a  young  hart  leaping  upon  the  mountains  ;  his 
eyes  are  as  the  eyes  of  doves  by  the  rivers  of  waters ;  his  cheeks 
are  as  a  bed  of  spices ;  his  lips  like  lilies,  dropping  sweet- 
smelling  myrrh,  and  his  countenance  as  Lebanon,  excellent  as 
the  cedars.  So  also  if  we  open  the  book  of  Isaiah,  we  find  the 
Messiah  described  as  "  the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  a  weary 
land" — a  figure  which  could  not  well  occur  to  an  Englishman 
or  an  American,  but  was  perfectly  natural  in  the  mouth  of  a 
Hebrew  familiar  with  the  terrible  sun  of  the  Asiatic  deserts, 
where  neither  tree  nor  cloud  offers  a  shelter  to  the  thirsty  and 
fainting  traveller.  Precisely  here  lies  much  of  the  obscurity  of" 
which  the  expounders  of  Hebrew  poetry  complain.  True,  there 
are  other  difficulties  of  a  formidable  character.  The  theme  is 
often  vast,  stretching  into  the  distant  and  dimly-revealed  future ; 
the  language  rugged  with  abrupt  transitions,  the  historic  allu- 
sions obscure,  and  the  meaning  of  the  terms  employed  doubt- 
ful. But  aside  from  all  these  considerations  the  western 
scholar  encounters  a  perpetual  difficulty  in  the  fact  that  he  is 
not  of  oriental  birth,  and  can  enter  but  imperfectly  into  the 
spirit  and  force  of  oriental  imagery.  What  costs  him  days  of 
laborious  investigation  would  open  itself  like  a  flash  of  light- 
ning to  his  apprehension — all  except  that  which  remains  dark 
from  the  nature  of  the  prophetic  themes — could  he  but  have 
that  perfect  apprehension  of  the  language,  the  historic  allu- 
sions, the  imagery  employed,  and  the  modes  of  thought,  which 
was  possessed  by  the  contemporaries  of  the  Hebrew  poet. 

12* 


274  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

It  remains  that  we  notice  in  the  last  place  what  may  be 
called  the  theocratic  imagei^y  of  the  Hebrew  poets  ;  that  is,  im- 
agery borrowed  from  the  institutions  of  the  Mosaic  law.  The 
intense  loyalty  of  the  Hebrew  poets  to  the  Mosaic  law  has 
already  been  noticed.  They  were  its  divinely-appointed  expos- 
itors and  defenders,  and  their  whole  religious  life  was  moulded 
by  it.  No  wonder,  tlien,  that  their  writings  abound  with  allu- 
sions to  its  rites  and  usages.  The  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel  will 
abide  in  God's  tabernacle  for  ever,  and  trust  in  the  covert  of 
his  wings,  the  literal  tabernacle  on  Zion  representing  God's 
spiritual  presence  here  and  his  beatific  presence  hereafter 
(Psa.  61 : 4  and  elsewhere) ;  he  will  have  his  prayer  set  forth 
before  God  as  incense,  and  the  lifting  up  of  his  hands  as  the 
evening  sacrifice  (Psa.  141 : 2) ;  he  will  be  purged  with  hyssop 
that  he  may  be  clean,  and  washed  that  he  may  be  whiter  than 
snow  (Psa.  51 :  7) ;  he  will  offer  to  God  the  sacrifice  of  a  broken 
spirit  (Psa.  51 :  17) ;  the  people  promise  to  render  to  God  the 
calves  of  their  lips  (Hosea  14 : 2) ;  the  vengeance  of  God  upon 
Edom  is  described  as  "a  sacrifice  in  Bozrah,  and  a  great 
slaughter  in  the  land  of  Idumea,"  in  which  the  Lord's  sword 
shall  be  filled  with  the  blood  of  lambs  and  goats  and  the  fat  of 
the  kidneys  of  rams  (Isa.  34  :  6) ;  with  allusions  to  the  Levitical 
sprinklings  God  promises  that  he  will  sprinkle  upon  his  peni- 
tent and  restored  people  clean  water  that  they  may  be  clean 
(Ezek.  36  :  25) ;  and  with  allusion  to  the  sacrificial  flocks  assem- 
bled at  Jerusalem  on  the  occasion  of  her  great  festivals,  that 
he  will  increase  them  with  men  like  a  flock — "as  the  holy 
flock,  as  the  flock  of  Jerusalem  in  her  solemn  feasts ;  so  shall 
the  waste  cities  be  filled  with  flocks  of  men"  (Ezek.  36  :  37,  38). 
How  full  the  book  of  Psalms  is  of  allusions  to  the  solemn  songs 
of  the  sanctuary  with  their  accompaniment  of  psaltery  and 
harp,  trumpet  and  cornet,  every  reader  understands.  This 
subject  might  be  expanded  indefinitely,  but  the  above  hints 
must  sufiice. 

3.  We  come  now  to  the  form  of  Hebrew  poetry.  This  is 
distinguished  from  the  classic  poetry  of  Greece  and  Rome,  as 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  275 

well  as  from  all  modern  poetry  by  the  absence  of  metrical  feet. 
Its  rhythm  is  that  of  clauses  which  correspond  to  each  other  in 
a  sort  of  free  parallelism,  as  was  long  ago  shown  by  Bishop 
Lowth  in  his  Prelections  an  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews, 
the  matter  of  which  has  been  revised  and  expanded  in  later 
treatises.  Herein,  as  elsewhere,  Hebrew  poetry  asserts  its 
originality  and  independence.  Biblical  scholars  recognize 
three  fundamental  forms  of  parallelism  in  Hebrew  poetry, 
which  will  be  briefly  considered,  first  separately,  and  then  in 
their  combinations. 

The  first  is  the  antithetic  form,  where  two  parallel  members 
are  contrasted  in  meaning,  a  form  peculiarly  adapted  to  didac- 
tic poetry,  and  therefore  occurring  most  abundantly  in  the  book 
of  Proverbs.     The  following  are  examples  of  it : 

The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed  : 

But  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot  (Peov.  10  :  7)  ; 

where,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  each  clause  consists  of  three 
words.  In  such  an  antithetic  parallelism  the  words  of  one 
couplet,  at  least,  must  correspond  in  meaning,  as  here  memory 
and  name;  while  the  others  are  in  contrast— ^/«s^  and  luiched, 
is  blessed  and  sliall  rot.  Sometimes  the  two  clauses  are  to  be 
mutually  supplied  from  each  other,  thus  : 

A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father  : 

But  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother  (Peov.  10  : 1)  ; 

where  the  reader  understands  that  a  wise  son  is  the  joy,  and  a 
foolish  son  the  grief  of  both  father  and  mother. 

The  second  form  is  the  synonymous,  where  the  same  general 
thought  is  repeated  in  two  or  more  clauses.  It  is  found  abun- 
dantly in  the  whole  range  of  Hebrew  poetry,  but  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  that  which  is  of  a  placid  and  contemplative  charac- 
ter. Sometimes  the  parallel  clauses  simply  repeat  the  same 
thought  in  different  words ;  in  other  cases  there  is  only  a  gene- 
ral resemblance.     Examples  are  the  following  : 

He  that  sitteth  in  the  heavens  shall  laugh  : 

The  Lord  shall  have  them  in  derision.     Psa.  2  :  4. 


'A16  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

For  thou,  Lord,  wilt  bless  the  righteous  : 

With  favor  wilt  thou  compass  him  as  with  a  shield.     PsA.  5  :  12. 

Perish  the  day  wherein  I  was  born  ; 

And  the  night  in  which  it  was  said,  There  is  a  man  child  conceived. 

Job  3  : 3. 

Hear  the  word  of  the  Lord,  ye  rulers  of  Sodom  : 

Give  ear  unto  the  law  of  our  God,  ye  people  of  Gomorrah. 

IsA.  1  :  10. 

In  the  following  example  we  have  a  compound  synonymous 
couplet : 

Give  them  according  to  their  deeds, 
According  to  the  wickedness  of  their  endeavors  : 
Give  them  after  the  work  of  their  hands, 
Render  to  them  their  desert.     Psa.  28  :  4. 

Sometimes  three  or  more  parallel  clauses  occur,  thus  : 

When  your  fear  cometh  as  desolation, 

And  your  destruction  cometh  as  a  whirlwind  ; 

Wlien  distress  and  anguish  cometh  ui^on  you.      Peov.  1  :  27. 

Who  forgiveth  all  thine  iniquities  ; 

Who  healeth  all  thy  diseases  ; 

Who  redeemeth  thy  hfe  from  destruction  ; 

Who  crowneth  thee  with  loving-kindness  and  tender  mercies ; 

Who  satisfieth  thy  mouth  with  good  things ; 

Thy  youth  is  renewed  like  the  eagle's.     Psa.  103  :  3-5. 

In  the  preceding  example,  synonymous  parallelism  passes 
into  simiole  enumeration.  So  often  with  a  succession  of  short 
clauses,,  or  shorter  and  longer  clauses,  where  the  poetry  of  the 
Hebrews  assumes  the  freedom  of  prose,  thus : 

Who  hath  woe  ? 

Who  hath  sorrow  ? 

Who  hath  contentions  ? 

Who  hath  babbling  ? 

Who  hath  wounds  without  cause  ? 

Who  hath  redness  of  eyes  ?    Peov.  23  :  39. 

Ah  sinful  nation ; 

A  people  laden  with  iniquity  ; 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  27'/ 

A  seed  of  evil-doers ; 
>  Corrupt  children  : 

They  have  forsaken  the  Lord ; 

They  have  despised  the  Holy  One  of  Israel ; 

They  have  gone  away  backward.     Isa.  1 : 4. 

The  parallel  clauses  are  frequently  introduced  or  followed 
by  a  single  clause,  thus  : 

Blessed  is  the  man 
Who  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the  ungodly ; 
And  standeth  not  in  the  way  of  sinners  ; 
And  sitteth  not  in  the  seat  of  scorners.     Psa.  1 : 1. 

Hear,  O  heavens  ; 
Give  ear,  O  earth  ; 

For  the  Lord  hath  spoken.     Isa.  1 :  2. 

The  third  form  of  parallelism  is  called  synthetic  (Greek  syn- 
thesis f  a  putting  together),  where  one  clause  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  sense  of  the  other,  as  in  the  following  examples : 

Better  is  a  dinner  of  herbs  w^here  love  is, 

Than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  therewith.     Pkov.  15  :  16. 

Every  way  of  a  man  is  right  in  his  own  eyes ; 
But  the  Lord  pondereth  the  hearts.     Peov.  21  :  2. 

Whoso  curseth  his  father  and  his  mother, 

His  lamp  shall  be  put  out  in  obscure  darkness.     Pkov.  20  :  20. 

The  connection  between  the  two  clauses  may  be  that  of 
comparison,  cause,  effect,  etc.  Sometimes.it  is  not  expressed, 
but  simply  implied,  as  in  the  following : 

A  whip  for  the  horse, 

A  bridle  for  the  ass. 

And  a  rod  for  the  fool's  back.     Peov.  26  :  3. 

The  combinations  of  the  above  forms  in  Hebrew  poetry  are 
exceedingly  varied  and  graceful.  Here  are  examples  of  two 
synonymous  couplets  that  are  antithetic  to  each  other: 

The  ox  knoweth  his  owner, 

And  the  ass  his  master's  crib  : 

Israel  doth  not  know. 

My  people  doth  not  consider.     Isa.  1  : 3. 


278  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  Lord  bringeth  the  counsel  of  the  heathen  to  naught ; 

He  maketh  the  devices  of  the  people  of  none  effect. 

The  counsel  of  the  Lord  standeth  for  ever ; 

The  thoughts  of  his  heart  to  all  generations.     Psa.  33  :  10,  11. 

In  the  following  example,  two  synonymous  couplets  consti- 
tute together  a  synthetic  parallelism : 

Because  they  regard  not  the  works  of  the  Lord, 

Nor  the  operation  of  his  hands, 

He  shall  destroy  them, 

And  not  build  them  up.     Psa.  28  :  5. 

In  the  following,  three  synthetic  parallelisms  make  a  synony- 
mous triplet : 

For  as  the  heaven  is  high  above  the  earth. 

So  great  is  his  mercy  toward  them  that  fear  him  : 

As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west, 

So  far  hath  he  removed  our  transgressions  from  us  : 

Like  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children, 

So  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him.     Psa.  103  :  11-13. 

But  our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  pursue  this  subject  far- 
ther. The  freedom  of  the  Hebrew  poet  is  one  of  his  high  pre- 
rogatives. He  is  not  a  slave  to  form,  but  uses  form  as  it  suits 
his  purposes.  He  blends  together  the  different  kinds  of  paral- 
lelism as  he  pleases.  Often  he  breaks  through  all  parallelism 
to  the  freedom  of  prose.  But  he  soon  returns  again,  because 
this  measured  rhythm  of  clauses  is  to  him  the  natural  costume 
of  poetic  thought,  which  always  seeks  to  embody^  itself  in  some 
form  of  rhythm. 

To  the  form  of  Hebrew  poetry  belongs  also  its  jDecuUar  dic- 
tion. To  one  who  reads  the  Hebrew  poets  in  the  original,  this 
is  a  striking  characteristic.  He  meets  with  words,  and  some- 
times with  grammatical  forms,  that  do  not  occur  in  the  prose 
writers.  Many  of  these  peculiar  words  are  Aramecm;  that  is, 
they  are  words  current  in  the  Aramean  branch  of  the  Shemitic 
languages.  Chap.  14,  No.  1.  They  are  to  be  regarded  as 
archaisms — old  words  that  were  once  common  alike  to  the 
Hebrew    and    the    kindred   Aramean,   but    which   have    been 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  279      ^ 

dropped  out  of  prose  usage  in  Hebrew.  They  must  not  be 
confounded,  as  lias  too  often  been  done,  with  true  Aramaisms, 
that  is,  Aramean  words  and  forms  borrowed  by  later  Hebrew 
writers  from  their  intercourse  with  those  who  spoke  Aramean. 

4.  As  it  respects  the  office  of  Hebrew  poetry,  it  is  through- 
out subservient  to  the  interests  of  revealed  religion.  This  is 
imiDlied  in  what  has  been  already  said  of  the  loyalty  of  the 
Hebrew  poets  to  the  institutions  of  the  Theocracy.  It  follows 
that  the  poetry  of  the  Bible  is  all  sacred  in  its  character.  It 
contains  no  examples  of  purely  secular  poetry  except  here  and 
there  a  short  passage  which  comes  in  as  a  part  of  history ;  for 
example,  the  words  of  "  those  that  speak  in  proverbs,"  Numb. 
21:27-30;  perhaps  also  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and  . 
Jonathan.  2  Sam.  1 :  19-27.  It  is  certain  that  the  song  con- 
tained in  the  forty-fifth  psalm  and  that  of  the  Canticles  were 
received  into  the  canon  solely  on  the  ground  that  they  cele- 
brate the  mutual  love  between  God  and  the  covenant  people, 
considered  as  his  bride;  or,  in  New  Testament  language, 
between  Christ  and  "the  bride,  the  Lamb's  wife." 

But  sacred  poetry  has  various  uses.  One  of  its  earliest 
offices  was  to  celebrate  the  praises  of  God  for  his  interposition 
in  behalf  of  his  covenant  people,  as  in  the  song  of  the  Israel- 
ites at  the  Ked  sea,  and  that  of  Deborah  and  Barak.  But 
when  David  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Israel,  the  time  had 
now  come  for  introducing  lyric  poetry  as  a  permament  part  of 
the  sanctuary  service.  God  accordingly  bestowed  upon  this 
monarch  the  needful  inward  gifts,  and  placed  him  in  the  appro- 
priate outward  circumstances ;  when  at  once  there  gushed  forth 
from  his  bosom,  smit  by  the  spirit  of  inspiration,  that  noble 
stream  of  lyric  song,  which  the  congregation  of  the  faithful 
immediately  consecrated  to  the  public  service  of  the  sanctuary, 
and  which,  augmented  by  the  contributions  of  Asaph,  the  sons 
of  Korah,  and  other  inspired  poets,  has  been  the  rich  inherit- 
ance of  the  church  ever  since.  In  the  book  of  Job,  sacred 
poetry  occupies  itself  with  the  mighty  problem  of  the  justice  of 
God's  providential  government   over   men.     It   is,   therefore, 


280  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

essentially  didactic  in  its  character.  In  the  Proverbs  of  Solo- 
mon, it  becomes  didactic  in  the  fullest  sense ;  for  here  it  moves 
in  the  sphere  of  practical  life  and  morals.  The  book  of  Eccle- 
siastes  has  for  its  theme  the  vanity  of  this  world,  (Considered 
as  a  satisfying  portion  of  the  soul;  and  this  it  discusses  in  a 
poetic  form.  Finally,  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament 
exhaust  all  the  wealth  of  Hebrew  poetry  in  rebuking  the  sins 
of  the  present  time,  foretelling  the  mighty  judgments  of  God 
upon  the  wicked,  lamenting  the  present  sorrows  of  Zion,  and 
portraying  her  future  glories  in  connection  with  the  advent  of 
the  promised  Messiah.  The  Hebrew  harp — whoever  sweeps  it, 
and  whether  its  strains  be  jubilant  or  sad,  didactic  or  emo- 
tional, is  ever  consecrated  to  God  and  the  cause  of  righteous- 
ness. 

(B.)     THE   SEVERAL   POETICAL  BOOKS. 

I.    JOB. 

5.  The  design  of  the  book  of  Job  will  best  aj^pear  if  we 
first  take  a  brief  survey  of  its  plan.  Job,  a  man  eminent  above 
all  others  for  his  piety  and  uprightness,  is  accused  by  Satan 
as  serving  God  from  mercenary  motives.  To  show  the  false- 
hood of  this  charge,  God  permits  Satan  to  take  from  the  patri- 
arch his  property  and  his  children,  and  afterwards  to  smite  him 
with  a  loathsome  and  distressing  disease.  Thus  stripped  of 
every  thing  that  could  make  life  valuable,  he  still  holds  fast  his 
integrity,  and  returns  to  his  wife,  who  counsels  him  to  "curse 
God  and  die,"  the  discreet  and  pious  answer :  "  Shall  we  receive 
good  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  and  shall  we  not  receive  evil?" 
His  three  friends,  who  have  come  to  comfort  him,  amazed  and 
confounded  at  the  greatness  of  his  calamities,  sit  down  with 
him  in  silence  for  seven  days.  At  last  Job  opens  his  mouth 
with  vehement  expressions  of  grief  and  impatience,  and  curses 
the  day  of  his  birth.  The  three  friends  sharply  rebuke  him, 
and  in  a  threefold  round  of  addresses  (only  that  the  third 
time  Zopliar  fails  to  speak),  enter  into  an  earnest  controversy 
with  him  assuming  the  false  ground  that  the  administration 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  281 

of  God's  government  over  this  world  is  strictly  retributive,  so 
that  special  calamity  comes  only  as  a  punishment  for  special 
wickedness,  and  is  therefore  itself  a  proof  of  snch  wickedness. 
They  accordingly  exhort  him  to  repent  of  his  sins,  and  seek 
God's  forgiveness,  as  the  sure  means  of  removing  his  present 
misfortunes.  Conscious  of  his  integrity.  Job,  with  much  warmth 
and  asperity,  repels  their  unjust  charges,  and  refutes  their  false 
arguments  by  an  appeal  to  facts.  The  ground  he  takes  is  that, 
by  some  inscrutable  plan  of  God,  calamity  comes  alike  upon 
good  and  bad  men.  He  passionatelj'  beseeches  God  to  show 
him  why  he  thus  deals  with  him;  and,  according  as  faith  or 
despondency  prevails  in  his  soul,  he  sometimes  expresses  the 
hope  that  he  shall  come  out  of  his  troubles  like  gold  tried  in 
the  fire;  and  then,  again,  the  fear  that  he  shall  speedily  sink 
down  to  the  grave  under  the  weight  of  his  sorrows,  and  never- 
more see  good.  Having  put  to  silence  his  three  friends  by  an 
array  of  facts  to  which  they  can  make  no  reply,  he  freely  ex- 
presses the  belief  that  the  hypocrite's  end  shall  be  destruction 
(chap.  27) ;  shows  that  the  wisdom  by  which  God  governs  the 
world  is  above  man's  comprehension,  whose  true  wisdom  lies 
in  fearing  and  obeying  his  Maker  (chap.  28) ;  contrasts  his 
present  calamities  with  his  former  prosperity  (chaps.  29,  30) ; 
and  closes  with  a  solemn  protestation  of  his  integrity  (chap.  31). 
Elihu,  a  young  man  who  has  hitherto  been  a  silent  witness 
of  the  controversy,  now  takes  up  the  argument  on  the  ground 
that  trouble  is  sent  by  God  upon  men  as  a  cUscipline,  that  by  it 
they  may  be  made  aware  of  their  errors  and  infirmities ;  and 
that,  if  they  make  a  right  improvement  of  it,  by  bearing  it  with 
patient  submission  and  looking  to  God  in  penitence  and  pra3^er 
for  its  removal,  it  will  end  in  renewed  and  higher  prosperity. 
To  show  the  unreasonableness  of  charging  upon  God  injustice, 
he  dwells  at  length  upon  his  infinite  majesty  and  greatness. 
The  special  ground  of  Job's  trial,  as  given  in  the  first  two  chap- 
ters, Elihu  could  not  of  course  understand.  But  his  general 
position  in  regard  to  human  afflictions  is  right ;  and  it  should 
be  carefully  noticed  that  their  issue  as  described  by  him  in  the 


282  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

case  of  a  good  man — an  imperfectly  good  man  under  a  system 
of  grace — is  precisely  wliat  happens  to  Job  when  he  humbles 
himself  before  his  Maker. 

As  Elihu's  discourse  was  drawing  towards  a  close,  the  signs 
of  God's  approach  had  already  begun  to  manifest  themselves 
(chap.  37).  Now  he  addresses  Job  out  of  the  whirlwind,  rebu- 
king  him  for  his  presumptuous  language,  and  setting  before 
him  His  infinite  perfections,  manifested  in  the  creation  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  world,  as  a  sufficient  proof  that  to  arraign  His 
justice  at  the  bar  of  human  reason  is  folly  and  presumption. 
Job  now  humbles  himself  unconditionally  before  his  Maker. 
Upon  this  God  publicly  justifies  him  to  his  three  friends,  while 
He  condemns  them,  declaring  that  he  has  spoken  of  Him  the 
thing  which  is  right  (42  : 8).  This  is  to  be  understood  as  refer- 
ring not  to  the  spirit  manifested  by  Job,  which  God  had  sharply 
rebuked,  but  rather  to  the  groimd  taken  by  him  in  respect  to 
God's  dealings  with  men.  By  God's  direction  the  three  friends 
now  offer  sacrifices  for  their  folly,  which  are  accepted  in  answer 
to  Job's  prayer  in  their  behalf,  and  his  former  prosperity  is 
restored  to  him  in  double  measure. 

6.  From  the  above  sketch  of  the  plan  of  the  book  its  design 
is  manifest.  It  unfolds  the  nature  of  God's  providential  gov- 
ernment over  men.  It  is  not  simply  retributive,  as  the  three 
friends  had  maintained,  so  that  the  measure  of  a  man's  out- 
ward sufferings  is  the  measure  of  his  sins;  nor  is  it  simply 
incomprehensible,  so  that  there  can  be  no  reasoning  about  it ; 
but  it  is  disciplinary,  in  such  a  way  that  sorrow,  though  always 
the  fruit  of  sin,  comes  upon  good  men  as  well  as  upon  the 
wicked,  being  a  fatherly  chastisement  intended  for  their  bene- 
fit, and  which,  if  properly  improved,  will  in  the  end  conduct 
them  to  a  higher  degree  of  holiness,  and  therefore  of  true 
prosperity  and  happiness.  The  three  friends  were  right  in 
maintaining  God's  justice;  but  with  respect  to  the  manner  of 
its  manifestation  their  error  was  fundamental.  Job's  view  was 
right,  but  inadequate.  A  disciplinary  government,  adminis- 
tered over  a  world  in  which  the  wicked  and  the  imperfectly 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  283 

good  live  together,  must  be  incomprehensible  as  it  respects  the 
particular  distribution  of  good  and  evil.  Elihu  was  right  in  the 
main  position,  but  he  wanted  authority.  The  question  was  set- 
tled by  God's  interposition  not  before  the  human  discussion, 
nor  loWiout  it,  but  after  it ;  an  interposition  in  which  the  three 
friends  were  condemned.  Job  approved,  and  the  argument  of 
Elihu  left  in  its  full  force. 

It  has  been  the  fashion  with  a  certain  class  of  critics  to  disparage  EHhu 
as  a  self-conceited  young  man,  and  to  deny  the  authenticity  of  his  dis- 
courses. But  thus  the  plan  of  the  book  is  fatally  broken,  as  must  be  evi- 
dent from  the  account  given  of  it  above.  It  was  not  necessary  that  Elihu 
should  be  named  in  the  prologue.  It  is  enough  that  he  is  described  when 
he  takes  a  part  in  the  argument.  Why  he  is  not  named  in  the  closing 
chapter  has  been  already  indicated.  There  was  nothing  in  his  argument 
to  be  censured.  As  to  the  attacks  made  on  other  parts  of  the  book  as  not 
authentic,  for  example,  what  is  said  of  Behemoth  and  Leviathan,  they  rest 
on  no  valid  foundation.  They  are  only  judgments  of  modern  critics  as  to 
how  and  what  the  author  of  the  book  before  us  ought  to  have  written. 
The  attempt  to  resolve  into  disconnected  parts  a  book  so  perfect  in  its 
plan,  and  which  has  come  down  to  us  by  the  unanimous  testimony  of 
antiquity  in  its  present  form,  is  a  most  uncritical  procedure. 

7.  Job  plainly  belonged  to  the  patriarchal  period.  This 
appears  from  his  longevity.  He  lived  after  his  trial  a  hundred 
and  forty  years  (42  :  16),  and  must  have  been  then  considerably 
advanced  in  life.  This  points  to  a  period  as  early  as  that  of 
Abraham.  To  the  same  conclusion  we  are  brought  by  the  fact 
that  no  form  of  idolatry  is  mentioned  in  the  book,  but  only  the 
worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  simplicity  of  the  patri- 
archal age  appears,  moreover,  in  all  its  descriptions.  But  we 
need  not  from  this  infer  that  the  book  was  written  in  the  patri- 
archal age,  for  the  author  may  have  received  from  the  past  the 
facts  which  he  records.  The  book  is  written  in  pure  Hebrew, 
with  all  the  freedom  of  an  original  work,  and  by  one  intimately 
acquainted  with  both  Arabic  and  Egyptian  scenery.  Some 
have  supposed  Moses  to  be  the  author,  but  this  is  very  uncer- 
tain. The  prevailing  opinion  of  the  present  day  is  that  it  was 
written  not  far  from  the  age  of  Solomon. 


2b)i:  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE.- 

8.  There  is  no  ground  for  denying  that  the  book  of  Job  has 
a  foundation  of  true  Msiory.  He  is  mentioned  by  Ezekiel  with 
Noah  and  Daniel  as  a  real  person.  Ezek.  14 :  14,  20.  The 
apostle  James  also  refers  to  the  happy  issue  of  his  trials  as  a 
historic  event  calculated  to  encourage  God's  suffering  children. 
Jas.  5  :  11.  But  we  need  not  suppose  that  all  the  details  of  the 
book  are  historic.  The  inspired  poet  takes  up  the  great  facts 
of  Job's  history  and  the  great  arguments  connected  with  them, 
and  gives  them  in  his  own  language;  probably  also,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  according  to  his  own  arrangement.  The  scene  of 
the  first  two  chajDters  is  laid  in  heaven.  Undoubtedly  they 
record  a  real  transaction ;  but  it  may  be  a  transaction  revealed 
to  the  author  in  an  allegorical  form,  like  Micaiah's  vision 
(1  Kings  22 :  19-22),  that  it  might  be  thus  made  level  to  human 
apprehension. 

II.     THE  PSALMS. 

9.  We  have  seen  the  office  of  the  Book  of  Job  in  the  sys- 
tem of  divine  revelation.  Very  different,  but  not  less  impor- 
tant, is  that  of  the  book  of  Psalms.  It  is  a  collection  of  sacred 
lyrics:  that  is,  of  poems  expressive  of  religious  feeling  and 
adapted  to  the  public  worship  of  God.  In  respect  to  subjects, 
the  Psalms  exhibit  a  wonderful  diversity.  They  cover  the  whole 
field  of  religious  experience,  and  furnish  to  the  churches  an 
inexhaustible  treasury  of  sacred  song  for  all  ages.  Seventy- 
three  of  the  psalms  are  ascribed  to  David  in  their  titles,  and 
the  whole  book,  as  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament,  bears  his 
name.  Of  the  remaining  psalms,  Asaph  is  named  as  the  author 
of  twelve ;  to  the  sons  of  Korah  eleven  are  ascribed ;  to  Solo- 
mon two  (Psalms  72  and  127) ;  to  Moses  one  (Psalm  90) ;  to 
Ethan  one  (Psalm  89).  The  remaining  fifty  are  anonymous. 
Of  these,  some  appear  from  their  contents  to  have  been  writ- 
ten as  late  as  the  era  of  the  captivity  and  restoration.  Some 
writers  have  referred  certain  psalms  to  the  Maccabean  age. 
But  there  is  nothing  in  the  contents  of  these  psalms  which 
makes  such  a  reference  necessary,  and  we  have  decisive  evi- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  285 

dence  that  the  Hebrew  canon  was  closed   long   before    this 
period.     See  below,  Chap.  22,  No.  21. 

10.  In  regard  to  the  external  arrangement  of  the  Psalms, 
which  is  generally  ascribed  to  Ezra,  and  cannot  be  earlier  than 
his  day,  they  are  divided  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  into  five  books, 
each  closing  with  a  doxology  except  the  last,  to  which,  as  well 
as  to  the  whole  collection,  the  final  psalm  serves  as  a  doxology. 

The  fii^&t  book  contains  Psalms  1-41.  Of  these  forty-one 
psalms,  thirty-seven  bear  the  name  of  David.  Of  the  remain- 
ing four,  the  second  and  tenth  undoubtedly  belong  to  him,  and 
in  all  probability  the  first  and  thirty-third  also.  The  psalms 
of  this  book  are  remarkable  for  the  predominance  of  the  name 
Jehovah  over  EloMm,  God.    . 

The  second  book  includes  Psalms  42-72.  Of  these,  eighteen 
bear  the  name  of  David;  the  first  eight  (including  Psa.  43, 
which  is  manifestly  connected  with  the  preceding  psalm)  are 
ascribed  to  the  sons  of  Korah ;  one  to  Asaph  (Psa.  50) ;  one  to 
Solomon  (Psa.  72) ;  and  the  remaining  three  are  without  titles. 
In  this  book  the  divine  name  Elohim,  God,  greatly  predomi- 
nates over  the  name  JehovaJi. 

The  third  book  includes  Psalms  73-89,  seventeen  in  all.  Of 
these,  the  first  eleven  are  ascribed  to  Asaph ;  four  to  the  sons 
of  Korah ;  one  to  David  (Psa.  86) ;  and  one  to  Ethan  the  Ezra- 
hite  (Psa.  89).  In  the  psalms  of  Asaph  the  divine  name  Elohim, 
God,  predominates;  in  the  remainder  of  the  book  the  name 
Jehovah. 

The  fourth  book  includes  Psalms  90-106.  Of  these  seven- 
teen psalms,  only  three  bear  titles  ;  the  ninetieth  being  referred 
to  Moses,  the  hundred  and  first  and  hundred  and  third  to 
David.  This  book  is  therefore  emphatically  one  of  anonymous 
psalms,  which  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  very  general  charac- 
ter, being  evidently  arranged  with  reference  to  the  service  of 
song  in  the  sanctuar}-.  Throughout  this  book  the  divine  name 
Jehovah  prevails;  the  name  Elohim,  God,  being  rarely  used 
except  in  connection  with  a  pronoun  or  some  epithet — my  God, 
God  of  Jacob,  etc. 


28G  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  fftli  book  contains  the  remaining  forty -four  psalms, 
Of  these,  fifteen  are  ascribed  to  David;  one  to  Solomon  (Psa. 
127) ;  and  twenty-eight  are  anonymous.  In  this  book  also  the 
divine  name  JeJiovah  prevails  almost  exclusively. 

It  is  probable  that  these  five  books  were  arranged  not  simul- 
taneously but  successively,  with  considerable  intervals  between 
some  of  them.  The  subscription  appended  to  the  second  book : 
"  The  prayers  of  David  the  son  of  Jesse  are  ended,"  may  pos- 
sibly be  explained  upon  this  supposition.  It  may  have  been 
added  as  a  subscription  to  the  first  two  books,  before  the  others 
were  arranged  for  the  temple  service. 

Although  the  psalms  belonging  to  the  respective  books  are 
not  classified  upon  any  strict  principle,  yet  their  arrangement 
is  not  altogether  fortuitous.  We  find  psalms  with  the  same 
title  grouped  together — eleven  psalms  of  Asaph  (73-83) ;  eight 
of  the  sons  of  Korah  (42-49) ;  eight  of  David  (139-145  separa- 
ted from  his  other  psalms) ;  three  psalms  inscribed  Al-taschitli 
(57-59) ;  the  fifteen  songs  of  degrees  (120-134),  etc.  Also  we 
find  psalms  of  similar  contents  grouped  together — Psa.  79,  80 ; 
88,  89;  91-100;  105-107;  etc. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  J:o  classify  the  psalms 
according  to  their  subjects.  But  their  very  richness  and  vari- 
ety makes  this  a  very  difficult  undertaking.  They  cover  the 
whole  field  of  religious  experience  for  both  individual  believers 
and  the  church  at  large.  Many  of  them — the  so-called  Messi- 
anic psalms — are  proj^hetic  of  the  Saviour's  offices  and  work. 
We  need  not  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  Psalms  al^e  quoted  in 
the  New  Testament  oftener  than  any  other  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  Isaiah  not  excepted. 

11.  Besides  the  names  of  the  authors,  or  the  occasion  of 
their  composition,  many  of  the  psalms  bear  other  inscriptions. 
Of  these  the  principal  are  the  following: 

(1.)  The  dedicatory  title:  To  the  chief  musician,  prefixed  to 
fift3'-three  psalms,  signifies  that  the  psalm  is  assigned  to  him, 
as  the  leader  of  the  choir  at  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  to  be 
used  in  the  public  worship  of  God.     The  title  rendered  in  our 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  287 

version:  For  the  sons  of  KoraJi,  is  better  translated,  as  in  the 
margin:  Of  the  sons  of  Korah;  that  is,  written  by  one  of  their 
number. 

(2.)  Titles  expressing  the  character  of  the  comj)Osition.  Here 
we  have,  as  the  most  common  and  general,  Psalm,  a  lyric  poem 
to  be  sung ;  Song,  a  title  borne  by  sixteen  psalms,  generally  in 
connection  with  the  word  psalm,  where  the  rendering  should 
be:  a  psalm,  a  song;  or,  a  song,  a  psalm.  All  the  psalms  thus 
designated  except  two  (Psa.  83,  88)  are  of  a  joyous  character, 
that  is,  songs  of  praise ;  Song  of  degrees,  a  title  the  meaning  of 
which  is  disputed.  Many  render:  A  song  of  ascents,  and  sup- 
pose that  the  fifteen  psalms  which  bear  this  title  (120-134) 
were  so  called  because  they  were  arranged  to  be  sung  on  the 
occasion  of  the  ascent  of  the  people  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the 
yearly  festivals.  For  other  explanations,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  commentaries.  The  titles:  Prayer  (Psa.  17,  90,  102, 
142),  and  Praise  (Psa.  145)  need  no  explanation.  Besides 
these  titles,  there  are  several  others  left  untranslated  in  our 
version,  as :  3Iaschil,  teaching,  that  is,  a  didactic  psalm  ;  Michtam 
(Psa.  16,  56-60)  either  a  loriting,  that  is,  poem,  or  a  golden 
psalm. 

(3.)  Titles  relating  to  the  musical  performance.  Of  these, 
the  most  common  is  the  much  disputed  word  Selah.  It  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  it  signifies  a  rest,  either  in  singing  for  the 
purpose  of  an  instrumental  interlude,  or  an  entire  rest  in  the 
performance.  As  a  general  rule,  this  title  closes  a  division  of 
a  psalm.  Of  the  titles  supposed  to  indicate  either  musical 
instruments  or  modes  of  musical  performance,  the  following 
are  examples:  Neginath  (Psa.  61),  elsewhere  Neginoth,  stringed 
instruments;  Nehiloth,  probably  flutes  (Psa.  5);  Gittith  (Psa.  8, 
81,  84),  from  the  word  Gath,  which  denotes  a  Philistine  city, 
and  also  a  wine-press.  Gittith  has  been  accordingly  inter- 
preted to  mean  (1)  a  musical  instrument  or  a  melody  brought 
from  Gath;  (2)  a  musical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  wine- 
press, or  a  melody  used  in  treading  the  wine-press ;  Slioshannim,, 
lilies  (Psa.  45,  69);  Shushan-eduth,  lily  of  the  testimony  (Psa.  60); 


•288  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Slioslianmm-edidh,  lilies  of  the  testimony  (Psa.  80),  either  a  musi- 
cal instrument  so  named  from  its  shape,  or  a  particular  melody, 
or,  as  some  think,  an  emblematic  term  referring  to  the  contents 
of  the  psalm ;  SJieminith,  the  eighth,  or  octave,  perhaps  a  musi- 
cal key  (Psa.  6,  12) ;  Alamoth,  virgins,  probably  denoting  treble 
voices  (Psa.  46);  Al-taschith,  destroy  not  (Psa.  57,  58,  59,  75), 
according  to  some,  the  name  of  an  air  taken  from  a  well-known 
poem ;  according  to  others,  an  indication  of  the  contents  of  the 
psalm.  For  other  titles,  occurring  but  once  or  twice,  the  reader 
must  be  referred  to  the  commentaries. 

Whether  the  titles  constitute  a  part  of  the  psalms;  that  is,  whether 
they  were  prefixed  by  the  writers  themselves,  is  a  question  that  has  been 
much  debated,  and  answered  differently  by  different  writers.  That  they  are 
very  ancient — so  ancient  that  the  meaning  of  the  terms  employed  had 
passed  into  oblivion  when  the  Alexandrine  version  was  made — must  be 
admitted.  But  it  would  be  too  much  to  afiirm  that  they  are  a  part  of  the 
inspired  word.  The  correctness  of  some  of  them  is  doubtful.  If  we  admit 
their  general  correctness,  reserving  for  critical  investigation  the  question  of 
the  historical  validity  of  particular  titles,  it  is  as  far  as  we  need  go. 

III.  THE  PEOVEEBS  OF  SOLOMON. 

12.  The  place  of  the  book  of  Proverbs  in  the  system  of 
divine  revelation  is  obvious  at  first  sight.  It  contains  a  com- 
plete code  of  practical  rules  for  the  regulation  of  life — rules 
that  have  a  divine  breadth  and  fulness,  and  can  make  men  wise 
not  for  time  alone,  but  also  for  eternity.  The  principles  em- 
bodied in  them  admit  of  endlessly  varied  applications,  so  that 
the  study  of  a  life  cannot  exhaust  them.  The  more  they  are 
pondered,  and  prayed  over,  and  reduced  to  practice,  the  more 
are  their  hidden  treasures  of  wisdom  brought  to  light.  Solo- 
mon lived  himself  in  the  sphere  of  practical  life.  He  had  con- 
stantly to  deal  with  men  of  all  classes,  and  he  knew  men  and 
the  course  of  human  events  most  thoroughly.  His  maxims  are 
therefore  adapted  to  the  actual  world,  not  to  some  imaginary 
.state  of  things;  and  they  contain  those  broad  principles  of 
action  which  meet  the  wants  of  all  men  in  all  circumstances 


THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.  289 

and  conditions  of  life.  Whoever  gives  himself,  in  the  fear  of 
God,  to  the  study  of  these  proverbs,  and  conforms  his  life  to 
the  principles  which  they  set  forth,  will  be  a  truly  happy  and 
prosperous  man.  Whoever  shapes  his  conduct  by  different 
principles  will  be  compelled  in  the  end  to  acknowledge  his 
folly.  To  the  young,  for  whose  instruction  they  were  espe- 
cially intended,  they  are  affectionately  commended  as  their 
manual  of  action. 

13.  In  respect  to  oidivard  form,  the  book  of  Proverbs  natu- 
rally falls  into  four  parts.  Of  these,  the  first  nine  chapters, 
consisting  of  earnest  and  fatherly  exhortations  addressed  to 
the  young  in  a  series  of  discourses,  of  which  the  parts  are  more 
or  less  connected  with  each  other,  constitute  the  first  part. 
The  title  prefixed  to  this  part,  giving  both  the  author's  name 
and  the  end  which  he  proposes-  (1 : 1-6)  refers  perhaps  to  the 
book  considered  as  a  whole.  The  second  part,  introduced  by 
tlie  title  :  "  The  proverbs  of  Solomon,"  extends  to  the  end  of 
the  twenty-fourth  chapter.  Of  this,  the  first  section  (chaps. 
10--22 :  16)  consists  of  proverbs  properly  so  called,  each  verse 
constituting  a  separate  maxim  of  heavenly  wisdom  for  the  regu- 
lation of  the  heart  and  life.  Betw^een  the  different  verses 
there  is  either  no  connection,  or  one  of  a  slight  and  casual 
character,  consisting  frequently  in  the  common  occurrence  of 
the  same  word.  In  the  remaining  section  (chap.  22  :  17 — 24 :  34) 
the  method  of  exhortation  in  discourse  more  or  less  connected 
is  resumed.  To  the  third  part  (chaps.  25-29)  is  prefixed  the 
superscription  :  "  These  are  also  the  proverbs  of  Solomon  which 
the  men  of  Hezekiah  copied  out."  The  proverbs  of  this  part 
are,  in  general,  expressed  in  detached  maxims,  as  in  the  first 
section  of  the  second  part ;  but  occasionally  there  is  a  connec- 
tion between  adjacent  verses.  There  is  also  an  effort  to  bring 
together  related  proverbs,  as  those  concerning  rulers  (25 : 1-8) ; 
concerning  fools  (26 : 1-12) ;  concerning  sluggards  (26 :  13-16) ; 
concerning  busybodies  and  tale-bearers  (chap.  26  :  17-28).  In 
this  part  also  a  number  of  proverbs  are  repeated  that  have 
occurred  elsewhere.     Finally,  the /oz^WApart,  which  may  be 

C.mr- to  Bible-  23 


290  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

considered  as  a  sort  of  appendix,  contains  the  words  of  Agur 
(chap.  30),  and  of  King  Lemuel  (chap.  31). 

According  to  the  most  natural  interpretation  of  the  words  prefixed  to 
chap,  24  :23 — "these  [maxims]  also  belong  to  the  wise" — the  verses  that 
follow  to  the  end  of  the  chapter  contain  also  a  short  appendix  of  proverbs 
not  belonging  to  Solomon. 

14.  From  the  above  it  is  manifest  that  the  book  etf  Proverbs 
was  arranged  in  its  j^resent  form  as  late,  at  least,  as  the  days 
of  Hezekiah.  It  contains  not  the  whole  of  the  three  thousand 
proverbs  which  Solomon  spake  (1  Kings  4  :  32),  but  only  selec- 
tions from  them,  such  as  the  wisdom  of  God  judged  needful  for 
the  edification  of  his  people.  Whether  the  proverbs  contained 
in  the  first  and  second  parts  were  arranged  in  their  present 
form  by  Solomon  himself  or  by  some  other  person,  we  do  not 
know;  but  that  all  the  proverbs  of  the  book  belong  to  him  as 
their  author,  except  those  v/liich  are  expressly  ascribed  to 
others,  there  is  no  vaUd  reason  for  doubting. 

IV.     ECCLESIASTES. 

15.  The  Hebrew  name  of  this  book  is  Koheleth,  respecting 
the  meaning  of  which  there  has  been  much  discussion.  The 
Alexandrine  rendering  of  this  word,  Ecclesiastes,  one  lulio  gathers 
or  addresses  an  assembly,  and  the  English  rendering,  Preaclier^ 
express  for  substance  its  probable  meaning;  or  rather,  since 
the  form  of  the  word  is  feminine,  it  is  Wisdom  as  a  i^reaclier, 
Solomon  being  regarded  as  her  impersonation.  The  uniform 
belief  of  the  ancient  church  was  that  Solomon  wrote  this  book 
in  his  old  age,  when  brought  to  repentance  for  the  idolatrous 
practices  into  which  his  heathen  wives  had  seduced  him.  He 
had  thoroughly  tried  the  world  in  all  its  forms  of  honor,  wealth, 
pleasure,  and  the  pursuit  of  wisdom — speculative  wisdom — and 
found  it  only  "vanity  and  vexation  of  spirit,"  when  sought  as 
the  supreme  good.  The  conclusion  to  which  he  comes  is  that 
in  such  an  empty  and  unsatisfying  world,  where  disappoint- 
ment and  trouble  cannot  be  avoided,  the  cheerful  enjoyment 


THE  OLD  TESTAMEIST.  291 

of  GocVs  present  gifts  is  the  part  of  wisdom,  for  thus  we  make, 
the  best  of  things  as  we  find  them.  But  this  enjoyment  must 
be  in  the  fear  of  God,  who  will  bring  all  our  works  into  judg- 
ment ;  and  accompanied,  moreover,  by  cteeds  of  love  and  char- 
ity, as  we  have  opportunity.  He  explicitly  asserts  a  judgment 
to  come ;  yet  his  general  view  of  life  is  that  expressed  in  the 
Saviour's  words  :  "The  night  cometh,  when  no  man  can  work;" 
words  which  imply  that  God's  earthly  service,  as  well  as  the 
enjoyment  of  his  earthly  gifts,  will  come  to  a  close  at  death. 
This  view  of  the  Preacher  is  not  a  denial  of  the  future  life,  as 
some  have  wrongly  maintained,  but  implies  rather  a  less  full 
revelation  of  it  than  is  given  in  the  New  Testament. 

Many  evangehcal  men,  as  Heugstenberg,  Keil,  and  others,  interpret 
tlie  first  verse  of  this  book  as  meaning  not  that  Solomon  was  himself  the 
author,  or  that  the  writer  meant  to  pass  himself  o£f  as  Solomon,  but  sim- 
l^ly  that  he  wrote  in  Solomon's  name,  as  assuming  his  character ;  that  mon- 
arch being  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  the  impersonation  of  wisdom.  Their 
reasons  for  this  vieAV  are  chiefly  two  :  First,  that  the  state  of  things  de- 
scribed in  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes  does  not  suit  Solomon's  age,  the  picture 
being  too  dark  and  sombre  for  his  reign ;  secondly,  that  the  language  dif- 
fers widely  from  that  of  the  book  of  Proverbs  and  of  the  Canticles.  Whether 
we  adopt  this  view,  or  that  above  given,  the  canonical  authority  of  the  book 
of  Ecclesiastes  remains  as  a  well-estabUshed  fact.  It  always  held  a  place 
in  the  Hebrew  canon,  and  existed  there  in  its  present  form  in  the  days. of 
Christ  and  his  apostles. 

16.  The  following  summary  of  the  Preacher's  argument  is 
condensed  from  Scott.  He  had  evidently  two  objects  in  view. 
First,  to  show  where  happiness  could  not  be  found;  and  sec- 
ondly, Avhere  it  might.  The  first  six  chapters  are  principally 
employed  on  the  former  part  of  the  argument,  yet  with  coun- 
sels interspersed  tending  to  show  how  the  vanity,  or  at  least 
the  vexation  of  earthly  pursuits  may  be  abated.  The  remain- 
ing six  chapters  gradually  unfold  the  latter  part  of  the  argu- 
ment, teaching  us  how  to  make  the  best  of  things  as  we  find 
them,  how  to  live  comfortably  and  usefully  in  this  evil  world, 
and  how  to  derive  benefit  from  the  changing  events  of  life.  In 
respect  to  outward  things,  the  sacred  writer  inculcates  a  cheer- 


292  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ful,  liberal,  and  charitable  use  of  them,  without  expecting  from 
them  permanent  or  satisfying  dehght.  He  counsels  us  to  take 
the  transient  pleasure  which  agreeable  circumstances  can 
afford,  as  far  as  consists  with  the  fear  of  God;  to  be  patient 
under  unavoidable  evil ;  not  to  aim  at  impracticable  results ;  to 
fill  up  our  allotted  station  in  a  peaceable,  equitable,  and  pru- 
dent manner;  to  be  contented,  meek,  and  affectionate;  and  to 
do  good  abundantly  as  we  have  opportunity,  in  the  expectation 
of  a  gracious  reward.  These  general  rules  are  interspersed 
with  warnings  and  counsels  to  princes  and  great  men,  and  to 
subjects  in  respect  to  their  rulers. 

V.     THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON. 

17.  The  title  of  this  book :  The  Song  of  songs^  that  is,  the 
most  excellent  of  songs,  indicates  its  application  to  the  heav- 
enly Solomon,  and  his  spouse  the  church.  So  the  Jews  from 
the  most  ancient  times  have  interpreted  it.  Looking  at  this 
song  from  the  position  of  the  Old  Testament,  its  ground-idea 
is  :  "  Thy  Maker  is  thy  husband."  Identical  with  this  is  the 
New  Testament  idea :  "  The  bride,  the  Lamb's  wife."  The 
germ  of  this  representation  exists  in  the  Pentateuch,  where 
idolatry  is  regarded  as  spiritual  adultery.  Exod.  34  :  15 ;  Deut. 
31:16.  We  find  it  fully  developed  in  the  forty-fifth  Psalm, 
which  probably  belongs  to  Solomon's  age,  and  which  is  ex- 
pressly quoted  in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  as  a  description 
of  the  Messiah.  The  same  figure  occurs  in  many  passages  of 
the  prophets  who  lived  after  Solomon's  day.  Isa.  54 : 5 ;  62  : 5 ; 
Jer.  2:2;  3 :  14  ;  Hos.  2 :  16,  19,  20.  In  the  book  of  Revelation 
this  imagery  is  repeated  and  amplified. 

18.  This  song  is  not  a  dramatic  representation,  in  which 
the  action  steadily  advances  to  the  end,  but  a  series  of  descrip- 
tive pictures,  the  great  theme  of  which  is  the  separation  of  the 
bride  from  her  beloved  —  the  heavenly  Bridegroom — for  her 
sins,  and  her  reunion  with  him  by  repentance.  In  the  spiritual 
application  of  its  rich  and  gorgeous  imagery  we  should  confine 
ourselves  to  the  main  scope,  rather  than  dwell  on  particulars. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  293 

Thus  the  fruitfuhiess  of  the  church  is  set  forth  under  the  image 
of  a  garden  filled  with  spices  and  precious  fruits.  But  we  are 
not  to  seek  for  a  hidden  meaning  in  each  particular  spice  or 
fruit — the  saffron,  the  spikenard,  the  myrrh,  the  pomegranate, 
the  apple,  the  nut;  and  the  same  is  true  with  respect  to  the 
descriptions  of  the  bride  and  bridegroom  with  which  the  book 
abounds.  i 

The  book  has   always  constituted  a  part  of  the  Hebrew 
canon. 

The  language  of  tliis  book  is  pure  and  elegant,  with  all  the  freshness 
and  energy  of  the  best  age  of  Hebrew  poetry.  Its  most  striking  peculiar- 
ity is  the  uniform,  use  (except  once  in  the  title)  of  the  abbreviated  form  of 
the  relative  pronoun  as  a  prefix — shekkullam  for  asher  kullam;  sliehamme- 
leh  for  asher  hammelek,  etc. — which  is  manifestly  a  dialectic  peculiarity  of 
the  living  Hebrew  adopted  by  Solomon  for  the  purpose  of  giving  to  his 
song  a  unique  costume. 


294  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

CHAPTER    XXII. 

The  Greater  Prophets. 

1.  "We  have  already  seen  (Chap.  ISjNos.  11  and  12)  that  from 
Moses  to  Samuel  the  appearances  of  prophets  were  infrequent ; 
that  with  Samuel  and  the  prophetical  school  established  by 
him  there  began  a  new  era,  in  which  the  prophets  were  recog- 
nized as  a  distinct  order  of  men  in  the  Theocracy ;  and  that  the 
age  of  luritten  prophecy  did  not  begin  till  about  the  reign  of 
TJzziah,  some  three  centuries  after  Samuel.  The  Jewish  divis- 
ion of  the  latter  prophets — prophets  in  the  more  restricted  sense 
of  the  word  —  into  the  greater,  including  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 
Ezeldel,  chronologically  arranged ;  and  the  less,  or  twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  arranged  also,  in  all  jDrobability,  according  to  their 
view  of  their  order  in  time,  has  also  been  explained.  Chap.  13, 
No.  4.  Respecting  the  nature  of  prophecy  and  the  principles 
upon  which  it  is  to  be  interpreted,  much  remains  to  be  said  in 
another  place.  In  the  present  connection,  a  brief  account  will 
be  given  of  the  place  ivliich  the  prophets  held  in  the  Theocracy,  fol- 
lowed by  a  notice,  in  this  and  the  following  chapter,  of  the 
separate  books  of  prophecy  belonging  to  the  Hebrew  canon, 
according  to  the  order  in  our  English  version,  Daniel  being 
reckoned  with  the  greater  prophets.  Lamentations  considered 
as  an  appendix  to  Jeremiah,  and  the  minor  prophets  arranged 
by  themselves. 

2.  The  office  of  the  prophets  under  the  Theocracy,  which 
we  first  notice,  was  that  of  hold  Tep>rovers.  They  came  to  rulers 
and  people  with  an  immediate  commission  from  God  to  rebuke 
them  for  their  sins;  and  as  the  contents  of  their  messages  were 
received  from  God  himself,  they  exposed  the  hypocrisy  and 
wickedness  of  their  times  in  the  pure  sunlight  of  truth,  denoun- 
cing upon  great  and  small  alike  the  awful  judgments  of  Jeho- 
vah if  they  persisted  in  their  impenitence.     If  we  except  the 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.'  295 

preaching  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  the  history  of  the  world 
furnishes  no  such  bright  examples  of  faithful  dealing  with 
men's  consciences.  The}^  never  spare  kings  and  princes  from 
fear  of  their  power  and  patronage.  They  never  go  round  about 
men's  sins,  but  declare  them  directly  and  faithfully.  With 
what  majesty  of  severity  did  Samuel  reprove  Saul,  and  Nathan 
David,  and  Elijah  Ahab,  and  Elisha  Jehoram,  and  Jehu  Je- 
hoshaphat !  And  if  we  open  the  books  of  Hebrew  prophecy 
which  have  come  down  to  us  from  distant  ages  and  from  a  very 
different  civil  and  social  order,  we  find  them  not  in  the  least 
antiquated,  but  fresh  as  yesterday,  instinct  with  hfe  and  power. 
They  are  a  mirror  of  terrible  brightness  in  which  we  may  see 
reflected  our  pride,  self-sufficiency,  vain  ostentation,  and  world- 
liness;  our  avarice,  fraud,  overreaching  artifices,  breaches  of 
trust,  bribery,  oppression  of  the  weak,  and  corrupt  combina- 
tions for  the  amassing  of  filthy  lucre;  our  ambition,  slander, 
falsehood,  intrigues,  hypocrisy,  and  vain  pretensions ;  our  lux- 
ury, prodigality,  sensuality,  and  intemperance;  our  profane- 
ness,  Sabbath-breaking,  neglect  of  God's  ordinances  and  con- 
tempt of  his  written  word — a  mirror  too  in  which  we  can  see 
in  the  background  dark  clouds  of  judgment,  big  with  awful 
thunder,  such  as  have  already  come  forth  upon  our  land  from 
the  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  divine  justice,  and  are  ready  to 
come  forth  again,  but  over  which  hangs  the  rainbow  of  mercy 
for  all  that  will  repent  and  humble  themselves  before  God. 

3.  We  may  next  consider  the  office  of  the  Hebrew  prophets 
as  expounders  of  the  3Iosaic  law — the  Mosaic  law  in  its  sub- 
stance, as  distinguished  from  its  outward  form.  They  never 
undervalued  the  letter  of  the  law,  since  that  too  was  of  divine 
appointment;  but  they  taught  men  that  true  obedience  must 
rise  above  the  letter  to  its  spirit.  When  Saul  excused  himself 
io  Samuel  for  disobeying  God's  command  on  the  ground  that 
the  people  had  spared  the  best  of  the  sheep  and  oxen  to  sac- 
rifice to  the  Lord,  the  prophet  indignantly  answered :  "  Hath 
the  Lord  as  great  delight  in  burnt-offerings  and  sacrifices,  as 
in  obeying  the  voice  of  the  Lord?     Behold,  to  obey  is  better 


296  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

than  sacrifice,  and  to  hearken  than  the  fat  of  rams."  1  Sam. 
15  :  22.  "Bring  no  more  vain  oblations,"  says  God  to  the  Jews 
whose  hands  were  full  of  oppression  and  blood;  "incense  is  an 
abomination  nnto  me:  the  new  moons  and  Sabbaths,  the  call- 
ing of  assemblies,  I  cannot  away  with;  it  is  iniquity,  even  the 
solemn  meeting.  Your  new  moons  and  your  ajDpointed  feasts 
my  soul  hateth:  they  are  a  trouble  unto  me;  I  am  weary  to 
bear  them."  And  his  direction  is:  "Wash  you,  make  you 
clean :  put  away  the  evil  of  your  doings  from  before  mine  eyes ; 
cease  to  do  evil ;  learn  to  do  w^ell ;  seek  judgment,  relieve  the 
oppressed,  judge  the  fatherless,  plead  for  the  wddow."  Isaiah 
1:13-17.  "I  hate,"  sa^^s  God  to  the  covenant  people  through 
Amos,  "  I  despise  your  feast-days,  and  I  will  not  smell  in  your 
solemn  assemblies.  Tliough  ye  ofi'er  me  burnt-oiferings  and 
your  meat-offerings,  I  will  not  accept  them  ;  neither  will  I 
regard  the  peace-offerings  of  your  fat  beasts.  Take  thou  away 
from  me  the  noise  of  thy  songs;  for  I  will  not  hear  the  melody 
of  thy  viols.  But  let  judgment  run  down  as  waters,  and  right- 
eousness as  a  mighty  stream."  Amos  5  :  21-24.  "Wherewith," 
says  Micah,  "  shall  I  come  before  the  Lord,  and  bow  myself 
before  the  high  God  ?  Shall  I  come  before  him  with  burnt- 
offerings,  with  calves  of  a  year  old  ?  Will  the  Lord  be  pleased 
with  thousands  of  rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil? 
shall  I  give  my  first-born  for  my  transgression,  the  fruit  of  my 
body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul  ?  He  hath  showed  thee,  O  man, 
what  is  good ;  and  what  doth  the  Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to 
do  justly,  and  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy 
God?"  Micah  6:6-8.  Under  the  Old  Testament,  outward 
forms  of  divine  service  were  required,  and  they  are  necessary, 
to  a  certain  extent,  under  the  New  also.  But  if  any  man  puts 
his  trust  for  salvation  in  these,  to  the  neglect  of  inward  faith, 
love,  and  obedience,  he  stands  condemned  at  the  bar  of  Moses 
and  the  prophets,  not  less  than  at  the  bar  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles.  Under  the  Mosaic  economj^  both  the  rites  of  divine 
service  and  the  succession  of  the  priesthood  were  definitively 
prescribed  by  God  himself,  and  therefore  to  all  of  binding 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  297 

authority.  But  the  man  who  placed  his  religion  in  these  out- 
ward observances,  to  the  neglect  of  his  heart  and  life,  was  to 
God  an  object  of  abhorrence,  and  the  severest  judgments  were 
denounced  against  him.  It  cannot  be,  then,  that  under  the 
gospel  any  system  of  outward  forms,  however  right  and  proper 
in  itself,  can  bring  salvation  to  the  soul,  where  inward  faith, 
love,  and  obedience  are  wanting. 

4.  The  last  and  highest  office  of  the  prophets  was  to  direct 
men's  thoughts  to  ihe  end  of  the  Mosaic  economy,  which  was  the 
salvation  of  the  world  through  the  promised  Messiah.  The 
Spirit  of  Christ  that  spoke  through  them,  "testified  beforehand 
the  sufterings  of  Christ  and  the  glory  that  should  follow." 
1  Pet.  1  :  11.  It  does  not  appear  that  they  understood  the 
divine  purpose  to  abolish  the  Mosaic  economy,  and  with  it 
"the  middle  wall  of  partition"  between  Jews  and  Gentiles — 
that  great  mj^stery,  the  revelation  of  which  was  reserved  for 
the  days  of  the  apostles ;  but  they  did  have  glorious  visions  of 
the  latter  days,  when  the  law  should  go  forth  from  Zion,  and 
the  word  of  the  Lord  from  Jerusalem,  to  all  nations;  when  the 
whole  world  should  submit  itself  to  Jehovah  under  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Messiah ;  and  the  earth  should  be  "  filled  with 
the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  God,  as  the  waters  cover  the  sea." 
Their  glowing  descriptions  of  the  future  enlargement  and  glory 
of  Zion  have  been  the  stay  and  solace  of  God's  people  in  all 
succeeding  ages.  The  student  of  the  Bible  should  not  fail  to 
notice  that  these  bright  visions  of  the  future  were  vouchsafed 
to  the  Hebrew  prophets,  and  through  them  to  the  church  uni- 
versal, not  when  the  Theocracy  was  in  the  zenith  of  its  outward 
power  and  splendor,  as  in  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon,  but 
in  the  time  of  its  decline  and  humiliation.  The  hopes  so  ar- 
dently cherished  by  the  covenant  people  of  a  return  of  the  out- 
ward glory  of  Solomon's  reign  were  destined  to  utter  and  final 
disappointment.  It  was  not  to  feed  their  national  pride,  but  to 
prepare  the  way  for  Christ's  advent,  that  God  estabHshed  the 
Theocracy.  Now  that  its  outward  glory  was  departing,  it  was 
suitable  that  the  hopes  of  the  pious  should  be  turned  from  the 

13* 


298  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

darkness  of  the  present  to  the  brightness  of  "the  last  da^'s" 
that  awaited  Zion  in  the  distant  future.  When  Isaiah  began 
his  prophecies,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  tottering  to  its  fall, 
and  before  he  had  finished  them  it  had  suffered  an  utter  over- 
throw. The  invasion  of  Judah  by  the  allied  kings  of  Israel 
and  Syria,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  and  by  Sennacherib  king  of 
Assyria,  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  furnished  an  occasion  for 
predicting  not  only  the  present  deliverance  of  God's  people, 
but  also  the  future  triumph  of  Zion  over  all  her  enemies,  and 
the  extension  of  her  dominion  over  all  the  earth.  In  his  pres- 
ent interpositions  in  behalf  of  Zion,  Grod  mirrored  forth  his  pur- 
pose to  give  her  a  final  and  universal  victory.  And  so  it  was 
with  all  the  other  prophets.  "With  their  backs  towards  the 
gloom  and  distraction  of  the  present,  and  their  faces  stead- 
fastly turned  towards  the  glory  of  the  latter  days,  they  uttered 
words  of  promise  and  comfort  that  can  have  their  fulfilment 
only  in  Christ's  kingdom,  which  is  the  true  heir  to  all  the 
promises  made  to  the  ancient  Zion.  Out  of  Christ  these  prom- 
ises are  vain  and  delusory.  In  Christ  their  fulfilment  has  been 
begun,  and  shall  be  completed  in  the  appointed  time.  Out  of 
Christ  no  amount  of  learning  will  enable  a  man  to  understand 
the  Hebrew  prophets ;  for  the  veil  is  on  his  face,  which  can  be 
done  away  only  in  Christ.  What  if  more  than  eighteen  centu- 
ries have  elapsed  since  our  Lord's  advent,  and  the  domain  of 
his  kingdom  is  yet  Yerj  limited  ?  In  the  divine  reckoning, 
"  one  day  is  with  the  Lord  as  a  thousand  j^ears,  and  a  thou- 
sand years  as  one  day."  If  it  took  four  of  these  days  to  pre- 
pare the  world  for  Christ's  advent,  can  we  not  allow  two  dajs 
and  more  for  the  complete  establishment  of  his  kingdom  ? 

We  add  a  notice  of  each  separate  book  of  the  Greater 
prophets. 

I.    ISAIAH. 

5.  According  to  the  Hebrew  arrangement  already  noticed 
(No.  1,  above),  the  book  of  Isaiah,  as  the  first  of  those  belong- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  299 

ing  to  the  greater  prophets,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  whole 
collection  of  prophetical  books ;  although  Hosea,  Amos,  and 
Jonah,  and  in  all  probability  Joel  also,  entered  upon  their  pro- 
phetical office  before  him.  Micah  was  contemporary  with  him. 
Of  the  private  history  of  Isaiah  we  know  almost  nothing,  ex- 
cept that  he  was  the  son  of  Amoz  (chap.  1 : 1),  and  that  he  was 
married  and  had  sons  (chap.  8: 1-4).  The  Jewish  tradition  is 
that  he  was  sawn  asunder  under  the  reign  of  Manasseh,  to 
which  it  has  been  supposed  that  there  is  a  reference  in  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (chap.  11 :  37) ;  but  all  such  traditions 
are  uncertain.  Isaiah  prophesied  "in  the  days  of  Uzziah,  Jo- 
tham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah."  Chap.  1 : 1.  If, 
with  many,  we  suppose  him  to  have  entered  upon  his  office  in 
the  last  year  of  Uzziah,  we  have  sixty-two  years  to  the  close  of 
Hezekiah's  reign.  He  certainly  exercised  the  prophetical  office 
to  the  fifteenth  year  of  Hezekiah's  reign,  and  possibly  through 
the  remaining  fourteen  years.  As  the  superscription  is  silent 
respecting  any  prophecies  uttered  in  Manasseh's  reign,  we  are 
not  warranted  to  extend  the  period  of  his  activity  beyond  that 
of  Hezekiah,  although  he  may  have  survived  him,  and  have 
perished  in  the  way  indicated  by  the  Jewish  tradition. 

6.  The  book  of  Isaiah  naturally  falls  into  two  great  divis- 
ions. The  first,  after  an  introductory  chapter,  contains  a 
great  variety  of  prophetic  messages,  delivered  on  special  occa- 
sions. Chaps.  2-39.  The  second  division,  comprising  the 
remaining  twenty-seven  chapters,  seems  to  have  had  no  special 
occasion,  but  to  have  been  written  after  the  overthrow  of  Sen- 
nacherib's army,  probably  in  the  old  age  of  the  prophet,  for 
the  comfort  and  encouragement  of  God's  people  in  all  coming 
ages.  "  Comfort  ye,  comfort  ye  my  people,  saith  your  God" — • 
this  is  its  great  theme  as  expressed  in  the  introductory  verse. 
Of  the  various  plans  for  classifying  the  contents  of  the  first  part, 
all  that  rest  upon  the  rationalistic  view  that  the  book  is  a  col- 
lection of  writings  belonging  to  different  authors  and  ages  are 
false  and  groundless.  Among  evangelical  men,  who  hold  the 
unity  of  the  book  and  its  authorship  by  Isaiah,  there  have  been 


300  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

various  schemes  of  classification.  It  has  been  proposed  by 
Drechsler  and  others  to  arrange  all  of  Isaiah's  prophecies 
around  two  great  central  events  in  the  history  of  his  times ; 
namely,  the  invasion  of  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  by  the 
allied  forces  of  Israel  and  Syria  (chap.  7),  and  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  by  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria  (chaps.  36,  37).  That 
these  were  the  two  great  crises  of  Isaiah's  age,  and  that  many 
of  his  prophecies  had  reference  to  them  directly  or  indirectly, 
caimot  be  denied ;  but  to  affirm  that  cdl  his  prophecies,  extend- 
ing over  a  period  of  from  forty-eight  to  sixty-two  years,  were 
connected  with  these  two  events,  either  directly  or  by  way  of 
anticipation  beforehand  and  natural  sequence  afterwards,  is 
more  than  can  be  established  by  any  probable  arguments.  We 
must  be  careful  not  to  thrust  upon  the  prophet  a  systematic 
arrangement  bej^ond  any  that  ever  existed  in  his  own  con- 
sciousness. The  following  brief  analysis  will  be  sufficient  for 
the  general  reader. 

The  title  prefixed  to  the  first  chapter  refers  certainly  to  the 
first  part,  and  probably  to  the  whole  book.  The  contents  of 
the  first  chapter  are  well  suited  to  constitute  a  general  intro- 
duction to  the  book,  and  there  is  much  ground  for  the  opinion 
that  the  prophet  prefixed  them,  as  such  an  introduction,  to  the 
whole  collection  of  prophecies.  The  four  chapters  that  follow 
were  evidently  written  during  a  period  of  great  worldly  pros- 
perity. They  contain  Adsions  against  Judah  and  Jerusalem  of 
a  threatening  character,  but  interspersed  with  glorious  prom- 
ises to  the  true  Israel.  The  sixth  chapter  records  a  vision 
which  the  prophet  had  of  Jehovah  in  the  temple,  with  the  aw- 
ful message  to  the  people  which  he  received"  from  His  lips. 
Many  regard  this  as  the  prophet's  inatiguration  to  his  office, 
and  consequently  as  the  first  of  his  prophecies  in  order  of  time. 
The  four  preceding  chapters  will  then  naturally  fall  into  tho 
reign  of  Jotham.  There  is  no  decisive  ground,  however,  for 
understanding  the  words,  "Whom  shall  I  send,  and  who  Avill 
go  for  us  ?"  (verse  8,)  as  containing  the  original  call  of  Isaiah 
to  the  "prophetical  office.     They   may  have  reference  to  the 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  391 

special  message  which  he  immediately  receives ;  a  message  of 
the  most  weighty  import,  and  often  quoted  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  confession  of  Isaiah,  moreover,  that  he  is  "  a  man 
of  nnclean  lips,"  may  be  very  naturally  referred  to  his  previous 
exercise  of  the  prophetic  office.  According  to  this  view,  the 
preceding  four  chapters  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  TJzziah's 
reign. 

The  series  of  prophecies  that  follows  (chaps.  7-12)  is  con- 
nected with  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  the  allied  kings  of  Israel 
and  Syria.  In  this  emergency  Ahaz,  instead  of  seeking  help 
from  Jehovah,  had  hired  the  Assyrians  to  defend  him  against 
the  confederate  forces.  The  prophet  predicts  the  overrunning 
of  the  land  by  these  same  Assyrians  in  whom  the  Jews  had 
reposed  their  confidence ;  and  afterwards  the  overthrow  of  the 
Assyrians  themselves,  and  the  universal  establishment  of  the 
Messiah's  kingdom,  who  is  foretold  under  the  name  of  Imman- 
uel.     The  series  closes  with  the  millennial  song  of  Zion. 

Next  we  have  a  series  of  prophecies  relating  mainly  to  the 
heathen  world  (chaps.  13-23),  through  all  of  which  the  prophet 
keeps  prominently  in  view  the  great  truth  that  the  nation  which 
will  not  acknowledge  Jehovah  and  minister  to  the  welfare  of 
his  people  must  perish.  He  begins  with  Babylon,  and  passes 
in  order  to  Philistia,  Moab,  Syria  (with  which  as  a  confederate 
nation  Ephraim  is  joined),  Ethiopia  and  Egypt  (first  separately 
and  then  conjointly),  Babylon  again  under  the  enigmatical 
name  of  "  the  desert  of  the  sea,"  Edom,  and  Arabia.  Next  fol- 
lows a  prophecy  against  "  the  valley  of  vision,"  that  is,  Jerusa- 
lem, to  which  is  appended  one  against  Shebna.  The  prophet 
then  passes  to  Tyre,  and  so  he  brings  this  series  to  a  close. 

The  four  chapters  that  follow  (24-27)  are  general  in  their 
character.  They  exhibit  Jehovah  as  the  avenger  and  deliverer 
of  his  people,  who  abases  the  proud  and  destroys  sinners  as 
well  within  the  i)ale  of  Zion  as  without  in  the  heathen  world, 
while  he  exalts  his  true  worshippers  to  honor  and  salvation. 

The  next  series  of  prophecies  (chaps.  28-35)  was  apparently 
delivered  in  view^  of  the  approaching  invasion  of  the  Assyrians, 


302  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

by  wLicli  the.  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  com- 
pleted, and  Judali  was  overrun  and  desolated ;  but  wliicli  ended 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  invading  army,  and  the  deliverance  of 
Hezekiah  and  his  kingdom.  The  prophet  denounces,  first  upon 
Ephra'im  and  then  upon  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  God's  heavy 
judgments  for  their  iniquities,  especially  for  the  sin  of  making 
Egypt  instead  of  Jehovah  their  confidence;  foretells'  the. utter 
and  perpetual  desolation  of  Edom,  which  here  represents  all 
the  powers  that  array  themselves  i^  hostility  against  God's 
people  ;  and  describes  in  glowing  language  the  glory  and  peace 
of  Zion  under  the  future  reign  of  the  Messiah. 

Next  follows  the  history  of  Sennacherib's  invasion  and  over- 
throw ;  of  Hezekiah's  sickness  and  miraculous  recovery,  and  of 
his  sin  in  connection  with  the  mission  of  Merodach-baladan's 
servants.     Chaps.  36-39. 

In  the  second  part  of  Isaiah,  which  includes  the  last  twenty- 
seven  chapters,  the  prophet  is  occupied  with  the  future  redemp- 
tion and  glory  of  Zion.  In  the  clear  light  of  inspiration,  and 
in  accordance  with  the  explicit  prophecy  that  has  just  been 
quoted,  he  takes  his  stand  in  the  future  of  Babylon's  suprem- 
acy, and  of  the  captivity  of  Zion  and  the  dispersion  of  hei 
children ;  and  he  comforts  the  true  Israel  by  the  promise  of 
restoration  and  elevation  to  a  greater  than  the  former  glory, 
when  all  nations  shall  submit  themselves  to  Jehovah,  and  shall 
minister  to  the  peace  and  welfare  of  Zion.  If  Ave  divide  these 
twenty-seven  chapters  into  three  equal  sections  of  nine  chap- 
ters each,  the  first  and  second  close  with  the  words :  "There  is 
no  peace,  saith  my  God,  to  the  wicked"  (chaps.  48:22;  57:21); 
while  the  third  ends  with  a  more  extended  threatening  against 
the  wicked  (chap.  6():  24).  The  prominent  ofiaracteristics  of 
these  three  sections  are  thus  given  by  Keil : 

"  The  fr'st  of  these  sections  (chaps.  40-48)  portra3^s  the 
relation  of  Israel  to  the  heathen  nations ;  and  from  the  redemp- 
tion of  Israel  effected  through  Cyrus,  the  servant  of  God,  it 
unfolds  the  certain  victory  of  the  Theocracy  over  the  gods  and 
powers  of  the  heathen  world.    The  second  section  (chaps.  49-57) 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  303 

exliibits  Israel  as  the  seat  of  salvation  for  the  world.  This  it 
does  by  carrying  out  the  thought  that,  just  as  Cyrus  is  to  re- 
deem Israel  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  so  must  the  true 
servant  of  Jehovah,  by  his  vicarious  suffering  and  death,  make 
cx])iation  for  sin,  raise  the  covenant  people  to  true  glory,  and 
make  them,  through  the  establishment  of  '  the  sure  mercies  of 
David'  (55:3),  the  centre  of  salvation  for  the  whole  world. 
Finally  in  the  third  section  (chaps.  58-66),  after  an  exhortation 
in  w^hich  the  sins  of  the  people  are  acknowledged  and  rebuked 
(chaps.  58,  59),  the  prophet  foretells,  in  a  series  of  majestic 
images,  how  the  Theocracy  shall  be  glorified  when  it  shall  be- 
come, in  connection  with  the  creation  of  a  new  heaven  and  a 
new  earth,  the  perfected  kingdom  of  God."  Introduction  to 
the  Old  Testament,  §  65.  Tins  view  of  the  glorification  of  the 
Theocracy  in  the  latter  days  is  preeminently  just,  provided  only 
that  we  do  not  understand  the  Theocracy  in  a  gross  literal 
sense.  It  is  the  true  kingdom  of  God,  once  embodied  in  the 
old  Theocracy,  but  now  existing  under  the  freer  forms  of  Chris- 
tianity, that  is  heir  to  all  this  glory. 

7.  As  Isaiah  holds  the  first  place  among  the  Hebrew  proph- 
ets in  the  canon,  in  the  extent  of  his  writings,  and  in  the  ful- 
ness of  his  prophecies  concerning  the  Messiah  and  his  king- 
dom, so  has  he  been  first  also  in  receiving  the  assaults  of  those 
who  deny  the  supernatural  character  of  revelation.  Since  the 
last  quarter  of  the  last  century  persistent  attempts  have  been 
made  to  show  that  the  whole  of  the  second  part  (chaps.  40-66) 
and  various  sections  of  the  first  part,  particularly  all  those 
that  relate  to  the  overthrow  of  Babylon,  belong  not  to  Isaiah, 
but  to  an  unknown  prophet  who  lived  about  the  close  of  the 
exile.  In  support  of  this  view  many  arguments  have  been  ad- 
duced ;  but  the  real  argument  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of 
the  whole  is  the  belief  that  no  such  insight  into  the  future  is 
possible  as  that  which  this  part  of  the  book  manifests,  upon 
the  supposition  that  Isaiah  was  himself  the  author  of  it.  The 
denial  of  the  genuineness  of  the  chapters  in  question  began 
and  has  always  gone  hand  in  hand  with  the  denial  of  the  real- 


304  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ity  of  prophetic  inspiration.  In  the  view  of  rationalists  proph- 
ecy is  no  revelation  of  the  future  through  the  illumination  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  only  anticipation  and  shrewd  conjecture 
of  the  futui-e  from  the  course  of  the  present.  The  possibility 
of  prophecy,  therefore,  is  limited  by  the  possibility  of  human 
foresight.  Reasoning  from  this  false  position,  the  critic  first 
assumes  that  Isaiah  cannot  have  been  the  author  of  the  last 
part  of  the  book  which  bears  his  name,  and  then  proceeds  to 
find  arguments  against  its  genuineness.  To  meet  him  we  must 
plant  our  feet  firmly  on  the  great  historic  truth  that  God  has 
made  to  men  a  supernatural  revelation,  of  which  prophecy  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  word — the  revelation  of  the  future  by 
his  Spirit — constitutes  an  important  part.  We  do  indeed  find 
that  in  the  matter  of  prophecy,  as  in  all  other  parts  of  God's 
operations,  the  great  law  is:  "First  the  blade,  then  the  ear, 
after  that  the  full  corn  in  the  ear."  The  way  for  the  fuller  rev- 
elations is  prepared  by  previous  intimations  of  a  more  general 
character.  Precisely  so  was  it  in  the  present  case.  Moses 
himself  had  more  than  once  predicted  the  captivity  of  the  cov- 
enant people  and  the  desolation  of  their  land  as  the  punish- 
ment of  their  foreseen  apostacy  from  God's  service,  and  also 
the  preservation  of  a  remnant  and  its  restoration  upon  repent- 
ance. Lev.,  chap.  26;  Deut.,  chaps.  28-32.  When  Solomon 
had  dedicated  the  temple,  and  his  kingdom  was  at  the  zenith 
of  its  glory,  he  received  from  the  mouth  of  God  himself  the 
solemn  warning:  "If  ye  shall  at  all  turn  from  following  me, 
ye  or  your  children,  and  will  not  keep  my  commandments  and 
my  statutes  which  I  have  set  before  you,  but  go  and  serve 
other. gods  and  worship  them;  then  will  I  cut  off  Israel  out  of 
the  land  which  I  have  given  them;  and  this  house,  which  I 
have  hallowed  for  my  name,  will  I  cast  out  of  my  sight ;  and 
Israel  shall  be  a  proverb  and  a  by-word  among  all  people." 
1  Kings  9:6,  7.  When  the  prophet  wrote,  these  awful  threat- 
enings  had  been  fulfilled  upon  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes, 
and  he  had  been  commissioned  to  announce  their  approaching 
fulfilment  upon  Judah  also,  and  that  in  the  form  of  a  captivity 


THE   OLD  TESTAMENT.  305 

in  Babylon :  "  Behold,  tlie  days  come,  tliat  all  that  is  in  thy 
house,  and  that  which  thy  fathers  have  laid  up  in  store  until 
this  day,  shall  be  carried  to  Babylon:  nothing  shall  be  left, 
saith  the  Lord.  And  of  thy  sons  which  shall  issue  from  thee, 
which  thou  shalt  beget,  shall  they  take  away;  and  they  shall 
be  eunuchs  in  the  palace  of  the  king  of  Babylon"  (39 :G,  7). 
Micah  also  had  foretold,  in  express  terms,  both  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  and  the  subsequent  delivery  of  God's  people  (4 :  10). 
We  see,  then,  what  a  full  preparation  had  been  made  for  the 
revelations  vouchsafed  to  Isaiah  in  the  chapters  now  under 
consideration.  They  relate  not  to  something  new  and  unheard 
of,  but  to  a  captivity  which  he  had  himself  foretold  in  accord- 
ance with  the  threatenings  of  God  by  former  prophets.  Under 
the  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spia:it  he  is  carried  into  the  future 
of  Zion.  In  prophetic  vision  he  sees  her  land  wasted,  her  tem- 
ple burned,  and  her  children  groaning  in  captivity.  As  the 
nearest  interposition  of  God  in  her  behalf,  he  foretells  her  lib- 
eration by  Cyrus,  the  anointed  of  the  Lord,  and  her  restoration 
to  the  promised  land.  But  this  is  only  the  earnest  and  pledge 
of  a  higher  redemption  through  the  Messiah,  the  true  servant  of 
Jehovah,  under  whom  she  shall  be  glorified  with  a  perpetual  sal- 
vation, and  her  dominion  extended  over  all  the  earth.  To  limit 
the  prophet's  vision  to  the  deliverance  from  Babylon  would  be 
to  make  him  a  messenger  of  glad  tidings  which  mocked  the 
hopes  of  the  covenant  people ;  for  this  deliverance  did  not  ful- 
fil the  just  expectations  which  his  lofty  promises  awakened  in 
the  bosoms  of  the  pious  remnant  of  Israel.  No;  it  is  in  Christ's 
redemption  alone,  of  which  that  of  Cyrus  was  only  a  shadow, 
that  Zion  receives  in  full  measure  the  glorious  promises  which 
shine  forth  in  this  part  of  Isaiah. 

If  now  we  consider  the  fonn  of  these  promises,  we  find  that 
they  bear  throughout  the  stamp  of  true  prophecy,  as  distin- 
guished from  history.  They  have  neither  the  dress  of  prose 
history,  with  its  dates  and  circumstantial  details,  such  as  we 
find  in  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  nor  of  historic  poetry, 
like  the  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak;  like  the  seventy-eighth, 


30G  COMPANION  TO  THE  BtBLE. 

luinclrecl  and  fifth,  and  hundred  and  sixth  psalms.  They  are 
expressed  in  a  series  of  poetic  images,  in  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  name  of  Cyrus,  all  is  general;  images,  moreover, 
drawn  for  the  most  23art,  not  from  the  great  events  connected 
with  the  conquests  of  Cyrus,  but  from  the  earlier  history  of 
Israel.  Let  any  one  read,  for  example,  the  forty-sixth  and 
forty-seventh  chapters  of  Isaiah,  and  ask  himself  whether  a 
writer  who  lived  in  Cyrus'  day  could  have  described  the  fall  of 
Babylon  wdthout  specific  allusions  to  the  agencies  by  which  it 
was  brought  to  23a ss.  As  to  the  historic  references  which  some 
find  to  the  march  of  the  Jewish  caravans  of  returning  captives 
through  the  desert  that  lay  betw^een  Babylon  and  Palestine, 
whoever  reads  the  j^assages  in  question  without  a  previously 
formed  conclusion,  must  be  satisfied  that  they  are  poetic  descrijo- 
tions  of  the  redemption  and  restoration  of  God's  people  bor- 
rowed mainly  from  the  primitive  journey  of  Israel  from  Egyj^t 
to  Canaan  through  the  wilderness  of  Arabia.  God,  as  then, 
goes  before  his  people,  opening  for  them  in  their  extremity 
"  rivers  in  high  places,  and  fountains  in  the  midst  of  the  val- 
leys ;"  making  *'  the  wilderness  a  pool  of  water,  and  the  dry 
land  springs  of  water."  Even  Cyrus  is  mentioned  not  as  the 
king  of  Persia,  but  as  a  man  raised  uj)  from  the  east  to  execute 
God's  vengeance  on  the  oppressors  of  his  jDeople. 

According  to  Ctesias  and  Pkitarch,  the  name  Cyynis  signifies  sun. 
Strabo  says  that  his  name,  before  ascending  the  throne  of  Persia,  was 
Agradates.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  word  Cyrus  (Heb.  Koresli)  was 
an  appellation  common  to  the  kings  of  Persia.  We  do  not  need,  however, 
the  help  of  this  hypothesis.  God  himself  explains  the  ground  on  which 
he  is  mentioned  by  name:  "For  Jacob  my  servant's  sake,  and  Israel 
mine  elect,  have  I  even  called  thee  by  thy  name  :  I  have  surnamed  thee, 
though  thou  hast  not  known  me  "  (45  : 4).  According  to  Josephus  (Antiq, 
11.  1,  2),  Cyrus  was  moved  to  issue  his  decree  for  the  liberation  of  the 
Jews  by  a  knov/ledge  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  in  which  he  is  mentioned 
byname.  With  this  agree  the  terms  of  the  edict:  "The  Lord  God  of 
heaven  hath  given  me  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth,  and  he  hath  charged 
me  to  build  him  a  house  at  Jerusalem,  which  is  in  Judah."  Ezra  1  :  2, 
compared  with  Isa.  44  :  28.  If  this  view  be  correct,  the  mention  of  Cyrus 
by  name  was  a  part  of  God's  plan  for  the  restoration  of  the  covenant  people. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  307 

It  is  not  true,  as  has  been  asserted,  that  the  prophet  follows  Cyrus  in 
the  details  of  his  conquests.  On  the  contrary,  his  notices  of  him  are  few 
and  general.  As  to  the  sins  of  the  people  which  he  rebukes,  they  may  be 
all  naturally  referred  to  the  times  of  Isaiah,  while  some  of  them,  as  the 
neglect  of  the  estabhshed  sacrifices  and  oblations  (43:23,  24),  and  the 
'offering  of  sacrifices  in  connection  with  an  impure  heart  and  life  (G6  : 3), 
presuppose  the  existence  of  the  temple  and  altar  at  Jerusalem,  where  alone 
sacrifices  could  be  lawfully  offered.  The  sin  of  seeking  heathen  alliances 
(57  : 9)  points  also  unmistakably  to  the  same  period.  Although  the  prophet 
is  carried  forward  in  vision  to  the  future  of  the  covenant  people,  he  does 
not  wholly  forget  the  men  of  his  own  generation,  but  occasionally  admin- 
isters to  them  severe  rebukes,  thus  mingling  the  present  with  the  future, 
after  the  manner  of  all  the  proj)hets. 

The  otlier  arguments  which  have  been  urged  against  the 
genuineness  of  this  part  of  Isaiah  are  only  of  secondary  impor- 
tance, and  can  readilj^  be  answered.  It  is  said  that  the  style 
is  more  diffuse  and  flowing  than  in  the  first  part.  The  answer 
is  that  this  agrees  well  with  both  the  altered  circumstances  of 
the  prophet  and  the  altered  character  of  his  theme.  Most  of 
his  earlier  prophecies  were  delivered  under  the  pressure  and 
excitement  of  public  life,  when  he  went  before  rulers  and  peo- 
ple charged  with  specific  messages  from  Jehovah,  and  these, 
too,  mostly  of  a  denunciatory  character.  But  the  part  now 
under  consideration  was  v/ritten  in  the  serenity  of  retirement, 
with  the  general  purpose  of  comforting  God's  people  by  a  vieAV 
of  the  future  glory  in  reserve  for  them.  It  is  entirely  natural, 
then,  that  the  style  of  the  first  part  should  be  more  concise  and 
abrupt,  that  of  the  latter  more  diffuse  and  flowing ;  even  if  we 
do  not  make  allowance  for  the  influence  of  age.  But  notwith- 
standing this  difference  between  the  two  parts,  both  have  the 
same  general  costume,  and  the  same  peculiar  expressions  and 
turns  of  thought,  by  which  they  are  sufficiently  marked  as  the 
productions  of  the  same  pen.  It  should  be  added  that  the 
Hebrew  of  this  second  part  of  Isaiah  is  in  general  as  pure  as 
that  of  the  first  part.  The  few  Chaldaisms  which  it  exhibits 
may  be  explained  as  belonging  to  the  poetic  diction.  Such 
Chaldaisms  exist,  moreover,  in  the  earlier  books.  "  Some  words, 
as  seganim  ( princes ,  41 :  25),  may  be  explained  by  the  intercourse 


308  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  the  Jews  with  the  Assyrians  in  the  days  of  Isaiah."     David- 
son's Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  p.  857. 

8.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  arguments  against  the  genu- 
ineness of  this  part  of  Isaiah  (and  by  parity  of  reason  against 
certain  sections  of  the  first  part)  have  their  ground  in  tho 
denial  of  prophetic  inspiration,  and  cannot  endure  the  test  of 
sober  criticism.  The  evidence,  then,  for  the  genuineness  of 
these  chapters  remains  in  its  full  force,  and  it  is  of  the  most 
weighty  character.  If  we  look  to  external  testimony,  there  is 
the  undeniable  fact  that,  as  far  back  as  we  can  trace  the  his- 
tory of  the  book  of  Isaiah,  they  have  constituted  an  integral 
part  of  it.  They  are  recognized  as  such  by  Josephus  (Antiq. 
11.  1,  2) ;  by  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach,  in  the  book  called  Eccle- 
siasticus  (48:  24,  25);  and  always  in  the  New  Testament  when 
quotations  are  made  from  them — Matt.  3:3;  8  :  17 ;  12  :  17-21 ; 
Luke  3  : 4 ;  4  :  17-19  ;  John  1 :  23 ;  12  :  38-41,  where  a  quotation 
from  the  last  part  of  Isaiah  is  joined  with  one  from  the  first 
part;  Acts  8:28-33;  Eom.  10:16,  20,  21.  That  they  wero 
appended  by  fraud  and  forger}^  no  one  pretends  to  affirm.  Tho 
character  of  this  part  of  the  book,  not  less  than  the  character 
of  those  who  had  the  Jewish  canon  in  custod}^,  is  a  sufficient 
protection  against  such  a  supposition.  That  they  should  have 
been  appended  through  ignorance  is  inconceivable.  How  can 
the  name  of  so  great  a  prophet  have  remained  unknown? 
According  to  the  hypothesis  i;i  question,  he  lived  about  tho 
close  of  the  Babylonish  captivity.  He  was  contemporary,  there- 
fore, with  Daniel;  with  Zerubbabel  also,  Jeshua,  and  the  other 
chiefs  of  the  restoration.  Did  no  one  of  these  know  who  was 
the  man  that  prophesied  so  abundantly  of  the  work  which  they 
had  so  much  at  heart  ?  And  did  his  name  indeed  escape  tho 
knowledge  of  the  learned  scribe  Ezra?  And  if  they  did  not 
know  his  name,  why  did  they  append  his  writings  to  those  of 
the  true  Isaiah,  thus  tacitly  ascribing  to  him  their  authorship  ? 
Why  did  they  not  leave  them  without  a  name,  as  they  did  tho 
books  of  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  ?  That 
these  chapters  have  always  constituted  a  part  of  the  book  of 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  309 

Isaiali,  and  been  acknowledged  as  sucli,  is  a  fact  wliicli  admits 
of  but  one  explanation;  that,  namely,  of  their  genuineness. 
The  Great  Unknown,  as  he  is  called,  is  no  other  than  Isaiah 
himself,  whom  the  principles  of  certain  critics  do  not  allow  them 
to  acknowledge  as  Isaiah. 

The  internal  evidence  for  the  genuineness  of  these  chapters 
has  already  been  partly  considered  in  an  incidental  way.  It  is 
found  in  the  purity  of  the  Hebrew,  which  belongs  to  the  age  of 
Isaiah,  not  of  Cyrus ;  in  the  undeniable  allusions  to  the  temple 
sacrifices  and  oblations  as  then  existing  (43  :  23,  24),  and  to  the 
sin  of  seeking  heathen  alliances  (57 : 9) ;  and  especially  in  the 
fact  that  a  writer  living  near  the  close  of  the  exile  must  have 
referred  in  a  more  particular  and  historic  way  to  the  great 
events  connected  with  Cyrus'  conquests.  It  may  be  added 
that  there  are  in  the  later  prophets  some  clear  allusions  to  this 
part  of  Isaiah.  Jeremiah,  who  undeniably  made  use  of  proph- 
ecies contained  in  the  first  part  of  Isaiah,  was  acquainted  with 
the  second  part  also.  Compare  Jer.  10  :  3,  4,  with  Isa.  40  :  19, 
20  ;  41 :  7 ;  Jer.  31 :  35,  with  Isa.  51 :  15,  where  a  whole  clause 
is  repeated  from  Isaiah,  which  agrees  in  the  Hebrew  to  every 
letter ;  Jer.  50  :  2,  with  Isa,  46  : 1,  2.  Compare  also  Zeph.  2 :  15, 
with  Isa.  47  :  8 ;  Nah.  1 :  15,  with  Isa.  52  :  7. 

9.  The  arguments  urged  against  the  genuineness  of  certain 
sections  of  the  first  part  of  Isaiah  are  for  substance  the  same 
as  these  that  have  now  been  examined,  and  need  not  a  separa- 
rate  consideration.  We  come  on  solid  grounds  to  the  conclu- 
sion, that  Isaiali  was  the  author  of  the  whole  collection  of  prop- 
ecies  which  bear  his  name,  and  that  the  arrangement  of  these 
prophecies  in  their  present  form  also  proceeded  from  him. 

II.     JEREMIAH  AND  THE  BOOK  OF  LAMENTATIONS. 

10.  In  passing  from  Isaiah  to  Jeremiah,  the  contrast  is  as 
great  as  it  can  well  be ;  and  yet  it  is  a  contrast  necessary  to 
the  completeness  of  divine  revelation,  which  employs  men  of 
all  characters  and  temperaments,  and  living  in  every  variety  of 
outward  circumstances.     Isaiah,  like  the  apostle  John,  seems 


310  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

to  have  lived  above  his  personal  relations  in  the  sphere  of  divine 
truth.  He  never  alludes  to  his  private  history,  except  where 
the  nature  of  a  given  narrative  requires  it.  It  is  not  prob- 
able that  he  was  subjected  to  such  an  ordeal  of  persecution  as 
that  through  which  Jeremiah  passed.  However  this  may  be, 
we  gain  almost  no  knowledge  of  his  private  life  from  the  book 
of  his  prophecies.  But  Jeremiah,  like  the  apostle  Paul,  unfolds 
to  us  very  fully  the  history  of  his  inward  and  outward  life. 
With  his  peculiarly  tender  and  sensitive  mind  it  could  not 
have  been  otherwise.  If  he  had  not  woven  into  his  prophecies 
his  own  inner  and  outer  life,  he  would  not  have  written  natu- 
rally, and  therefore  truthfully.  Through  this  inter w,eaving  of 
biography  with  revelation,  God  has  given  in  the  case  of  Jere- 
miah, as  in  that  of  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  a  rich 
storehouse  of  truth  for  the  instruction  and  comfort  of  his  per- 
secuted and  suffering  servants  in  all  ages.  With  the  simplicity 
of  truth,  the  prophet  informs  us  how  the  men  of  Anathoth,  his 
native  place,  conspired  to  take  away  his  life  (11 :  18-23 ;  12:6); 
how  Pashur,  the  son- of  Immer,  smote  him  and  put  him  in  the 
stocks  (20  : 1-6) ;  how  in  the  beginning  of  Jehoiakim's  reign  he 
was  accused  before  the  princes  by  the  priests  and  false  proph- 
ets as  a  man  worthy  of  death,  but  acquitted  by  them  (chap. 
26) ;  how  afterwards  he  and  Baruch  were  hidden  by  Jehovah 
(chap  36) ;  how  under  Zedekiah  he  was  repeatedly  imprisoned 
(chaps.  32  :  2 ;  33  : 1),  and  thrust  into  dungeons  (chaps.  37,  38) ; 
how  upon  the  conquest  of  the  city  by  the  Chaldeans  he  was 
released  from  his  fetters  and  honorably  treated  (chs.  39  :  11-14 ; 
40 : 1-4) ;  and  how  afterwards  he  was  forced  to  go  into  Egypt 
with  the  fugitive  Jews  (chaps.  42,  43). 

In  connection  with  this  external  history,  we  have  a  vivid 
portraiture  of  his  inward  conflicts.  Most  deeply  does  he  sym- 
pathize with  his  countr^^men  in  the  calamities  which  their  sins 
have  brought  upon  them ;  ^et  he  is  rewarded  only  with  curses, 
because  he  faithfully  forewarns  them  of  the  judgments  of  lieav- 
en  which  are  fast  approaching,  and  which  can  be  averted  only 
by  hearty  repentance  and  reformation.    *' Woe  is  me,  my  moth- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  311 

er,"  he  cries  out  in  his  anguish,  "  that  thou  hast  borne  me  a 
man  of  strife  and  a  man  of  contention  to  the  whole  earth  !  I 
have  neither  lent  on  usury,  nor  men  have  lent  to  me  on  usury ; 
yet  every  one  of  them  cloth  curse  me"  (15  :10);  and  like  Job 
he  loses  all  composure  under  the  pressure  of  his  sorrows,  and 
bitterly  curses  the  day  of  his  birth  (20  :  14-18).  Again  Ave  see 
him  in  the  hands  of  his  persecutors  serenely  committing  him- 
self to  God,  and  calmly  warning  them  against  the  guilt  of 
shedding  his  blood  (26  :  12-15).  In  such  alternations  of  impa- 
tience and  faith  we  have  a  true  portraiture  of  the  struggle  of 
grace  against  the  weakness  of  nature ;  and  it  is  this  which  gives 
it  especial  value  as  a  part  of  revelation,  which  never  exhibits 
good  men  in  a  fictitious  light,  but  always  in  the  sober  livery  of 
truth. 

11.  Jeremiah  was  of  priestly  descent  (1:1);  but  that  Hil- 
kiah,  his  father,  was  identical  with  the  high  priest  who  found 
in  the  temple  the  book  of  the  law  (2  Kings  22  : 8),  rests  upon 
mere  conjecture.  Anathoth,  his  native  place,  was  in  the  land 
of  Benjamin,  about  four  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  He  was 
called  to  the  prophetical  ofiice  in  his  youth,  and  exercised  it  in 
his  native  land  from  the  thirteenth  year  of  Josiah  to  the  close 
of  Zedekiah's  reign,  through  a  period  of  abou.t  forty-one  years 
(chap.  1:3);  and  afterwards  in  Egypt,  whither  he  w^as  carried 
by  the  rebellious  remnant  of  the  people  (chaps.  43,  44).  His 
first  appearance,  therefore,  was  about  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
one  years  after  that  of  Isaiah,  if  we  reckon  from  the  last  year 
of  Uzziah,  and  some  seventy  or  more  after  the  close  of  Isaiah's 
prophecies.  During  all  this  time  the  religious  and  moral  con- 
dition of  the  Jewish  nation  had  been  steadily  changing  for  the 
worse  under  such  kings  as  Manasseh  and  Amon;  nor  could 
the  zealous  efi'orts  of  Josiah  avail  to  check  the  swelling  tide  of 
idolatry  and  profligacy.  Sent  by  Jehovah  in  such  a  degenerate 
age  to  rebuke  the  wicked  rulers  and  people  for  their  sins,  and 
to  forewarn  them  of  God's  impending  judgments,  he  was  neces- 
sarily subjected  to  much  persecution.  IsaioJi  had  administered 
stern  rebukes  to  Ahaz  and  his  people,  but  he  had  encouraged 


312  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

tliem  with  the  hope  of  successful  resistance  to  the  Assyrian 
power.  But  from  the  Chaldeans,  who  had  succeeded  the  As- 
syrians as  the  ruling  monarchy  of  the  world,  Jeremiah  could 
promise  no  deliverance.  In  the  name  of  the  Lord  he  counselled 
submission,  solemnly  assuring  the  kings  and  princes  of  Judah 
that  their  reliance  on  Egyptian  help  would  end  in  shame  and 
disappointment  (37  : 5-10).  This  brought  npon  him  a  load  of 
calumny,  insult,  and  persecution,  wdiicli  he  keenly  felt,  but  bore 
with  fortitude,  never  swerving  from  the  path  of  strict  fidelity 
towards  God.  The  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  do  not  contain  so 
many  animating  visions  of  the  distant  future  as  are  found  in 
Isaiah.  He  is  more  occupied  wdth  the  sins  of  his  own  age,  and 
the  heavy  judgments  of  God  that  impend  over  his  countrymen. 
His  mission  is  emphatically  to  unfold  the  connection  between 
national  profligacy  and  national  ruin.  This  he  does  with  a 
masterly  hand,  holding  up  to  the  world,  in  the  character  and 
fate  of  his  countrymen,  a  mirror  for  all  time,  in  which  wdcked 
nations  may  see  themselves  and  the  ruin  wdiich  awaits  them. 
The  whole  compass  of  profane  history  does  not  contain  so  much 
clear  instruction  on  this  point  as  is  crowded  into  the  few  pages 
of  "the  weeping  prophet."  If  the  book  of  God's  revelation 
could  not  have  been  complete  without  the  ecstatic  visions  of 
Isaiah,  so  neither  could  it  have  spared  Jeremiah's  vivid  delin- 
eation of  a  profligate  nation  plunging  itself  into  remediless 
ruin  by  its  iniquities.  At  times,  how^ever,  we  find  in  Jeremiah 
also  joyous  anticipations  of  the  good  reserved  for  God's  people 
in  the  latter  days.  He  predicted  not  only  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  but  its  termination  at  the  end  of  seventy  years,  and 
the  perpetual  overthrow  of  Babylon  and  the  Chaldean  power 
(25  :  12-14 ;  29  :  10-14).  See  also  chapters  30-33,  where  he  de- 
scribes, after  the  manner  of  Isaiah,  the  glory  of  the  latter  days. 

In  Jeremiah  we  have  an  innstrious  example  of  one  whose  reputation 
after  death  became  as  high  and  lasting,  as  the  reproach  which  he  endured 
before  death  was  deep  and  protracted.  The  men  of  his  generation  could 
not  appreciate  his  worth.  His  messages  they  treated  with  scorn,  and  him 
with  contumely.     Through  a  long  life  of  faithful  labor  it  Avas  his  lot  to 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  313 

endure  reproach  and  calumny.  But  neither  their  unbelief,  nor  the  burn- 
ing of  the  roU  of  his  prophecies  by  Jehoiakim  could  hinder  the  fulfilment 
of  his  words.  "When  the  captivity  had  come,  as  he  had  predicted,  and 
especially  when  God's  promise  through  him  that  it  should  end  after  sev- 
enty years  had  been  fulfilled,  he  was  honored  as  among  the  gxeatest  of  the 
prophets,  and  from  that  day  onward  his  name  became  as  ointment  poured 
forth.  The  history  of  Jeremiah  is  also  peculiarly  encouraging  to  God's 
faithful  servants  who  labor  on  for  years  amid  difficulties  and  discourage- 
ments, and  see  no  fruits  of  their  toils.  When  he  died  it  seemed  as  if  all 
his  solemn  messages  had  been  wasted  upon  that  ungodly  generation.  But 
they  were  not  lost  to  the  Jews  who  hved  to  witness  the  fulfilment  of  his 
predictions  in  their  captivity.  In  connection  with  the  labors  of  Ezekiel 
and  Daniel  they  contributed  greatly  to  bring  about  that  change  for  the 
better  which  took  place  during  the  exile.  Through  them,  moreover,  God 
provided  a  treasury  of  instruction  and  comfort  for  his  people  in  all  coming 
ages.  How  forcible  a  comment  are  his  life  and  labors  upon  the  apostolic 
declaration  made  many  centuries  afterwards  :  "Let  us  not  be  weary  in 
well-doing  :  for  in  due  season  we  shall  reap  if  we  faint  not." 

12.  Of  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  some  are  without  date, 
and  where  the  date  is  given  the  chronological  order  is  not 
always  observed.  In  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim  the  prophet, 
by  God's  direction,  dictated  to  Baruch,  and  he  WTote  in  a  roll 
of  a  book  all  the  prophecies  which  God  had  communicated  to 
him  from  the  days  of  Josiah  to  that  time  (36  : 1-4).  When  the 
king  had  destroyed  this  roll,  he  was  directed  to  prepare  another 
containing  the  same  prophecies,  and  "  there  were  added  besides 
unto  them  many  like  words"  (36  :  27-32).  Whatever  use  may 
have  been  made  of  this  manuscript  in  the  compilation  of  our 
present  book,  it  is  plain  that  it  has  not  come  down  to  us  in  its 
original  form  as  a  constituent  part  of  Jeremiah's  propliecies ; 
since  in  these,  as  we  now  have  them,  there  is  an  intermingling 
of  messages  before  and  after  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim. 
We  cannot  tell  the  origin  of  the  present  order,  nor  is  it  a  mat- 
ter of  importance,  so  far  as  the  instructions  to  be  derived 
from  Jeremiah's  writings  are  concerned.  Following  the  He- 
brew order  (see  below)  we  have  the  following  general  divis- 
ions : 

(1.)  Prophecies  addressed  to  Judah,  with  which  are  con- 

Comp.  to  KiUI-.  14 


314  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

nected  many  notices  of  Jeremiah's  personal  history,  and  at  the 
close  of  which  stands  a  message  to  Baruch.     Chaps.  1-45. 

(2.)  Prophecies  against  foreign  nations. 

(3.)  An  appendix  taken  almost  verbatim  from  2  Kings 
24 :  18-20  and  chap.  25,  and  which  seems  to  have  been  added 
by  some  later  writer,  as  Ezra  (chap.  52.) 

It  is  not  necessary  to  consider  particularly  the  attempt 
made  to  disprove  the  genuineness  of  certain  parts  of  Jeremiah's 
prophecies,  since  they  all  rest,  not  on  critical  grounds,  but  on 
the  false  principle  that  has  been  already  considered — the  denial 
of  the  reality  of  prophetic  inspiration.  Men  who  deny  that 
Isaiah  could  foresee  the  restoration  of  the  Jews  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,  must  deny  also  that  Jeremiah  could  limit  the 
duration  of  that  captivity  to  seventy  years.  But  with  those 
who  believe  that  "  holy  men  of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved 
by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  such  arguments  cannot  have  weight.  It 
is  well  known  that  Jeremiah,  particularly  in  his  prophecies 
against  foreign  nations,  made  use  of  earlier  prophecies,  as 
those  of  Isaiah  and  Obadiah.  Compare  Isa.  chaps.  15, 16  with 
Jer.  chap.  48;  Obadiah  with  Jer.  49  :  7-17. 

The  Alexandrine  version  differs  unaccountably  from  the  Hebrew  text 
in  its  arrangement  of  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah.  Those  against  foreign 
nations  come  after  chap.  25  :  13,  and  also  follow  a  very  different  order. 
Besides  this,  the  Alexandrine  exhibits  a  number  of  variations  larger  and 
smaller  from  the  Hebrew  text.  The  explanation  of  these  differences  in 
arrangement  and  in  the  text  is  a  matter  of  uncertain  conjecture. 

13.  The  hooh  of  Lamentations  is  designated  in  Hebrew  by  the 
opening  word  Eclia,  lioio.  The  unanimous  voice  of  antiquity 
ascribes  it  to  Jeremiah,  and  with  this  tradition  agree  its  inter- 
nal character  and  style.  It  was  written  in  view  of  the  desola- 
tion of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans,  by  an  eye-wit- 
ness of  all  the  unutterable  miseries  connected  with  that  catas- 
trophe. While  it  laments,  in  strains  of  the  deepest  anguish, 
the  desolation  of  Jerusalem  with  the  slaughter  and  captivity 
of  its  inhabitants,  and  heaps  together  images  of  horror,  it 
ascribes  righteousness  to  God,  and  acknowledges  the  manifold 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  315 

sins  of  the  rulers  and  ]3eople  as  the  cause  of  the  overwhelming 
calamities  that  had  come  upon  them.  We  see  throughout  the 
feelings  of  a  tender-hearted  and  compassionate  man,  of  a  sin- 
cere patriot,  and  of  a  devout  worshipper  of  Jehovah  beautifully 
blended  together.  Sad  as  is  the  picture,  it  is  to  us  who  con- 
template it  in  the  light  of  history,  not  without  its  lessons  of 
comfort  as  well  as  of  warning.  It  teaches  us  that  in  the  mid- 
night of  Zion's  adversity  her  covenant  God  is  with  her,  and 
that  she  has  an  indestructible  life.  The  prerogative  which  the 
Eoman  bard  applied  to  his  country :  "  Plunge  her  in  the  deep, 
she  comes  out  the  stronger" — this  high  prerogative  belongs  to 
the  true  spiritual  Jerusalem,  which  no  fire  can  destroy,  nor 
floods  overwhelm. 

The  structure  of  this  book  is  peculiar.  Its  five  chapters 
constitute  five  poetical  compositions,  each  complete  in  itself  so 
far  as  outward  form  is  concerned,  but  the  whole  inwardly  bound 
together  as  parts  of  one  great  theme.  The  first  and  second 
chapters  consist  each  of  twenty-two  verses,  arranged  in  the  or- 
der of  the  tw^enty-two  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet ;  that  is, 
the  first  verse  beginning  with  the  first  letter,  the  second  with 
the  second,  and  so  on.  Each  of  the  verses,  moreover,  contains 
as  a  rule  three  clauses.  The  third  chapter  contains  sixty-six 
short  verses  of  one  clause  each,  the  first  three  beginning  with 
the  first  letter  of  the  alphabet,  the  next  three  with  the  second, 
and  so  throughout.  In  this  central  chapter,  therefore,  the 
alphabetic  structure  reaches  its  culmination.  The  fourth  chap- 
ter is  like  the  first  and  second,  with  the  exception  that  the 
verses  generally  consist  of  two  clauses  each.  The  fifth  chapter 
contains  twenty-two  short  verses  of  one  clause  each,  like  those 
of  the  third,  but  not  arranged  alphabetically. 

The  more  artificial  structure  of  the  third  chapter  marks  it  at  once  as 
peculiar.  In  this  the  prophet,  as  the  representative  of  the  pious  part  of 
the  nation,  bewails  the  calamities  that  have  come  upon  himself  and  his 
country,  expresses  his  firm  confidence  in  God  and  his  purpose  to  wait  for 
deliverance  in  patient  submission  to  his  will,  exhorts  his  countrymen  to 
repentance,  and  offers  up  his  fervent  prayer  to  God  that  he  would  remera- 


316  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ber  his  suffering  people  and  punish  their  persecutors.  The  fifth  chapter 
is  a  complaint  of  Zion  in  prayer  to  God  in  view  of  the  terri-bie  calamities 
that  have  come  upon  her.  The  other  three  chapters  (the  first,  second, 
and  fourth)  are  occupied  mainly  with  a  description  of  these  calamities. 

III.     EZEKIEL. 

15.  Ezeldel  was  especially  the  prophet  of  the  captivity. 
Daniel,  his  contemporary,  received  in  Babjdon  glorious  revela- 
tions respecting  the  future  history  of  God's  kingdom ;  but 
he  was  a  statesman,  exercising  the  prophetical  office,  like 
David,  only  in  an  incidental  way.  Ezekiel,  on  the  contrary, 
was  expressly  called  and  consecrated,  like  his  predecessors 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  to  the  prophetical  office.  Like  Isaiah, 
he  has  given  us  but  few  particulars  concerning  his  personal 
history.  He  was  the  son  of  Buzi,  and  of  priestly  descent  (1:3); 
belonged  to  that  company  of  captives  of  the  better  class  of  the 
people  who  had  been  carried  away  with  Jehoiachin  by  the  king 
of  Babylon  when  he  made  Zedekiah  king  in  his  stead  (2  Kings 
24 : 8-16) ;  and  lived  with  other  captives  at  Tell-abib  on  the 
Chebar  (perhaps  the  ancient  Chaboras,  a  branch  of  the  Eu- 
phrates), where  he  had  a  house  and  was  married  (1 : 1-3 ;  3  :  15 ; 
8:1;  24:15-18).  That  he  was  held  in  high  honor  by  his  fel- 
low-captives, as  a  true  prophet  of  God,  is  manifest  from  the 
manner  in  which  they  assembled  at  his  house  to  inquire  of  the 
Lord  through  him  (8  : 1 ;  14  : 1 ;  20  : 1).  Of  his  personal  stand- 
ing and  reputation,  as  well  as  of  the  character  of  his  hearers, 
we  have  an  interesting  notice  in  chap.  33  :  30-32,  where  instead 
of  "talking  against  thee"  (verse  30)  we  may  better  render,  as 
in  the  margin  of  our  English  version,  "  talking  of  thee:"  "Also, 
thou  son  of  man,  the  children  of  thy  people  are  still  talking 
of  thee  by  the  walls  and  in  the  doors  of  the  houses,  and  speak 
one  to  another,  every  one  to  his*  brother,  saying,  Come,  I  pray 
you,  and  hear  what  is  the  word  that  cometh  forth  from  the 
Lord.  And  they  come  unto  thee  as  the  people  cometh,  and 
they  sit  before  thee  as  my  people,  and  they  hear  thy  words, 
but  they  will  not  do  them  :  for  with  their  mouth  they  show 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  317 

mucli  love,  but  tlieir  heart  goetli  after  their  covetousness.  And 
lo,  thou  art  unto  them  as  a  very  lovely  song  of  one  that  hath  a 
pleasant  voice,  and  can  play  well  on  an  instrument:  for  they 
hear  thy  words,  but  they  do  them  not."  Ezekiel  was  called  to 
the  prophetical  office  "  in  the  fifth  year  of  king  Jehoiachin's 
captivity"  (1 : 2),  from  which  date  he  constantly  reckons.  Jere- 
miah's activity  as  a  prophet  continued  not  only  through  the 
eleven  years  of  Zedeldah's  reign,  but  for  a  considerable  period 
afterwards ;  so  that  the  two  prophets  were  for  some  time  con- 
temporary, the  one  prophesying  in  Jerusalem  and  afterwards 
in  Egypt,  the  other  among  the  captives  in  Mesopotamia.  The 
latest  date  which  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  furnish  is  the  twen- 
ty-seventh year  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity,  about  twenty-two 
years  from  the  time  when  he  w^as  called  to  his  office.  How 
much  longer  he  prophesied   we  have  no  means  of  determin- 


Tlie  date  with  which  the  book  of  Ezekiel  opens  is  "the  thirtieth  year, 
in  the  fourth  month,  in  the  fifth  clay  of  the  month,"  which  was  also  "the 
fifth  year  of  king  Jehoiachin's  captivity"  (verse  2),  or  five  hundred  and 
ninety-five  years  before  Christ.  Reckoning  back  from  this  date  thirty 
years,  we  come  to  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah,  when  he  repaired  tlie 
temple,  and  solemnly  renewed  the  worship  of  God ;  and  also  to  the  first 
year  of  Nabopolassar,  the  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  made  Babylon 
independent  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  and  thus  estabhshed  a  new  era. 
Some  have  assumed  the  former  of  these  two  eras  as  that  from  which  the 
prophet  reckons ;  but  the  latter  is  more  probable.  "Writing,  as  he  does, 
under  the  Chaldean  monarchy,  it  is  natural  that  he  should  give,  at  the 
outset,  a  date  by  which  the  chronology  of  the  whole  series  of  his  prophe- 
cies may  be  determined  in  reference  to  Chaldean  history.  Elsewhere  he 
dates  from  Jehoiachin's  captivity. 

16.  It  is  not  Avorth  while  to  raise  any  questions  concerning 
the  purity  of  Ezekiel's  Hebrew,  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
earlier  writers.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  not  concerned  about  the 
classic  style  of  a  prophet.  He  selects  men  whose  natural  qual- 
ities, providential  training,  and  sanctified  hearts  fit  them  for 
the  work  assigned  to  them ;  and  under  his  inspiration  they 
speak  and  write  in  the  dialect  to  which  they  and  their  hearers 


318  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

are  accustomed.  Ezekiel's  style  is  marked  by  Clialdaisms,  aS 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  circumstances  in  which  he 
wrote.  At  the  same  time  it  is  as  forcible  as  it  is  peculiar,  a 
style  every  way  adapted  to  the  work  laid  upon  him.  He  was 
sent  to  "a  rebellious  nation;"  to  "impudent  children  and  stiff- 
hearted,"  with  the  charge:  "Be  not  afraid  of  them,  neither  be 
afraid  of  their  words,  though  briers  and  thorns  be  with  thee, 
and  thou  dost  dwell  among  scorpions  :  be  not  afraid  of  their 
words,  nor  be  dismayed  at  their  looks,  though  they  be  a  rebel- 
lious house"  (2  : 3,  4,  6).  How  well  he  fulfilled  his  mission  his 
prophecies  show,  in  which  there  is  a  wonderful  fire  and  vehe- 
mence, joined  with  a  wonderful  variety  of  representation  and 
imagery.  Proverbs,  parables,  riddles,  symbolic  actions,  vivid 
portraitures  of  human  wickedness,  terrible  denunciations  of 
God's  approaching  judgments,  and  glorious  visions  of  future 
peace  and  prosperity  in  reserve  for  the  true  Israel — these  are 
all  familiar  to  him,  and  are  set  forth  often  with  an  exuberant 
fulness  of  imagery.  When  summoned  by  God  to  judge  "the 
bloody  city"  of  Jerusalem,  ripe  for  the  judgments  of  heaven, 
he  heaps  one  upon  another  the  black  crimes  of  which  she  is 
guilty  (22  :  6-12).  The  repetitions  so  remarkably  characteristic 
of  his  style  are  those  of  energy,  not  of  weakness.  They  are  the 
repetitions  of  a  battering-ram  that  gives  blow  upon  blow  tiU 
the  wall  crumbles  before  it.  The  same  may  be  said  of  his  am- 
plifications, as  in  chaps.  1,  16,  23,  27,  etc.  He  had  a  remark- 
able adaptation  to  his  office ;  and  his  influence  must  have  been 
very  great  in  bringing  about  the  reformation  of  the  nation 
which  took  place  during  the  captivity. 

17.  Ezekiel  abounds  in  allegoric  and  symbolic  representa- 
tions. These  give  to  many  of  his  prophecies  a  dark  and  mys- 
terious character,  and  make  them  difficult  of  interpretation. 
Jerome  long  ago  called  the  book  "  an  ocean  and  labyrinth  of 
the  mysteries  of  God."  Nevertheless,  the  common  reader  finds 
in  him  much  that  is  plain  of  apprehension,  and  full  of  weighty 
instruction.  Reserving  the  general  subject  of  the  interpreta- 
tion of  prophecy  for  another  place,  we  add  here  a  few  words 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  319 

respecting  tlie  nature  of  allegories  and  symbols,  and  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  they  are  to  be  interpreted. 

An  allegory  is  a  narrative  of  a  real  event  expressed  in  figur- 
ative language ;  that  is,  where  one  historic  transaction  is  de- 
scribed under  the  image  of  another.  Thus  in  chap.  17  : 1-10, 
the  two  great  eagles  are  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Pharaoh;  the 
highest  branch  of  the  cedar  is  Jehoiachin  ;  the  cropping  off  and 
carrying  away  of  this  branch  is  his  removal  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar to  Babylon,  etc.  So  also  the  extended  descriptions  of  Jeru- 
salem in  chap.  16,  and  of  Jerusalem  and  Samaria  in  chap.  23, 
under  the  figure  of  lewd  women.  For  other  beautiful  examples 
of  allegory  see  Judges  9 : 8-15 ;  Isa.  5 : 1-6 ;  Psa.  80  ;  Mark 
12:1-9. 

In  scriptural  usage  parables  are  not  always  distinguished 
from  allegories.  But  properly  speaking  parables  are  narratives 
of  supposed  incidents — at  least  of  incidents  the  reality  of  which 
is  of  no  consequence — for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  important 
truths;  while  allegories  are  figurative  descriptions  of  actual 
events. 

A  symbol  represents  some  great  truth  or  event  of  the  future 
under  the  form  of  an  action,  or  some  material  structure  or 
arrangement.  PropJietic  syinhols  take  the  form  of  actions,  and 
are  of  two  kinds : 

First,  actual,  where  the  prophet  himself  performs  some  ac- 
tion before  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen;  as  in  chap.  24:18, 
where  Ezekiel,  in  obedience  to  God's  command,  refrains  from 
all  expressions  of  grief  at  the  death  of  his  wife;  and  chap. 
37: 16,  17,  where  he  joins  together  two  sticks  to  represent  the 
reunion  of  the  ten  tribes  with  Judah  and  Benjamin.  See  also 
Jer.  27  :  2  compared  with  28  :  10. 

Secondly,  ideal;  that  is,  seen  only  in  vision;  like  Ezekiel's 
prophecy  upon  the  dry  bones,  chap.  37  : 1-10,  and  his  measure- 
ments of  the  New  Jerusalem  with  its  temple,  porches,  etc. 
Chaps.  40-48. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  to  which  of  these  two  classes 
a  given  symbol  belongs.     Did  Jeremiah,  for  example,  actually 


820  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

go  to  Euphrates  to  bury  the  hnen  girdle  there,  or  only  iu  pro- 
phetic ecstacy  ?  Jer.  13  : 1-11.  Did  Ezekiel  perform  the  acts 
recorded  in  chap.  4  in  reahty  or  in  vision?  The  answer  to 
such  questions  is  not  of  great  importance,  since  either  way  the 
meaning  of  the  symbols  and  the  instructions  which  they  furnish 
are  the  same. 

18.  If  we  divide  the  book  of  Ezekiel  into  two  equal  parts  of 
twenty-four  chapters  each,  the  first  part  contains  prophecies 
delivered  before  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem.  These  are  ar- 
ranged in  chronological  order.  After  an  introductory  chapter 
describing  the  vision  of  the  glory  of  God  which  the  prophet 
had  wdien  called  to  his  office,  there  follows,  in  the  form  of  vis- 
ions, allegories,  symbolic  actions,  and  direct  addresses,  a  series 
of  vivid  descriptions  of  the  sins  of  Jerusalem  and  the  judg- 
ments of  heaven  that  are  about  to  fall  upon  her.  "With  these  are 
interspersed  denunciations  of  the  false  proj^hets  that  flatter  the 
people  in  their  sins,  and  fervent  addresses  to  his  fellow-captives 
remarkable  for  their  plainness  and  evangelical  spirit.  The 
second  part  opens  with  a  series  of  prophecies  against  seven  for- 
eign nations,  in  which  the  order  of  time  is  not  observed — first, 
short  prophecies  against  the  four  neighboring  nations,  Ammon, 
Moab,  Edom,  Philistia  (chap.  25) ;  secondly,  a  series  of  proph- 
ecies against  Tyre,  to  which  is  appended  a  short  prophecy 
against  Sidon  (chaps.  26-28) ;  thirdly,  a  like  series  of  proph- 
ecies against  Egypt  (chaps.  29-32).  These  prophecies  were 
fulfilled  through  the  same  Chaldean  power  that  executed  God's 
righteous  vengeance  on  the  covenant  people.  As  the  number 
seven  is  made  out  by  separating  Sidon  from  Tyre  to  which  it 
j)roperly  belonged,  it  is  rightly  held  to  be  a  symbolic  numbei', 
as  in  the  book  of  Revelation  and  elsewhere,  seven  being  the 
well-known  symbol  of  completeness.  With  the  announcement 
of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (33 :  21)  the  thunders  of  God's  wrath 
that  had  so  long  rolled  over  her  die  away ;  and  the  series  of 
prophecies  that  follows  is  mainly  occupied,  like  the  last  part 
of  Isaiah,  with  predictions  of  the  future  glory  of  Zion,  in  con- 
nection with  God's  awful  judgments  upon  the  wicked  within 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  321 

and  without  lier  borders.  Of  these  the  last  nine  chapters  con- 
tain a  description  of  the  vision  which  God  vouchsafed  to  the 
prophet  of  a  new  Jerusalem,  with  its  temple,  priests  and  altars, 
rising  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  former,  of  larger  extent  and  in  a 
a  more  glorious  form.  He  sees  the  land  of  Canaan  also  divi- 
ded out  to  the  returning  captives  by  lot,  as  it  was  in  the  days 
of  Joshua,  but  upon  an  entirely  different  plan. 

The  general  plan  of  the  temple  is  after  the  model  of  Solo- 
mon's ;  yet  this  vision  is  not  to  be  understood  as  a  mere  proph- 
ecy of  the  rebuilding  of  Solomon's  temple  with  the  city  in 
which  it  stood,  and  of  the  repossession  of  the  land  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  Several  particulars  in  the  description 
make  it  plain  that  it  %vas  not  intended  to  be  literally  under- 
stood. See  chaps.  42  :  15-20 ;  45 : 1-8 ;  47 : 1-12 ;  and  the  whole 
of  chap.  48.  It  is  rather  a  symbolical  representation  of  the 
coming  deliverance  and  enlargement  of  the  true  spiritual  Zion, 
which  is  God's  church,  the  same  in  all  ages.  The  resettlement 
of  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  and 
city  after  the  captivity,  were  a  part  indeed,  but  only  a  very 
small  part  of  the  "good  things  to  come"  which  the  vision 
shadowed  forth.  Its  fulfilment  belongs  to  the  entire  history  of 
the  church  from  Ezekiel's  day  onward,  and  it  will  be  completed 
only  in  her  final  triumph  over  the  kingdom  of  Satan,  and  her 
establishment  in  permanent  peace  and  holiness. 

As  the  time  had  not  yet  come  for  the  old  covenant  to  pass 
away,  Ezekiel,  who  was  himself  a  priest  under  the  law  of 
Moses,  saw^  the  future  enlargement  of  God's  kingdom  under  the 
forms  of  this  covenant.  The  New  Jerusalem  which  God  re- 
vealed to  him  had  its  temple,  priests,  altar,  and  sacrifices.  All 
these  were  shadows  of  Christ's  perfect  priesthood,  of  the  spir- 
itual temple  of  wdiich  he  is  the  chief  corner-stone,  and  of  the 
spiritual  priesthood  of  his  people.  1  Peter  2 : 5-9.  The  literal 
priesthood,  altar,  and  sacrifices  are  for  ever  done  away  in  Christ's 
one  perfect  offering  for  the  sins  of  the  w^orld  on  Calvary.  Heb. 
chaps.  9,  10. 

In  interpreting  the  vision  before  us  we  should  not  curiously 

14* 


322  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

inquire  after  the  meaning  of  every  particular  chamber  and  pil- 
lar'and  door,  but  rather  look  to  the  general  meaning  of  the 
whole.  The  angel  measures,  and  the  prophet  records  all  the 
parts  of  the  building.  This  signifies,  in  general,  that  God's 
care  extends  to  all  parts  of  his  spiritual  temple,  and  that  he 
will  see  that  they  are  in  due  time  made  perfect.  The  New 
Jerusalem  described  by  the  apostle  John  has  much  in  common 
with  this.  It  is,  in  truth,  a  vision  of  the  same  spiritual  city, 
**'  whose  builder  and  maker  is  God."  But  it  difiers  from  Eze- 
kiel's  vision  in  two  respects.  First,  it  belongs  apparently  to 
the  glorified  state  of  the  church  after  the  resurrection ;  secondly, 
it  has  nothing  Jewish  in  it,  neither  temple  nor  altar.  These 
shadows  have  for  ever  passed  away. 

IV.    DANIEL. 

19.  The  book  of  Daniel  is  assigned  in  the  Hebrew  canon  to 
the  third  division,  called  Hagiograplia.  For  the  supposed 
grounds  of  this,  see  above.  Chap.  13,  No.  4.  Daniel,  like  Jere- 
miah, has  interwoven  into  his  writings  so  many  biographical 
notices  of  himself,  that  we  gather  from  them  a  pretty  full  his- 
tory of  his  life.  He  belonged  to  the  royal  family  of  Judah, 
being  one  of  the  number  "of  the  king's  seed  and  of  the 
princes,"  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  had  carried  captive  to  Baby- 
lon in  an  invasion  not  recorded  in  the  books  of  Kings  or 
Chronicles  (1 : 1-3).  Thus  was  fulfilled  the  prophecy  recorded 
in  Isa.  39  : 7.  But  God  graciously  turned  this  into  a  rich 
blessing  to  the  Hebrew  nation;  for  Daniel,  having  been  edu- 
cated with  his  three  companions,  Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Aza- 
riah,  "  in  the  learning  and  the  tongue  of  the  Chaldeans,"  and 
having  "  understanding  in  all  visions  and  dreams,"  a  remark- 
able proof  of  which  he  gave  by  relating  to  Nebuchadnezzar  the 
dream  which  had  gone  from  him,  with  its  interpretation,  was 
made  "ruler  over  the  whole  province  of  Babylon,  and  chief  of 
the  governors  over  all  the  wise  men  of  Babylon,"  and  at  his 
request  his  three  companions  were  also  set  over  the  affairs  of 
the  province  of  Babylon  (chaps.  1,  2).     He  continued  in  high 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  323 

honor  at  the  court  of  Babylon  as  a  wise  and  incorruptible 
statesman,  and  a  prophet  who  had  the  gift  of  interpreting 
dreams,  till  the  overthrow  of  the  Chaldean  empire  by  the 
Medes  and  Persians.  By  Darius  the  Mede  he  was  treated  with 
like  honor  (perhaps  in  connection  with  his  interpretation  of 
Belshazzar's  dream,  chap.  5),  being  made  chief  of  the  three 
presidents  whom  he  set  over  his  whole  realm,  and  a  plot  formed 
to  destroy  him  was  frustrated  through  God's  miraculous  inter- 
position and  turned  to  the  increase  of  his  honor  and  influence ; 
so  that  he  continued  to  prosper  "  in  the  reign  of  Darius,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Cyrus  the  Persian"  (chap.  6).  He  lived,  therefore, 
to  see  the  release  of  his  countrymen  from  their  long  captivity, 
though  it  does  not  appear  that  he  himself  returned  to  his  native 
land.  Probably  he  continued  in  the  service  of  the  Persian 
court  to  the  day  of  his  death. 

20.  The  first  chapter  is  introductory  to  the  whole  book,  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  selection  and  education  of  Daniel  and  his 
three  companions  by  direction  of  the  king  of  Babylon.  The 
prophecies  that  follow  naturally  fall  into  two  series.  The  first, 
occupying  chaps.  2-7,  is  written  in  Chaldee  from  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  verse  of  chap.  2.  It  unfolds  the  relation  which  God's 
kingdom  holds  to  the  heathen  powers  as  seen  (1,)  in  a  twofold 
vision  of  the  four  great  monarchies  of  the  world,  in  the  form 
first  of  an  image  consisting  of  four  parts,  and  then  of  four  great 
beasts  rising  up  out  of  the  sea,  the  last  monarchy  being  suc- 
ceeded by  the  kingdom  of  the  God  of  heaven,  which  shall  never 
be  destroyed  (chaps.  2,  7);  (2,)  in  the  protection  and  deliver- 
ance of  God's  faithful  servants  from  the  persecution  of  heathen 
kings  and  princes  (chaps.  3,  6) ;  (3,)  in  the  humbling  of  heathen 
monarchs  for  their  pride,  idolatry,  and  profanation  of  the  sacred 
vessels  belonging  to  the  sanctuary  (chaps.  4,  5).  Thus  we  see 
that  the  first  three  of  these  six  chapters  (2-7)  correspond  to 
the  last  three  taken  in  an  inverse  order — the  second  to  the  sev- 
enth, the  third  to^ie  sixth,  and  the  fourth  to  the  fifth.  The 
.  second  series,  consisting  of  the  remaining  five  chapters,  is  writ- 
ten in  Hebrew.     This  also  exhibits  the  conflict  between  God's 


324:  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

kingdom  and  the  heathen  world,  taking  up  the  second  and  third 
monarchies  under  the  images  of  a  ram  and  a  he-goat.  Chap.  8. 
There  follow  some  special  details  relating  to  the  nearer  future, 
with  some  very  remarkable  revelations  respecting  the  time  of 
the  Messiah's  advent,  the  destruction  of  the  holj  city  by  the 
Komans,  the  last  great  conflict  between  the  kingdom  of  God 
and  its  enemies,  and  the  final  resurrection. 

The  intimate  connection  between  the  book  of  Daniel  and 
the  Kevelation  of  John  must  strike  every  reader  of  the  holy 
Scriptures.  They  mutually  interpret  each  other,  and  together 
constitute  one  grand  system  of  prophecy  extending  down  to 
the  end  of  the  world.  Both  also  contain  predictions,  the  exact 
interpretation  of  which  is  extremely  difficult,  perhaps  impossi- 
ble, till  the  mystery  of  God  shall  be  finished. 

21.  That  they  who  deny  the  reality  of  miracles  and  proph- 
ecy should  receive  the  book  of  Daniel  as  genuine  and  authentic 
is  impossible.  To  review  the  history  of  the  assaults  made  by 
them  upon  it,  or  of  the  volumes  written  in  reply,  is  foreign  to 
the  plan  of  the  present  work.  A  brief  summary  only  will  be 
given  of  the  grounds  on  which  its  claim  to  a  place  in  the  canon 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  vindicated. 

(1.)  The  unity  of  the  book  of  Daniel  is  now  conceded.  "  The 
two  leading  divisions  are  so  related  that  the  one  implies 
the  existence  of  the  other.  Both  have  the  same  characteris- 
tics of  manner  and  style,  though  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  book  is  in  Chaldee,  and  the  remainder  in  Hebrew."  David- 
son after  Keil  and  others,  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
p.  916.  This  being  admitted,  the  book  as  a  whole  claims  Dan- 
iel for  its  author ;  for  in  it  he  often  speaks  in  the  first  person, 
and  in  the  last  chapter  the  book  is  manifestly  ascribed  to  him 
(12:4,9). 

(2.)  The  uniform  tradition  of  the  Jews  ascribed  the  book 
to  Daniel.  It  was  on  this  ground  that  they  received  it  into 
the  'canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  objection  that  they 
did  not  class  Daniel  with  the  prophets,  but  with  the  Hagio- 
grapha  (see  above,  Chap.  13,  No.  4)  is  of  no  account     Had  the 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  325 

book  belonged,  as  the  objectors  claim,  to  the  Maccabean  age, 
it  would  not  have  found  a  place  in  the  Hagiographa  any  more 
than  in  the  prophets.  The  first  book  of  Maccabees,  which  con- 
tains authentic  history,  was  never  received  into  the  Hebrew 
canon,  because,  as  the  Jews  rightly  judged,  it  was  written  after 
the  withdrawal  of  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  Much  less  would 
they  have  received,  under  the  illustrious  name  of  Daniel,  a  book 
written  as  late  as  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  more  than 
three  centuries  and  a' half  after  Daniel.  That  they  should  have 
done  this  through  ignorance  is  inconceivable ;  that  they  could 
have  done  it  through  fraud  is  a  supposition  not  to  be  admitted 
for  a  moment,  for  it  is  contrary  to  all  that  we  know  of  their 
conscientious  care  with  regard  to  the  sacred  text. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  book  of  Barucli,  which  cannot  be  placed  later 
than  the  Maccabean  age,  and  is  perhaps  earlier,  makes  abundant  use  of 
the  book  of  Daniel ;  and  that  the  author  of  the  first  book  of  Maccabees 
had  this  book  in  the  Alexandrine  version,  as  is  plain  from  the  peculiar 
expressions  employed  by  him  in  chap.  1:54 — "they  built  the  abomina- 
tion of  desolation  upon  the  altar."  Compare  Dan.  9  :  27  of  the  Alexan- 
di-ine  version. 

(3.)  Josephus  relates,  Antiq.  11.  8.  5,  among  the  other 
particulars  of  the  visit  which  Alexander  the  Great  made  to 
Jerusalem,  that  the  high  priest  Jaddus  (Jaddua)  showed  him 
the  book  of  Daniel  "  in  which  he  signified  that  a  certain  one  of 
the  Greeks  should  destroy  the  empire  of  the  Persians;"  and 
that  this,  in  connection  with  other  extraordinary  circumstances 
narrated  by  Josephus,  had  the  effect  of  assuaging  the  king's 
wrath  which  had  been  excited  against  the  Jewish  high  priest 
and  people  by  their  refusal  to  render  him  assistance  against 
Darius,  and  of  disposing  him  to  bestow  upon  them  great  favors. 
Iies]3ecting  the  authenticity  of  this  narrative  there  has  been 
much  discussion ;  but  there  is  no  ground  for  denying  its  sub- 
stantial truth.  It  bears  the  stamp  of  reality,  and  it  accounts, 
moreover,  for  the  extraordinary  privileges  conferred  upon  the 
Jews  by  Alexander,  which  otherwise  remain  inexplicable. 

(4.)    Christ  himself  recognizes  Daniel  as  a  true  prophet.     He 


326  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

refers  to  the  future  fulfilment  of  one  of  his  prophecies  as  a 
most  important  sign  for  his  disciples :  "  When  ye  therefore 
shall  see  the  abomination  of  desolation,  spoken  of  by  Daniel 
the  prophet,  standing  in  the  holy  place  (whoso  readeth,  let 
him  understand),  then  let  them  which  be  in  Judea  flee  into 
the  mountains."  Matt.  24:15,  16;  Mark  13:14.  De  Wetto 
says  indeed:  "In  the  nature  of  the  case  Christ  neither  ivould 
nor  could  be  a  critical  authority."  That  our  Lord  did  not 
assume  to  be  a  critical  authority  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
term  is  evident ;  for  in  this  very  case  he  referred  to  the  Alexan- 
drine version,  without  pausing  to  notice  its  variation  from  the 
Hebrew.  But  our  Lord  knew  whether  the  book  of  Daniel  is  a 
collection  of  real  prophecies,  or  a  spurious  work  composed 
several  centuries  after  Daniel,  imposing  upon  the  world  in 
Daniel's  name  pretended  prophecies  written  after  the  events. 
Par  be  it  from  any  one  who  believes  in  the  reality  of  Christ's 
supernatural  mission  thus  to  make  him  set  the  seal  of  his  divine 
authority  to  the  work  of  an  impostor.  Heb.  11 :  33,  34  also 
refers  undeniablj^  to  Daniel,  chaps.  6  and  3. 

(5.)  The  Icmguage  of  the  book  agrees  with  the  age  of  Dan- 
iel. The  writer  employs  both  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  thus 
indicating  that  he  lives  during  the  period  of  transition  from  the 
former  to  the  latter  language.  His  Chaldee,  moreover,  like 
that  of  Ezra,  contains  Hebrew  forms  such  as  do  not  occur  in 
the  earliest  of  the  Targums.  His  Hebrew,  on  the  other  hand, 
agrees  in  its  general  character  with  that  of  Ezekiel  and  Ezra. 
Though  the  Hebrew  survived  as  the  language  of  the  learned 
for  some  time  after  the  captivity,  we  cannot  suppose  that  so 
late  as  the  age  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  the  Maccabees  a 
Jewish  author  could  have  employed  either  such  Hebrew  as 
Daniel  uses,  or  such  Chaldee. 

(6.)  The  author  manifests  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
historical  relations,  manners,  and  customs  belonging  to  Dan- 
iel's time.  Under  this  head  writers  have  specified  the  custom 
of  giving  new  names  to  those  taken  into  the  king's  service 
(1:7);  the  threat  that  the  houses  of  the  magi  should  be  made 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  327 

■  a  dunghill  (2:5);  the  different  forms  of  capital  punishment  in 
use  among  the  Chaldeans  and  Medo-Persians ;  the  dress  of 
Daniel's  companions  (3 :  21) ;  the  presence  of  women  at  the 
royal  banquet  (5  : 2),  etc.  See  Davidson's  Introduction,  p.  920, 
who  sums  up  the  argument  thus:  "It  is  improbable  that  an 
author  in  the  Maccabean  times  should  have  been  so  uniformly 
accurate  in  his  narrative,  without  having  been  in  Babylon 
itself." 

22.  The  objections  urged  against  the  book  of  Daniel  are 
not  of.  a  nature  to  overthrow  the  mass  of  evidence  in  its  favor. 
They  may  be  considered  under  the  following  heads  : 
•  (1.)  Various  chronological  and  historical  difficulties.  It  is 
said  that  Jewish  history  knows  no  expedition  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar against  Jerusalem  in  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim.  The 
answer  is  that  an  expedition  which  apparently  fell  about  this 
time  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings  24 : 1.  The  actual  capture  of  the 
city,  however,  seems  not  to  have  taken  place  before  the  fourth 
year  of  Jehoiakim ;  for  Jeremiah,  in  a  prophecy  dated  in  this 
fourth  year,  speaks  in  terms  which  imply  that  the  threatened 
blow  had  not  yet  fallen.  Jer.  25:9.  Perhaps  Daniel,  chap. 
1 : 1,  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  expedition,  so  that  it  fell 
partly  in  the  third  and  partly  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim. 
It  was  in  connection  with  this  expedition  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
that  he  overthrew  the  army  of  Pharaoh-necho  at-Carchemish 
on  the  Euphrates ;  for  that  event  also  took  place  in  the  fourth 
3^ear  of  Jehoiakim.    Jer.  46 : 2. 

We  learn  from  Berosiis,  as  quoted  by  Joseplins  (Antiq.  10.  11.  1),  that 
when  Nebuchadnezzar  was  engaged  in  this  expedition,  and  had  already 
conquered  the  Egyptians,  he  received  tidings  that  the  throne  of  Babylon 
was  made  vacant  by  the  death  of  his  father.  Upon  this  he  hastened  witJi 
his  light  troops  across  the  desert  to  Babylon,  leaving  the  body  of  his  army 
to  return  by  the  ordinary  route. 

It  is  said  again  that  the  dates  given  in  Jer.  25 : 1  and  Dan. 
2:1  cannot  be  reconciled  with  each  other.  In  the  former  of 
these  the  first  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar  is  the  fourth  of  Jehoia- 
kim, in  which  year,  or  at  all  events  in  the  preceding  j^ear, 


328  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Daniel  with  liis  three  companions  was  taken  captive.  Yet 
after  they  have  been  transported  to  Babylon  and  received  an 
education  there  extending  through  three  years  (Dan.  1 : 5),  we 
find  Daniel  interpreting  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  in  the  second 
year  of  his  reign.  To  this  it  can  be  answered  in  part  that  in 
the  second  book  of  Kings  and  in  Jeremiah  the  years  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar are  obviously  reckoned  from  the  time  when  he  was 
placed  by  his  father,  wdio  was  now  old  and  infirm,  at  the  head 
of  his  army,  the  title  of  king  being  applied  to  him  by  way  of 
anticipation.  2  Kings  24: 12;  25:8;  Jer.  25:1.  In  the  book 
of  Daniel,  on  the  contrary,  his  years  are  reckoned  from  his 
actual  accession  to  the  throne.  But  even  then  it  is  necessary 
to  assume  a  considerable  delay  between  his  return  from  his 
Egyptian  expedition  and  his  formal  investiture  with  the  king- 
dom. 

The  grounds  of  such  a  delay  we  can  only  conjecture.  It  may  have  been 
connected  with  the  settlement  of  the  affairs  of  the  realm,  which  he  found, 
Berosus  tells  us,  administered  by  the  Chaldeans,  the  kingxlom  being  kept 
for  him  by  the  chief  man  among  them  ;  or  the  statement  of  Berosus  may 
be  wanting  in  fulness  and  accuracy.  An  argument  from  our  ignorance 
cannot  be  urged  against  the  authenticity  of  Daniel  any  more  than  in  its 
favor. 

As  to  the  acknowledged  difiiculties  connected.with  the  iden- 
tification of  Belshazzar  and  Darius  the  Median  (chap.  5),  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  the  notices  which  we  have  of  the  Chaldean 
monarchy  after  Nebuchadnezzar  are  so  fragmentary  and  con- 
tradictory that  no  valid  argument  can  be  drawn  from  such  dif- 
ficulties against  the  authenticity  of  the  book  of  Daniel. 

An  old  opinion  identifies  Belshazzar  with  Nabonnedus,  who  was  either 
a  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar  or  a  grandson — called  his  son,  Dan.  5  :  22,  in  the 
sense  of  his  descendant.  But  Eawlinson  (as  quoted  in  Smith's  Bible  Dic- 
tionary) informs  us  that  from  inscriptions  deciphered  by  him  it  appears 
that  the  eldest  son  of  Nabonnedus  was  called  i>eZ-s7^ar-e^er=Belshazzar. 
He  thinks  that  as  joi«t  king  with  his  father  he  may  ha^e  been  governor  of 
Babylon,  when  the  city  was  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Persians,  and  have 
perished  in  the  assault,  while,  in  accordance  with  the  statements  of  Bero- 
sus, Nabonnedus  himself  survived.    Upon  either  of  the  above  suppositions, 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  329 

Darius  tlie  Median  will  be  Cyaxares  II.,  son  of  Astyages  and  uncle  to 
Cyrus,  who  succeeded  to  the  title  of  king— "took  the  kingdom"  (Dan. 
5  :  31  and  chap.  6) — though  the  conquest  of  Babylon  was  due  to  Cyrus  him- 
self, who  not  long  afterwards  ascended  the  throne  of  the  united  kingdoms 
of  Media  and  Persia.  Another  view  makes  Belshazzar  the  same  as  Evil- 
merodach,  son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  identifies  Darius 
the  Median  with  Astyages.  It  is  not  necessary  to  decide  which,  if  either 
of  these  two  views,  is  correct. 

(2.)  An  argument  has  been  drawn  from  tlie  fact  that  Jesiis, 
the  son  of  Sirach,  does  not  mention  the  name  of  Daniel  in  the 
catalogue  of  his  worthies  (chap.  49).  Such  negative  argu- 
ments are  at  best  w^eak,  and  this  loses  all  its  force  from  the 
circumstance  that  he  omits  others,  as  Ezra  and  Mordecai  (the 
twelve  minor  prophets  also,  since  chap.  49 :  10  is  regarded  as 
spurious). 

(3.)  The  alleged  linguistic  difficulties  have  been  reduced, 
so  far  as  the  date  of  the  book  is  concerned,  to  three  or  four 
Greek  names  of  musical  instruments  ;  all  of  wlych — the  instru- 
ments and  their  names  —  may  naturally  enough  have  been 
brought  from  Greece,  the  home  of  musical  art,  in  the  way  of 
ordinary  commercial  intercourse.  We  are  not  called  upon  to 
defend  the  classic  purity  of  Daniel's  style.  A  Hebrew  and 
educated  at  the  court  of  Babylon,  it  was  natural  that  his  Chal- 
dee  should  be  colored  with  Hebrew  forms,  and  his  Hebrew 
with  Chaldaisms.  The  argument  from  the  general  style  of  the 
book  is  in  favor  of  its  genuineness,  not  against  it. 

(4.)  The  commendations  bestowed  upon  Daniel  are  thought 
to  be  inconsistent  with  his  being  the  author  of  the  book. 
Some,  who  admit  its  authenticity  and  its  right  to  a  place 
in  the  sacred  canon,  have  been  led  by  this  consideration  to 
adopt  the  opinion  that  Daniel,  though  essentially  the  author 
of  the  book,  did  not  himself  put  it  into  its  present  form,  but 
that  some  one  of  his  countrymen  put  together  his  prophecies, 
prefixing  to  them  introductory  notices  respecting  the  author. 
So  far  as  the  canonical  authority  of  the  book  is  concerned  there 
are  no  serious  objections  to  this  hypothesis ;  but  we  may  well 
ask  whether  undue  weight  is  not  given  to  the  objection  under 


330  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

consideration.  Throughout  the  whole  book  these  commenda- 
tory notices  are  underlaid  by  the  idea  that  Daniel's  wisdom  is 
not  his  own,  but  is  given  him  by  God,  and  for  purposes  con- 
nected with  the  welfare  of  the  covenant  people.  By  revealing 
to  his  servant  secrets  beyond  the  ken  of  all  the  wise  men  of 
Babylon,  he  manifests  at  once  his  own  infinite  perfections  and 
the  vanity  of  the  Chaldean  gods;  and  this  Daniel  records  to 
the  glory  of  the  God  of  Israel. 

(5.)  the  real  objection  to  the  book  lies,  as  already  intima- 
ted, in  the  supeyiiatural  character  of  its  contents — in  the  remark- 
able miracles  and  prophecies  which  it  records.  The  miracles 
of  this  book  are  of  a  very  imposing  character,  especially 
adapted  to  strike  the  minds  of  the  beholders  with  awe  and 
wonder.  But  so  are  those  also  recorded  in  the  beginning  of 
the  book  of  Exodus.  In  both  cases  they  were  alike  fitted  to 
make  upon  the  minds  of  the  heathen,  in  whose  presence  they 
were  performed.,  the  impression  of  God's  power  to  save  and 
deliver  in  all  possible  circumstances.  The  prophecies  are 
mostly  in  the  form  of  dreams  and  visions;  and  they  are  in  won- 
derful harmony  with  Daniel's  position  as  a  minister  of  state  at 
the  court  of  Babylon,  and  also  with  the  relation  of  Judaism  to 
the  heathen  world.  In  the  providence  of  God,  the  history  of 
his  covenant  people,  and  through  them  of  the  visible  kingdom 
of  heaven,  had  become  inseparably  connected  with  that  of  the 
great  monarchies  of  the  world.  How  appropriate,  then,  that 
God  should  reveal,  in  its  grand  outlines,  the  course  of  these 
monarchies  to  the  final  and  complete  establishment  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  (2  :  M,  45 ;  7  :  26,  27).  In  all  this  we  find  noth- 
ing ivgainst  the  general  analogy  of  prophecy,  but  every  thing 
in  stiict  conformity  with  it.  In  the  seventh  chapter  there  ap- 
pears, for  the  first  time,  an  interpreting  angel  communicating 
to  the  prophet,  in  connected  discourse,  the  meaning  of  the  vision 
which  he  has  just  seen.  So  also  in  the  eighth  chapter  and 
onward.  Such  a  mode  of  revelation  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
the  communication  of  details,  and  in  the  eleventh  chapter  these 
are  given  to  an  unparalleled  extent.     But  this  constitutes  uo 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  831 

ground  for  denying  tlie  reality  of  the  prophecy.  Though  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  does  not,  as  a  general  rule,  give  future  events 
in  their  succession,  this  is  sometimes  done.  So  it  is  in  God's 
announcement  to  Abraham  of  the  bondage  of  his  posterity 
(Gen.  15  :  13-16) ;  and  also  in  our  Lord's  prophecy  of  the  over- 
throw of  Jerusalem  (Matt.,  chap.  24).  In  this  respect  it  does 
not  become  us  to  prescribe  rules  for  the  wisdom  of  God. 

We  need  not  pursue  this  subject  any  farther.  No  one  of  tlie  above 
difficulties,  nor  all  combined,  can  outweigh  the  evidence  we  have  for  the 
genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  book  of  Daniel.  On  the  contrary,  the 
hypothesis  that  it  belongs  to  so  late  an  age  as  that  of  the  Maccabees  is 
beset  with  difficulties  inconceivably  greater.  It  has  for  its  foundation  not 
sober  criticism,  but  the  denial  of  the  supernatural. 


;32  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTEE  XXIII. 

Jhe  Twelve    Minor  Prophets. 

1.  By  the  Jewish  arrangement,  which  places  together  the 
twelve  minor  prophets  in  a  single  Yolume,  the  chronological 
order  of  the  prophets  as  a  whole  is  broken  up.  The  three 
greater  prophets,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel,  stand  in  the 
true  order  of  time.  Daniel  began  to  prophesy  before  Ezekiel, 
but  continued  many  }•  ears  after  him.  The  Jewish  arrangement 
of  the  twelve  minor  prophets  is  in  a  sense  chronological ;  that 
is,  they  put  the  earlier  prophets  at  the  beginning,  and  the  later 
at  the  end  of  the  collection.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that 
they  intended  to  follow  the  order  of  time  with  exactness.  If 
they  did,  then  in  the  judgment  of  many  they  committed  errors. 
The  particulars  must  be  discussed  as  the  books  come  up  sepa- 
rately for  consideration. 

In  regard  to  the  first  six,  the  arrangement  of  tlie  Septuagint  differs 
from  tlie  Masoretic,  which  is  followed  in  our  version,  as  follows  : 

MASOKETIC  TEXT.  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION. 

1.  Hosea.  1.  Hosea. 

2.  Joel.  2.  Amos. 

3.  Amos.  3.  Micah. 

4.  Obadiali.  4.  Joel. 

5.  Jonah.  5.  Obadiah. 

6.  Micah.  6.  Jonah. 

2.  This  precious  collection  contains  the  earliest  as  well  as 
the  latest  writings  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  except  such  as  are 
embodied  in  the  historical  books;  for  Hosea,  Joel,  and  Amos, 
at  least,  are  older  than  Isaiah,  and  the  three  prophets  of  the 
restoration  are  younger  than  Ezekiel  and  Daniel.  The  minor 
prophets  exhibit  a  great  diversity  of  manner  and  style — the 
lugged  and  sententious,  the  fall  and  flowing,  the  oratorical,  and 
the  simple  and  unadorned.     In  them  are  passages  attaining  to 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  33o 

the  sublimity  of  Isaiah,  to  the  tenderness  and  pathos  of  Jere- 
miah, and  to  the  vehemence  of  EzekieL  Nowhere  do  we  find 
sin  rebuked  with  more  awful  severity,  the  true  meaning  of  the 
law  more  clearly  expounded,  or  the  future  glory  of  Zion  more 
confidently  predicted.  That  some  of  these  writings  are  obscure 
and  of  difficult  interpretation  cannot  be  denied.  This  arises 
partly  from  the  character  of  the  style,  as  in  the  case  of  Hosea 
and  others;  partlj^from  the  nature  of  the  themes  discussed,  as  in 
Zechariah ;  partly  from  our  ignorance  of  the  times  and  circum- 
stances of  the  writers.  Nevertheless  the  prayerful  student  Avill 
find  in  them  a  rich  treasury  of  divine  truth,  which  will  abun- 
dantly reward  the  labor  bestowed  upon  it. 

I.     HOSEA. 

3.  The  prophecies  of  Hosea  were  addressed  immediately  to 
the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes,  yet  so  that  he  did  not  overlook 
Judali;  for  he  considered  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah  and 
Israel  as  constituting  together  the  covenant  people  of  God. 
Of  his  personal  history  we  know  nothing  except  that  he  was 
the  son  of  Beeri,  for  the  transactions  of  the  first  three  chapters 
may  be  best  understood  as  symbolic  acts  seen  only  in  vision. 
See  above,  Chap.  22,  No.  17.  For  any  thing  that  appears  to 
the  contrary,  he  was  of  Israelitish  descent.  As  it  is  generally 
agreed  that  Isaiah  began  to  prophesy  in  the  last  year  of  Uzzi- 
ah's  reign,  or  but  a  few  years  before  his  death,  while  Hosea 
prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.,  the  great-grandson  of 
Jehu  (2  Kings  14  :  23),  who  died  about  twenty-six  years  before 
Uzziah,  it  follows  that  Hosea,  though  partly  contemporary  with 
Isaiah,  was  called  to  the  prophetical  work  at  an  earlier  period. 
If  we  suppose  him  to  have  commenced  prophesying  two  years 
before  the  death  of  Jeroboam,  and  then  add  the  twenty-six 
remaining  years  of  Uzziah's  reign,  the  sixteen  of  Jotham,  the 
sixteen  of  Ahaz,  and  two  of  the  first  years  of  Hezekiah,  we 
shall  have  a  period  of  sixty-two  3^ears.  To  Israel  this  was  a 
calamitous  period,  embracing  four  usurpations  and  murders  of 
the  reigning  sovereigns,  and  three  invasions  of  the  Assyrians. 


334  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

See  the  history  in  2  Kings  15 :  8-31,  and  17  : 1-6.  In  the  Last 
of  these  Hosea,  king  of  Israel,  became  tributary  to  Shalmane- 
ser,  king  of  Assyria;  but  he  proved  unfaithful  to  his  master, 
and  sought  the  aUiance  of  So,  king  of  Egypt.  2  Kings  17  : 4. 
For  this  the  Assyrian  king  besieged  him  in  Samaria,  and  after 
a  siege  of  three  years,  took  him  with  the  city,  and  put  an  end 
to  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the  fifth  year  of  Hezekiah,  king  of 
Judah.  Hosea  seems  to  have  closed  his  writings  when  Hoshea 
was  seeking  the  help  of  Egypt,  while  he  had  at  the  same  time 
a  covenant  with  Assyria  (12  : 1),  consequently  somewhere  early 
in  Hezekiah's  reign. 

4.  Hosea's  style  is  very  concise  and  sententious,  and  his 
diction  impresses  even  the  casual  reader  as  original  and  pecu- 
liar. A  remarkable  feature  of  his  book  is  the  constancy  with 
which  he  sets  forth  the  relation  of  Israel  to  Jehovah  under  the 
figure  of  the  marriage-covenant;  thus  making  unfaithfulness  to 
God,  and  especially  idolatry  and  idolatrous  alliances,  to  be  spir- 
itual adultery  and  whoredom.  This  fact  affords  a  key  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  first  three  chapters,  where  the  nature  of 
the  transactions  requires  that  we  understand  them  not  as  his- 
toric events,  but  as  prophetic  symbols  occurring  only  in  vision. 
The  remaining  eleven  chapters  contain  perhaps  a  summary  of 
the  prophet's  discourses  to  the  people,  written  by  himself  near 
the  close  of  his  ministry.  The  prophecies  of  Hosea  are  repeat- 
edly referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  part  of  the  oracles 
of  God.  Matt.  2:15;  9:13;  12:7;  Eom.  9:25,  26;  and  an 
allusion  in  1  Cor.  15  :  55.  The  prophet  brings  his  book  to  a 
close  with  a  delightful  and  refreshing  view  of  the  future  pros- 
perity and  peace  of  the  true  Israel,  chap.  14. 

II.    JOEL. 

5.  The  prophecies  of  Joel,  the  son  of  Pethuel,  give  no  speci- 
fications of  place  or  time.  But  all  the  internal  indications  of 
the  book  point  to  Judea — probably  Jerusalem,  with  its  temple, 
altar,  priesthood,  and  solemn  assemblies — as  the  sphere  of  his 
labors,  and  to  the  date  as  among  the  earliest  of  those  belong- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  835 

ing  to  written  prophecy.  The  comcidences  between  Joel  and 
Amos  cannot  well  be  regarded  as  accidental.  Compare  Joel 
3  :  16  with  Amos  1:2;  Joel  3  :  18  with  Amos  9  :  13 ;  and  notice 
the  striking  similarity  in  the  close  of  the  t\v^o  prophecies.  If 
we  may  assume  that  one  of  these  prophets  borrowed  expres- 
sions from  the  other,  the  priority  will  naturally  be  given  to  Joel, 
from  whose  closing  address  (3  :  16)  Amos  takes  the  opening 
words  of  his  prophecies.  He  must  then  be  placed  as  early,  at 
least,  as  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  and  perhaps  earlier. 

From  the  fact  that  Joel  does  not  mention  as  among  the  enemies  of 
Judah  the  Syrians  who  invaded  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Joash,  the  grand- 
father of  Uzziah,  some  have  placed  him  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Joash  before 
this  Syrian  invasion.  There  is  no  ground  for  placing  him  after  Uzziah  ; 
for  his  writings  contain  no  allusion  to  the  Assyrian  power,  which  became 
so  formidable  soon  after  Uzziah's  time. 

6.  The  writings  of  Joel  bear  the  full  impress  of  culture  in  a 
prophetic  school.  His  Hebrew  is  of  the  purest  kind ;  his  style 
is  easy,  flowing,  elegant,  and  adorned  with  magnificent  image- 
ry ;  and  for  vividness  and  power  of  description  he  is  not  sur- 
passed by  any  of  the  prophets.  The  immediate  occasion  oi 
his  prophecies  is  a  double  plague  of  drought  and  locusts,  which 
has  already  invaded  the  land,  and  wdiose  desolating  progress 
he  describes  in  poetic  strains  of  matchless  elegance  and  power. 
He  summons  the  people  of  all  classes  to  repentance,  and  prom- 
ises, upon  this  condition,  not  only  the  restoration  of  the  land 
to  its  former  fruitfulness,  but  also  the  outpouring  of  God's 
Spirit  upon  all  flesh,  the  triumph  of  the  covenant  people  over 
all  their  foes,  and  an  era  of  universal  holiness  and  peace.  In 
this  respect  he  is  a  model  for  all  the  proi^hets  that  come  after 
him.  They  all  with  one  accord  look  forward  beyond  the  calam- 
ities of  the  present  time,  and  the  heavier  impending  calamities 
which  they  are  commissioned  to  foretell  in  the  near  future,  to 
the  glory  of  the  latter  days,  w^hen  Zion  shall  be  made  triumph- 
ant over  all  her  foes,  and  the  whole  earth  shall  be  given  her  for 
her  inheritance.     The  apostle  Peter,  in  hi^;  address  on  the  day 


338  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

of  Pentecost,  quotes  a  remarkable  prophec}^  of  Joel  (2  :  28-32, 
compared  with  Acts  2  :  16-21). 

The  opinion  of  some  commentators,  that  under  the  figure  of  locusts  are 
reiDresented  simply  hostile  armies,  must  be  regarded  as  forced  and  unnat- 
ural. More  probable  is  the  opinion  of  Henderson  and  others,  that  the 
prophet  uses  an  actual  invasion  of  the  land  by  locusts  as  the  type  of  a  more 
formidable  invasion  of  foreign  foes.  But  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
valid  reason  for  departing  from  the  simj^le  interpretation  above  given. 

III.     AMOS. 

7.  Amos  prophesied  "  coiicerniiig  Israel  in  the  daj's  of 
Uzziali  king  of  Judah,  and  in  the  days  of  Jeroboam  son  of 
Joash  king  of  Israel,  two  years  before  the  earthquake"  (1 : 1). 
The  time  of  this  earthquake,  which  is  simply  mentioned  by 
Zechariali  (14 :  5)  as  occurring  in  Uzziali's  reign,  cannot  be 
determined.  We  only  know  that  Amos  must  have  prophesied 
somewhere  during  the  last  part  of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II., 
when  he  was  contemporary  with  Uzziali.  Amos  was  thus  con- 
temporary with  Hosea,  and  was  sf  considerable  number  of 
years  earlier  than  Isaiah,  who  began  to  prophesy  near  the  close 
of  Uzziah's  long  reign  of  fifty-two  years.  The  very  specific  date 
"two  years  before  the  earthquake"  indicates  that  his  whole 
mission  to  Israel  was  executed  within  a  single  year,  perhaps 
within  a  few  months.  It  seems  to  have  been  after  his  return 
to  Judah,  when  at  least  two  years  had  elapsed,  that  he  col- 
lected his  prophecies  and  put  them  into  their  present  form. 

Amos  describes  himself  as  one  of  "the  herdmen  of  Tekoa," 
a  small  town  southeast  of  Bethlehem  on  the  border  of  the  wil- 
derness of  Judah.  2  Chron.  20 :  20.  It  belonged  to  Judah, 
whence  we  infer  that  Amos  was  himself  a  Jew,  a  sujDposition 
which  agrees  well  with  the  advice  of  Amaziah :  "  O  thou  seer, 
go,  flee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah,  and  there  eat  bread, 
and  prophesy  there"  (7:12).  He  speaks  of  himself  as  "no 
prophet,  neither  a  prophet's  son"  (7  :  14) ;  which  means  that  he 
had  not  been  trained  up  for  the  prophetical  office  in  any  school 
of  the  prophets,  as  were  "  the  sons  of  the  prophets."     1  Kings 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  337 

20:35;  2  Kings  2  : 3,  etc.  God  took  him  from  following  the 
herd,  and  gave  him  a  commission  to  prophesy  to  His  people 
Israel,  an  office  which  he  executed  at  Bethel,  where  one  of  the 
golden  calves  erected  by  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat  was  wor- 
shipped (7:10-17  compared  with  1  Kings  12:29).  In  entire 
harmony  with  this  historical  notice  is  the  character  of  his 
prophecies.  His  style  has  not  the  flowing  fulness  of  Joel,  but 
charms  the  reader  by  its  freshness  and  simplicity.  His  wri- 
tings abound  in  images  taken  from  rural  scenes  and  employ- 
ments, some  of  which  are  very  unique  and  striking  in  their 
character.  See  chaps.  2  :  13 ;  3  :  12 ;  5  :  19 ;  6  :  12 ;  9:2,  3,  9. 
He  opens  his  prophecies  by  a  solemn  annunciation  of  the 
approaching  judgments  of  heaven  upon  the  nations  bordering 
on  Israel,  specifying  in  each  case  the  sin  which  has  provoked 
God's  wrath.  The  storm  passes,  without  pausing  in  its  course, 
over  Syria,  Philistia,  Tyre,  Edom,  Ammon,  Moab,  Judah,  till 
at  last  it  reaches  Israel.  Here  it  rests,  gathers  blackness,  and 
thunders  long  and  loud.  The  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  was  one  of 
much  outward  prosperity.  2  Kings  14  :  25-28.  The  vices  which 
Amos  rebukes  are  those  which  belong  to  such  a  period — ava- 
rice, violence,  oppression  of  the  poor,  perversion  of  justice, 
luxury,  lewdness — all  these  joined  with  the  idolatrous  worship 
established  by  Jeroboam  the  son  of  ISTebat.  For  such  multi- 
plied transgressions  God  will  cause  the  sun  to  go  down  at 
noon,  and  darken  the  earth  in  the  clear  day.  Their  feasts  shall 
be  turned  into  mourning,  their  songs  into  lamentation,  and 
they  shall  go  into  captivity  beyond  Damascus.  But  while  all 
the  sinners  among  God's  people  thus  perish  by  the  sword,  he 
will  remember  his  true  Israel  for  good.  He  will  rear  up  again 
the  fallen  tabernacle  of  David,  bring  again  the  captivity  of  his 
people  of  Israel,  and  plant  them  for  ever  in  their  own  land  in 
peace  and  prosperity.  Thus  do*  the  visions  of  Amos,  like  those 
of  Hosea  and  Joel,  close  with  a  cheering  view  of  the  future 
glory  of  Zion.  Amos  is  twice  quoted  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles (Acts  7 :  42,  43 ;  15:16,17). 

Comp.  to  p,ii,ie.  1  5 


338  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

IV.     OBADIAH. 

8.  The  short  prophecy  of  Obadiah  is  directed  against  Edora. 
The  Edomites  were  conspicuous  for  their  hatred  of  the  cove- 
nant people.  See  Ezek.  25  :  12 ;  35  :  5-15 ;  Joel  3  :  19  ;  Amos 
1 :  11,  and  the  parallel  ]3rophecy  of  Jer.  49  :  7-22.  Accordingly 
they  stand  here,  in  respect  to  both  their  guilt  and  punishment, 
as  the  representatives  of  Zion's  enemies  in  all  ages.  In  like 
manner  the  promised  victory  of  God's  people  over  them  shadows 
forth  the  universal  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  which  is 
reserved  for  "  the  last  days." 

Concerning  the  date  of  Obadiah's  prophecy  expositors  are 
not  agreed.  The  whole  question  turns  upon  the  interpretation 
of  verses  11-14.  That  these  contain  an  historic  allusion  to  the 
exultation  of  the  Edomites  over  the  capture  and  plunder  of 
Jerusalem  cannot  well  be  doubted.  If  this  was  the  final  cap- 
ture of  the  city  by  the  Chaldeans,  then  Obadiah's  place  will  be 
after  the  beginning  of  the  Babylonish  captivity.  But  since  no 
mention  is  made  of  the  burning  of  Jerusalem,  some  suppose 
that  the  prophet  refers  to  an  earlier  capture,  as  that  by  the 
Philistines  and  Arabians  under  Jehoram.  2  Chron.  21 :  16,  17. 
In  favor  of  this  view  is  urged  the  fact  that  Jeremiah,  who  was 
in  the  habit  of  using  the  writings  of  the  earlier  prophets,  has 
much  in  common  with  Obadiah. 

That  Jeremiah  borrowed  the  language  of  Obadiah  is  far  more  probable 
than  that  both  prophets  availed  themselves  of  an  older  document,  as  some 
have  conjectured.  Since,  however,  Jerusalem  was  taken  more  than  once 
by  the  Chaldeans  before  its  final  overthrow  (2  Kings  chap.  24  ;  Dan.  1:1), 
Obadiah  may  have  referred  to  one  of  these  earlier  captures,  and  yet  have 
written  before  Jeremiah  i)enned  his  prophecy  against  Edom. 

V.    JONAH. 

9.  We  learn  from  2  Kings  14: 25  that  Jonah,  the  son  of 
Amittai,  was  of  Gath-hepher,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  same 
as  Gittah-hepher,  a  town  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  Palestine  (Josh.  19 :  13) ;  and  that  he  predicted  the 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  839 

successes  of  Jeroboam  II.  According  to  the  general  analogy 
of  Scripture,  prophecies  like  this,  relating  to  one  particular 
event,  are  not  separated  by  any  great  space  of  time  from  their 
fulfilment.  He  belongs,  therefore,  in  all  probability,  to  the 
days  of  Jeroboam  II.,  when  Amos  also  flourished.  There  is 
no  valid  reason  for  assigning  him,  as  some  do,  to  an  earlier 
date. 

10.  The  story  of  the  book  of  Jonah  is  too  simple  to  need 
any  analysis.  His  act  in  fleeing  from  God's  presence,  when 
commissioned  to  go  to  Mneveh  with  a  threatening  message,  is 
very  extraordinary;  but  such  is  the  inconsistency  and  folly  of 
human  passion.  The  conduct  of  the  mariners  when  overtaken 
by  a  tempest  is  not  wonderful  :  it  is  in  harmony  with  all  that 
we  know  of  ancient  habits  of  thinking  and  acting.  But  what 
befell  Jonah,  when  cast  into  the  sea,  is  more  than  wonderful : 
it  is  miraculous.  That  there  exist  in  the  Mediterranean  fish 
capable  of  swallowing  a  man  entire  is  a  well-attested  fact.  The 
original  Hebrew  mentions  only  "a  great  fish."  The  Alexan- 
drine version,  and  after  that  the  New  Testament,  use  the 
word  ivliale  apparently  in  the  sense  of  any  great  sea  monster. 
But  whatever  the  fish  may  have  been,  his  preservation  alive 
in  its  body  for  the  space  of  three  days,  and  his  subsequent 
ejection  upon  the  dry  land,  can  be  accounted  for  only  by  refer- 
ence to  the  immediate  power  of  God,  with  whom  nothing  is 
impossible.  The  effect  of  his  preaching  upon  the  Ninevites 
was  remarkable ;  but  much  more  so  was  his  grief  at  its  success, 
whereby  God  was  moved  to  spare  the  city.  The  common  opin- 
ion is  that  he  feared  for  his  reputation  as  a  true  prophet ;  but 
a  deeper  ground  of  his  anger  may  have  been  that  he  rightly 
understood  the  design  of  his  mission  to  the  Ninevites  to  be  that 
through  repentance  they  might  be  saved  from  impending  de- 
struction;  while  he  regarded  them  as  the  enemies  of  God's 
people,  and  unworthy  of  his  mercy.  However  this  may  be, 
Jonah's  mission  to  the  Ninevites  foreshadowed  God's  purposes 
of  mercy  towards  the  heathen  world,  and  that  too  at  a  very 
suitable  time,  when  the  history  of  the  covenant  people,  and 


340  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

tlirough  tliem  of  God's  visible  earthly  kingdom,  was  about  pass- 
ing into  lasting  connection  witli  tliat  of  the  great  monarchies 
of  the  earth. 

11.  The  authorship  of  the  book  of  Jonah  is  not  expressly 
given ;  but  may  be  most  naturally  referred  to  the  prophet  him- 
self. The  few  alleged  Chaldaisms  found  in  it  may  be  explained 
as  belonging  to  the  provincial  dialect  of  the  prophet;  since  we 
have  but  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  variations  which  the 
living  Hebrew  language  admitted  in  this  respect.  In  Matt. 
12 ;  39-41 ;  Luke  11 :  29-32  the  Saviour  refers  in  explicit  terms 
to  events  recorded  in  this  b©ok  as  being  true  history ;  nor  can 
the  historic  character  of  the  narrative  as  a  whole  be  denied 
except  on  the  ground  that  all  records  of  the  supernatural  -are 
unhistoric. 

VI.     MICAH. 

12.  Micah  is  called  the  Morasthite,  probably  because  he 
was  a  native  of  Moresheth-gath,  a  small  town  of  Judea,  which, 
according  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  lay  in  a  southwesterl}^ 
direction  from  Jerusalem,  not  far  from  Eleutheropolis  on  the 
plain,  near  the  border  of  the  Philistine  territory.  With  this 
agrees  the  connection  in  which  it  is  named  (1 :  13-15) ;  for  La- 
chish,  Mareshah,  aud  Adullam  also  lay  in  that  direction.  He 
prophesied  "  in  the  days  of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings 
of  Judah."  His  prophetic  activity  began,  therefore,  soon  after 
that  of  Isaiah,  and  he  was  contemporary  with  him,  as  well  as 
with  Hosea  and  Amos.  His  prophecies  related  to  Samaria,  the 
capital  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  to  Jerusalem  (1 : 1). 
We  find  accordingly  denunciations  against  Samaria  intermin- 
gled with  his  prophecies  concerning  Judah  and  Jerusalem. 
The  people,  moreover,  are  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  Jacob 
and  Israel  where,  sometimes  at  least,  as  in  chap.  3 : 9,  Judah 
must  be  included.  It  is  generally  thought  that  the  book  of 
Micah  contains  only  a  summary  of  his  prophecies,  prepared 
perhaps  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah.  But  this  is  not  certain;  for 
the  reference  in  Jeremiah  26 :  18  obviously  relates  only  to  the 
particular  prophecy  quoted  there. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  341 

13.  The  book  is  commonly  distributed  into  tliree  sections : 
chaps.  1  and  2 ;  chaps.  3,  4,  and  5 ;  and  chaps.  6  and  7.  Each 
of  these  opens  with  a  summons  to  hear  God's  message,  and 
then  proceeds  with  expostulations  and  threatenings,  which  are 
succeeded  by  glorious  promises.  The  second  of  these  sections, 
which  is  the  largest  and  contains  the  most  extended  promises, 
is  addressed  more  particularly  to  the  rulers  of  the  people.  The 
style  of  Micah  is  bold,  vehement,  and  abrupt.  His  sudden 
transitions  sometimes  make  his  writings  difficult  of  interpreta- 
tion. He  abounds  in  striking  images,  taken  to  a  great  extent, 
like  those  of  Amos,  from  pastoral  and  rural  life.  Micah  has 
one.  remarkable  prophecy  common  to  him  with  Isaiah.  Chap. 
4  : 1-3  compared  with  Isaiah  2  :  2-4.  From  the  connection  of 
the  context  the  passage  in  Micah  is  generally  thought  to  be 
the  original.  Besides  this  there  is  a  general  agreement  be- 
tween the  two  prophets  in  their  representations  ;  and  especially 
in  the  manner  in  which  they  perpetually  mingle  stern  rebukes 
and  threatenings  with  glorious  promises  relating  to  the  Messiah 
and  his  kingdom.  The  remarkable  prophecy  concerning  the 
Messiah's  birth  (chap.  5:2)  is  quoted  with  some  variations  in 
Matt.  2:5,  6,  and  referred  to  in  John  7 :  42.  The  Saviour's 
words,  as  recorded  in  Matt.  10 :  35,  36 ;  Mark  13  :  12  ;  Luke 
12  :  53  contain  an  obvious  reference  to  Micah  7 :  6. 

YII.    NAHUM. 

14.  Nahum  is  called  "the  Elkoshite,"  probably  from  Elkosh, 
a  village  of  Galilee,  which  Jerome  (Introduction  to  Nahum) 
mentions  as  pointed  out  to  him  by  his  guide.  The  tradition 
which  assigns  for  the  place  of  his  birth  and  residence  the  mod- 
ern Alkush,  an  Assyrian  village  on  the  east  side  of  the  Tigris, 
a  few  miles  above  the  site  of  the  ancient  Nineveh,  rests  on  no 
good  foundation.  The  prophecy  of  Nahum  is  directed  against 
Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  AYhen  the  prophet 
wrote,  this  city  was  still  in  the  height  of  its  power  (chap.  1 :12; 
2:8);  oppressing  the  nations  and  purposing  the  conquest  of 
Judah  (chap.  1 : 9,  11 ;  3 : 1,  4).   From  chap.  1 :  12, 13  it  appears 


342  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE.- 

that  tlie  Assyrians  had  ah'eacly  afflicted  Judah,  and  laid  their 
3^oke  upon  her.  All  these  particulars  point  to  the  reign  of 
Hezeldah  as  the  probable  date  of  the  book. 

15.  The  first  chapter  opens  with  a  description  of  God's  aw- 
ful majesty  and  power,  which  nothing  created  can  withstand. 
These  attributes  shall  be  directed  to  the  utter  and  perpetual 
overthrow  of  Nineveh  and  the  salvation  of  God's  afflicted  peo- 
ple. The  second  chapter  begins  a  sublime  description  of  the 
process  of  this  destruction  by  the  invasion  of  foreign  armies. 
The  third  continues  the  account  of  the  desolation  of  Nineveh 
by  her  foes.  For  her  innumerable  sins  she  shall  be  brought  to 
shame  before  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  made  like  populous 
No,  that  is,  No-amon,  the  celebrated  metropolis  of  upper  Egypt, 
also  called  Thebes,  whose  children  were  dashed  in  pieces  and 
her  great  men  laid  in  chains.  The  present  condition  of  Nineveh, 
a  mass  of  uninhabitable  ruins,  is  a  solemn  comment  upon  the, 
closing  words  of  the  prophecy;  ''There  is  no  healing  of  thy 
bruise;  thy  wound  is  grievous:  all  that  hear  the  report  of  thee^ 
shall  clap  their  hands  over  thee  :  for  upon  whom  hath  not  thy 
wickedness  passed  continually  ?" 

VIII.     HABAKKUK. 

16.  Respecting  Habakkuk's  personal  history  we  have  no 
information.  The  apocryphal  notices  of  him  are  unworthy  of 
credence.  From  the  fifth  and  sixth  verses  of  the  first  chapter 
it  is  evident  that  he  prophesied  not  long  before  that  series  of 
invasions  by  the  Chaldeans  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  captivity  of  the  people ;  that  is,  somewhere 
between  640  and  610  years  before  Christ,  so  that  he  was  con- 
temj)orary  with  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah.  The  theme  of  his 
prophecy  is,  first,  the  overthrow  of  Judea  by  the  Chaldeans, 
and  then  the  overthrow  in  turn  of  the  Chaldean  monarchy,  each 
power  in  turn  for  its  sins.  In  the  first  chapter  he  predicts  in 
a  dramatic  form — that  of  expostulation  with  God  on  the  part 
of  the  prophet,  and  God's  answer — the  apj)roaching  desolation 
of  the  land  by  the  Chaldean  armies,  whose  resistless  power  he 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  343 

describes  in  bold  and  striking  imagery.  In  the  second  cnapter 
the  prophet  appears  standing  on  his  watch  to  see  what  answer 
Jehovah  will  give  to  the  expostulation  with  which  the  prece- 
ding chapter  closes.  He  receives  a  comforting  message,  but 
one  that  will  try  the  faith  of  God's  people  by  its  delay.  Yerse  3. 
It  is  an  announcement  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Chaldean  op- 
pressor, carried  out  in  a  series  of  bold  and  vivid  descriptions 
in  which  woe  upon  woe  is  pronounced  against  him  for  his 
rapine,  covetousness,  iniquitous  oppression,  and  idolatry.  The 
third  chapter  is  a  lyric  ode  in  which  the  prophet,  in  view  of 
both  the  judgments  that  God  is  about  to  execute  on  his  coun- 
trymen through  the  Chaldeans  (chap.  1),  and  the  promised  de- 
liverance from  them  at  a  future  period  (chap.  2),  supplicates 
and  celebrates  the  future  interposition  of  Jehovah  for  the  re- 
demption of  his  people  in  language  borrowed  from  their  past 
history.  Thus  this  sublime  song  is  both  a  prayer  for  the 
renewal  of  God's  wondrous  works  in  the  days  of  old  and  a 
prophecy  of  such  a  renewal.  The  apostle  Paul  quotes  the 
words  of  Habakkuk:  "The  just  shall  live  by  his  faith"  (2:4), 
and  applies  them  to  all  believers  (Rom.  1 :  17). 

The  language  of  chap.  1 : 5  implies  that  the  desolation  of  the  land  by 
the  Chaldeans  would  be  a  surprising  event,  which  could  not  have  been  the 
case  after  the  victory  of  Nebuchadnezzar  over  the  Egyptians  and  his  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim,  b.  c.  606.  It  was  also 
to  be  in  the  day  of  that  generation — "in  your  days."  Consequently  we 
cannot  date  the  prophecy  earlier  than  b.  c.  640,  probably  not  before  b.  c. 
630. 

The  dedication  of  Habakkuk's  ode  (3  :  19)  'Ho  the  chief  musician  " — 
the  Hebrew  word  is  the  same  that  so  often  occurs  in  the  titles  of  the 
Psalms — implies  that  this  ode  was  to  be  used  in  the  solemn  worship  of 
God.  The  added  words,  *'on  my  stringed  instruments,"  are  most  natu- 
rally understood  of  those  under  his  charge  as  a  leader  in  the  service  of 
song  in  the  sanctuary.  Hence  we  infer  with  probabiUty  that  Habakkuk 
was  a  Levite. 

IX.     ZEPHANIAH. 

17.  Zephaniah  prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Josiali  (1 : 1), 
(ipparently  while  his  work  of  reformation  was  in  progress  and 


:>44  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

not  yet  completed  (1 : 4-6,  8,  9) ;  that  is,  somewhere  between 
his  twelfth  and  his  eighteenth  year  (2  Chron.  34 : 3-13). 

In  the  first  chapter  he  predicts  the  utter  desolation  of  Judah, 
and  with  it  the  destruction  of  all  the  patrons  of  idolatry  and 
the  rich  and  presumptuous  sinners  in  Jerusalem.  In  the  sec- 
ond chapter  he  exhorts  the  covenant  people  to  repentance  in 
view  of  the  judgments  that  are  coming  upon  them  (verses  1-3), 
threatens  the  surrounding  nations — Philistia,  Moab,  and  Am- 
nion— with  desolation  (verses  4-11),  and  denounces  the  judg- 
ments of  God  upon  the  Ethiopians  and  Assyrians  (verses 
12-15).  In  the  third  chapter,  after  a  severe  rebuke  of  Jeru- 
salem for  her  incorrigible  rebellion  against  God  (verses  1-7), 
he  foretells  in  glowing  language  the  future  purification  and 
enlargement  of  Zion,  and  the  destruction  of  all  her  enemies 
(verses  8-20).  The  style  of  Zephaniah  is  clear  and  flowing, 
having  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  Jeremiah.  He  has 
frequent  allusions  to  the  earlier  prophets.  Chap.  1 :  7  compared 
with  Isa.  34:6;  chap.  2:13-15  compared  with  Isa.  13:21,  22; 
34:13-15;  chap.  1:14,  15  with  Joel  2:1,  2;  chap.  1:13  with 
Amos  5  :  11,  etc. 

The  genealogy  of  Zeplianiah  is  given  through  Cushi,  Gedaliah,  and 
Amariah  to  Hezekiah  ;  for  in  the  original  Hebrew  the  words  Hizkiah  and 
Hezekiah  are  the  same.  As  it  is  not  usual  that  the  descent  of  prophets 
should  be  given  with  such  particularity,  it  has  been  assumed,  with  some 
probability,  that  this  Hezekiah  was  the  king  of  that  name  ;  though  in  this 
case  we  should  have  expected  the  addition  "  king  of  Judah."  The  "  che- 
marim,"  verse  4,  are  the  idol-priests ;  that  is,  priests  devoted  to  idol  wor- 
ship. In  2  Kings  33  :  5,  where  the  writer  is  speaking  of  the  reformation 
under  Josiah,  the  word  is  translated  *'  idolatrous  priests  ;"  in  Hosea  10':  5 
simply  "priests,"  which  is  its  meaning  in  the  Syriac  language.  Some 
have  maintained  that  the  invasion  of  Judah  to  which  Zephaniah  refers  was 
that  of  the  Scythians  described  by  Herodotus,  1.  105  ;  but  this  is  very 
improbable.  From  the  fact  that  "the  king's  children"  are  included  in 
the  threatened  visitation — in  the  Hebrew,  "I  will  visit  upon  the  princes 
and  the  king's  children"  (1  :8) — some  have  inferred  that  they  must  have 
been  already  grown  and  addicted  to  idolatrous  practices;  consequently 
that  Zephaniah  wrote  later  than  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah.  But,  as 
Keil  and  others  have  remarked,  the  mention  of  the  king's  children  may 
have  been  added  simply  to  indicate  the  universality  of  the  aj^proaching 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  345 

visitation  ;  not  to  say  that  the  prophetic  vision  of  Zephaniah  may  have 
anticipated  the  sin  and  punishment  of  these  king's  children — Jehoahaz 
and  Jehoiakim. 

X.    HAGGAI. 

18.  Haggai  is  the  first  of  the  three  prophets  after  the  cap- 
tivity, who  are  commonly  called  Prophets  of  the  Restoration. 
His  four  short  messages  to  the  people  were  all  delivered  in  the 
space  of  three  months,  and  they  all  had  reference  to  the  re- 
building of  the  temple.  By  the  slanderous  representations  of 
the  Jews'  enemies  this  work  had  been  interrupted,  as  we  learn 
from  the  fourth  chapter  of  Ezra.  Meanwhile  the  Jews,  having 
yielded  to  the  spirit  of  unbelief,  had  lost  their  zeal  for  God's 
cause  and  grown  cold  and  indifferent.  For  this  the  pro23hets 
Haggai  and  Zechariah  were  sent  to  reprove  them,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  encouraged  them  to  resume  the  work,  a  mis- 
sion which  they  successfully  accomplished.     Ezra  5  : 1,  2. 

19.  The  first  message  is  dated  "  in  the  second  year  of  Da- 
rius the  king" — Darius  Hystaspes,  who  ascended  the  throne  of 
Persia  B.  c.  521 — "  in  the  sixth  month,  in  the  first  day  of  the 
month."  Chap.  1:1.  In  this  message  the  prophet  sharj^ly  re- 
proves the  people  for  their  indifference  to  the  cause  of  God's 
house  and  their  selfish  devotion  to  their  own  private  interests, 
which  have  brought  upon  them  the  divine  rebuke.  Chap. 
1 : 2-11.  The  effect  of  his  words  in  exciting  both  rulers  and 
people  to  renew  the  work  upon  the  temple  is  added.  Chap. 
1 :  12-15.  The  second  message  "  in  the  one  and  twentieth  day" 
of  the  same  month  is  throughout  of  an  encouraging  character. 
The  elders  who  had  seen  the  first  house  in  its  glory,  were  de- 
spondent in  view  of  the  comparative  meanness  of  the  new  edi- 
fice. Jehovah  promises  them  that  "  the  Desire  of  all  nations  " 
shall  come,  that  he  will  fill  this  house  with  glory,  so  that  "  the 
glory  of  this  latter  house  shall  be  greater  than  of  the  former  " 
(2 : 1-9).  This  promise  was  fulfilled  in  a  m'aterial  way  in  the 
second  temple  as  renewed  by  Herod  the  Great.  But  the  real 
reference  is  to  its  spiritual  glory.  It  was  honored  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Son  of  God,  who  is  the  brightness  of  the  Father's 

15* 


346  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

glory.  In  the  third  message,  "in  the  four  and  twentieth  day 
of  the  ninth  month,"  the  prophet  in  a  sort  of  parable,  rebukes 
the  people  for  their  heartless  formality,  which,  like  the  touch 
of  a  dead  body,  defiles  all  their  offerings  and  services,  }■  et  prom- 
ises them  God's  blessing  upon  their  repentance.  Chap.  2  :  10-19. 
The  last  message,  which  was  delivered  on  the  same  day,  is 
wholly  occupied  with  the  future.  Amid  commotions  and  over- 
turnings  God  will  destroy  the  power  of  the  heathen  nations, 
and  make  Zerubbabel  as  a  signet. 

The  reference  is  to  a  seal-ring,  and  tlie  promise  is  that  God  wiU  pre- 
serve Zerubbabel  from  all  the  assaults  of  the  wicked.  Zerubbabel  was  one 
of  the  Messiah's  ancestors  (Matt.  1 :  12  ;  Luke  3  :  27),  and  since  the  projih- 
ecy  reached  far  beyond  his  day,  the  promise  made  to  him  extends  to  all 
faithful  rulers  whom  God  sets  over  his  church  but  can  have  its  perfect  ful- 
filment only  in  the  Messiah  himself,  of  whom  Zerubbabel  was  a  type. 

XI.     ZECHAEIAH. 

20.  Zechariah,  the  second  and  greatest  prophet  of  the  Res- 
toration, calls  himself  the  son  of  Berechiah,  the  son  of  Iddo 
(1 : 1).  But  in  Ezra  the  name  of  the  father  is  omitted,  perhaps 
as  being  less  known,  and  he  is  called  simply  the  son  of  Iddo 
(chaps.  5:1;  6 :  14),  the  word  son  being  used  in  the  general 
sense  of  descendant.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  identity 
of  this  Iddo  with  the  priest  of  that  name  who  went  up  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  (Neh.  12  :  "4) ;  so  that 
Zechariah,  like  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  was  of  priestly  descent. 
He  began  to  prophesy  two  months  after  Haggai  (chap.  1 : 1 
compared  with  Hag.  1:1),  and  the  two  prophets  were  contem- 
porary, at  least  for  a  short  time. 

21.  The  book  of  Zechariah  may  be  naturally  divided,  ac- 
cording to  its  contents,  into  three  parts.  The  first  six  chapters 
constitute  the  first  of  these  parts.  After  a  short  introductory 
message  (1 : 1-6)  there  follows  a  very  remarkable  series  of  vis- 
ions relating  to  the  reestablishment  of  the  Jews  in  their  own 
land,  and  the  future  dispensations  of  God  towards  them ;  the 
whole  being  closed  by  a  symbolic  prophecy  of  Christ  as  both 
priest  and  king  upon  the  throne  of  David.     To  the  second  part 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  347 

belong  tlie  prophecies  contained  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
chapters.  The  occasion  of  the  first  of  these  was  a  question 
proposed  to  the  prophet  concerning  the  observance  of  a  certain 
fast.  He  first  rebukes  the  people  for  their  formality,  and  then 
proceeds  to  encourage  them  in  the  way  of  duty,  adding  glori- 
ous promises  respecting  the  future  prosperity  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem.  The  remaining  six  chapters,  constituting  the  tldrd 
part,  appear  to  have  been  written  at  a  later  time.  They  all 
relate  to  the  future  destinies  of  the  covenant  people,  and, 
through  them,  of  the  visible  kingdom  of  God  on  earth.  But 
the  first  three  of  these  chapters  are  mainly  occupied  with  the 
nearer  future,  yet  with  glimpses  at  the  final  consummation  in 
the  latter  days.  They  are  generally  understood  to  predict  the 
conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  (9  : 1-8),  the  conflict  of  the 
Jews  with  their  enemies  in  the  Maccabean  age  (9  :  13-16),  the 
advent  of  Christ  (9  : 9),  the  corrupt  and  rapacious  character  of 
the  Jewish  rulers  at  that  era,  their  rejection  of  Christ,  and  the 
consequent  rejection  of  the  nation  by  God  (chap.  11).  They 
also  contain  a  prediction  of  the  final  reunion  and  restoration 
of  "the  house  of  Judah"  and  "the  house  of  Joseph"  (ch.  10). 
The  remaining  three  chapters  are  occupied  with  the  great  and 
decisive  conflict  of  the  last  days,  which  is  to  usher  in  the  era 
of  millennial  glory. 

22.  The  prophecies  of  Zechariah,  containing  as  they  do  a 
portraiture  of  ^he  destiny  of  God's  people  to  the  end  of  time, 
and  comprehending  so  many  mighty  events  which  yet  await 
their  fulfilment,  present  to  the  interpreter  many  difficulties, 
some  of  which  have  hitherto  been  found  insoluble,  and  will 
probably  remain  unsolved  till  the  mystery  of  God  contained  in 
them  shall  have  been  fulfilled.  One  thing,  however,  they 
clearly  reveal  to  us :  that  the  future  triumph  of  God's  kingdom 
is  certain,  and  that  all  the  great  movements  in  the  history  of 
the  nations,  however  unpropitious  they  may  seem  at  the  time, 
are  parts  of  the  mighty  plan  of  divine  providence  which  shall 
end  in  making  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  the  kingdoms  of  our 
Lord  and  of  his  Christ. , 


348  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

In  Matt.  27  : 9,  10,  there  is  a  quotation  for  substance  of  the  words  of 
Zechariah  11  :  13,  but  they  are  ascribed  to  "Jeremy  the  prophet."  Of 
this  discrepancy  various  explanations  have  been  proposed.  Some  have 
suspected  an  early  error  in  the  manuscript  of  Matthew's  gospel ;  but  of 
this  there  is  no  satisfactory  proof.  Others  have  thought  that  the  part  ol 
our  present  book  of  Zechariah  which  contains  the  prophecy  in  question 
actually  belongs  to  Jeremiah  ;  but  upon  this  hypothesis  it  remains  a  mys- 
tery how  it  should  have  been  attached  to  the  writings  of  Zechariah. 

Upon  the  ground  of  diversity  of  style  and  other  alleged  internal  marks, 
it  has  been  maintained  by  some  biblical  scholars  that  the  whole  of  the  last 
part  of  Zechariah  belongs  to  an  earlier  age  ;  but  the  validity  of  this  con- 
clusion is  denied  by  others.  To  give  even  a  summary  of  the  opposing 
arguments  would  exceed  the  limits  of  the  joresent  work.  The  internal 
proofs  being  very  nearly  balanced  against  each  other,  the  fact  that  these 
chapters  have  always  been  connected  with  the  writings  of  Zechariah  ought 
to  be  allowed  a  decisive  influence  in  favor  of  their  genuineness. 

XII.     MALACHI. 

23.  In  Hebrew  Malaclii  signifies  my  messenger,  being  the 
very  word  employed  in  chap.  3  : 1.  Hence  some  have  supposed 
that  this  is  not  the  prophet's  name,  but  a  description  of  his 
office.  Such  a  supposition,  however,  is  contrary  to  scriptural 
usage,  which  in  every  other  case  prefixes  to  each  of  the  pro- 
phetical books  the  author's  proper  name.  Malachi  has  not 
given  the  date  of  his  prophecies,  but  it  can  be  determined  with 
a  good  degree  of  certainty  from  their  contents.  The  people 
had  been  reinstated  in  the  land,  the  temple  rebuilt,  and  its 
regular  services  reestablished.  Yet  they  were  in  a  depressed 
condition,  dispirited,  and  disposed  to  complain  of  the  severity 
of  God's  dealings  towards  them.  Their  ardently  cherished 
expectation  of  seeing  the  Theocracy  restored  to  its  former 
glory  was  not  realized.  Instead  of  driving  their  enemies  before 
them  sword  in  hand,  as  in  the  days  of  Joshua,  or  reigning  tri- 
umphantly over  them  in  peace,  as  in  the  days  of  Solomon,  they 
found  themselves  a  handful  of  weak  colonists  under  the  domin- 
ion of  foreigners,  and  returning  to  the  land  of  their  fathers 
solely  by  their  permission.  All  this  was  extremely  humiliating 
to  their  worldly  pride,  and  a  bitter  disappointment  of  their 
worldly  hopes.      Hence  they  had  fallen  into  a  desponding  and 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  319 

complaining  state  of  mind.  While  rendering  to  God  a  service 
that  was  not  cheerful  but  grudging,  complaining  of  its  weari- 
someness,  withholding  the  tithes  required  by  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  offering  in  sacrifice  the  lame  and  the  blind,  they  yet  com- 
plained that  he  did  not  notice  and  requite  these  heartless  ser- 
vices, and  talked  as  if  he  favored  the  proud  and  wicked.  "  Ye 
have  said,  It  is  vain  to  serve  God :  and  what  profit  is  it  that 
we  have  kept  his  ordinance,  and  walked  mournfully  before  him? 
And  now  we  call  the  proud  happy;  yea,  they  that  work  wick- 
edness are  set  up;  yea,  they  that  tempt  God  are  even  deliv- 
ered" (3  :  14,  15).  To  these  sins  they  had  added  that  of  put- 
ting away  their  Hebrew  wives,  that  they  might  marry  foreign 
women  (2  :  10-16).  All  these  circumstances  point  to  the  admin- 
istration of  Nehemiah,  probably  the  latter  part  of  it ;  for  after 
his  visit  to  Babylon  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  Artaxerxes 
(Nell.  13  : 6),  he  found  upon  his  return,  and  has  described  in 
the  last  chapter  of  his  book  precisely  the  same  state  of  affairs. 
Malachi  is  thus  the  last  of  all  the  prophets. 

24.  He  opens  his  prophecies  by  reminding  the  people  of 
God's  great  and  distinguishing  love  towards  them  and  their 
fathers,  which  they  were  so  slow  to  acknowledge.  He  then 
reproves  them  sharply  for  the  sins  above  referred  to,  and 
forewarns  them  that  the  Lord,  of  whose  delay  they  complain, 
will  suddenly  come  to  his  temple  to  sit  in  judgment  there — an 
advent  which  they  will  not  be  able  to  endure ;  for  it  will  con- 
sume the  wicked  root  and  branch,  while  it  brings  salvation  to 
the  righteous  (3  : 1-5 ;  4  : 1-3).  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
revelations  of  the  Old  Testament  are  now  closing,  he  admon- 
ishes the  people  to  remember  the  law  of  Moses,  and  closes 
with  a  promise  of  the  mission  of  "  Elijah  the  prophet  before 
the  coming  of  the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord"  (4 :  5,  6). 
This  promise,  with  that  contained  in  chap.  3  : 1,  is  repeatedly 
referred  to  in  the  New  Testament,  and  applied  to  the  coming 
of  John  the  Baptist  as  our  Lord's  forerunner.  The  opening 
words  of  the  prophecy,  chap.  1 : 2,  are  quoted  by  the  apostle 
Paul  (Eom.  9  :  13). 


350  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


APPENDIX 


The    Apocryphal  Books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  The  Greek  word  Apocrypha,  hidden,  tliat  is,  hidden  or  secret  books, 
was  early  applied  by  the  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  to  anonymous  or 
spurious  books  that  falsely  laid  claim  to  be  a  part  of  the  inspired  word. 
By  some,  as  Jerome,  the  term  was  extended  to  all  the  books  incorporated 
by  the  Alexandrine  Jews,  in  their  Greek  version,  into  the  proper  canon  of 
the  Old  Testament,  a  few  of  which  books,  though  not  inspired,  are  un- 
doubtedly genuine.  Another  designation  of  the  books  in  question  was 
ecclesiastical,  books  to  be  read  in  the  churches  for  edification,  but  not  as 
possessing  authority  in  matters  of  faith.  But  at  the  era  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, when  these  books  were  separated  by  the  Protestant  churches  from 
the  true  canon,  and  placed  by  themselves  between  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament,  Jerome's  pld  epithet  Apocrypha,  or  the  Apocry- 
phal hooks,  was  applied  to  the  entire  collection. 

How  the  term  Apocrypha,  hidden,  became  associated  with  the  idea  of 
spurious  or  anonymous  is  doubtful.  According  to  Augustine,  it  was 
because  the  origin  of  these  books  was  not  clear  to  the  church  fathers.  A 
later  conjecture,  expressed  by  the  translators  of  the  English  Bible,  is 
' '  because  they  were  wont  to  be  read  not  openly  and  in  common,  but  as  it 
were  in  secret  and  apart."  Still  more  probable  is  the  opinion  that  they 
were  so  called  from  their  close  relation  to  the  secret  books  containing  the 
mysteries — secret  doctrines — of  certain  heretical  sects. 

2.  The  date  of  several  of  the  apocryphal  books  is  very  uncertain  ;  but 
none  of  them  can  well  be  placed  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  before  Christ.  Though  some  of  them  were  originally  written  in 
Hebrew  or  Aramean,  they  have  been  preserved  to  us  only  in  Greek  or 
other  versions.  None  of  them  were  ever  admitted  into  the  Hebrew  canon. 
The  ground  of  their  rejection  is  well  stated  by  Josephus  (Against  Apion 
1.  8),  namely,  that  from  the  time  of  Artaxerxes,  Xerxes'  son  (Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  under  whom  Ezra  led  forth  his  colony,  Ezra  7:1,  8),  "the 
exact  succession  of  the  prophets"  was  wanting.  The  Alexandrine  Jews, 
however,  who  were  very  loose  in  their  ideas  of  the  canon,  incorporated 
them  into  their  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  How  far  the  mass  of 
the  people  distinguished  between  their  authority  and  that  of  the  books 
belonging  to  the  Hebrew  canon  is  a  question  not  easily  determined.     But 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  351 

Josephiis,  as  we  have  seen,  clearly  recognized  their  true  character.  Philo 
also,  as  those  who  have  examined  the  matter  inform  us,  though  acquainted 
with  these  books,  never  cites  any  one  of  them  as  of  divine  authority.  The 
judgment  of  these  two  men  doubtless  represents  that  of  aU  the  better 
informed  among  the  Alexandrine  Jews,  as  it  does  that  of  the  Saviour  and 
his  apostles,  who  never  quote  them  as  a  part  of  the  insiDired  word. 

3.  During  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  very  few  of  the 
church  fathers  had  any  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  The  churches  received  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  through  the  medium  of  the  Alexandrine 
Greek  version,  which  contained  the  apocryphal  books.  It  is  not  surx)rising, 
therefore,  that  the  distinction  between  these  and  the  canonical  books  was 
not  clearly  maintained,  and  that  we  find  in  thQ  writings  of  the  church 
fathers  quotations  from  them  even  under  the  name  of  "divine  scripture." 
But  Jerome,  who  translated  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew,  under- 
stood x^erfectly  the  distinction  between  the  canonical  and  the  apocryphal 
books.  The  canon  which  he  has  given  agrees  with  that  of  the  Palestine 
Jews.  He  says  (Prologus  Galeatus)  of.  the  apocryphal  books  Wisdom, 
Ecclesiasticus,  Judith,  Tobit,  and  Maccabees,  that  the  church  reads  these 
"for  the  edification  of  the  people,  not  for  authority  in  establishing  church 
doctrines."  The  same  distinction  is  made  by  Eufinus,  the  contemporary 
and  antagonist  of  Jerome.  The  language  of  Augustine  was  more  wavering 
and  uncertain.  At  the  Council  of  Hippo,  a.  d.  393,  at  which  he  was  pres- 
ent, the  "ecclesiastical  books,"  as  the  apocryphal  books  are  called,  were 
included  in  the  catalogue  of  sacred  books  ;  and  from  that  day  to  the  time 
of  the  Eeformation  the  extent  of  the  Old  Testament  canon  was  regarded 
as  an  open  question.  But  the  Romish  Council  of  Trent  included  the 
apocryphal  books  in  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  the  exception 
of  Esdras  and  the  prayer  of  Manasseh,  pronouncing  an  anathema  on  all 
who  should  hold  a  contrary  opinion.  The  Protestant  churches,  on  the 
other  hand,  unanimously  adhered  to  the  Hebrew  canon,  separating  from 
this  the  apocryphal  books  as  useful  for  reading,  but  of  no  authority  in 
matters  of  faith. 

4.  Although  the  Protestant  churches  rightly  reject  the  apocryphal 
Dooks  as  not  belonging  to  the  inspired  word,  the  knowledge  of  their  con- 
tents is  nevertheless  a  matter  of  deep  interest  to  the  biblical  scholar.  The 
first  book  of  Maccabees  is  in  the  main  authentic,  and  it  covers  an  impor- 
'tant  crisis  of  Jewish  history.  All  of  the  apocryphal  books,  moreover, 
throw  much  light  on  the  progress  of  Jewish  thought,  especially  in  the  two 
directions  of  Grecian  culture  and  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  forms  of  the 
Mosaic  law.  Keil  divides  the  apocryphal  books  into  historical,  didactic,  and 
2'>ropTietic,  but  with  the  remark  that  this  division  cannot  be  rigidly  carried 
but.  In  the  follovvdng  brief  notice  of  the  several  books  the  arrangement  of 
the  English  Bible  is  followed. 


352  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


I.     THE   TWO  BOOKS  OF   ESDKAS. 

5.  The  first  two  in  order  of  the  apocryphal  books  in  the  English  ver- 
sion bear  the  title  of  Esdras,  that  is,  Ezra.  The  Greek  Bible  has  only  the 
first,  -which  stands  sometimes  before  onr  canonical  book  of  Ezra,  and  some- 
times after  Nehemiah.  In  the  former  case  it  is  called  the  first  book  of 
Esdras,  that  is,  Ezra  ;  in  the  latter  the  third,  Nehemiah  being  reckoned  as 
the  continuation  of  Ezra,  and  called  the  second  book  of  Ezra.  It  gives  the 
history  of  the  temple  and  its  service  from  Josiali  to  Ezra — its  restoration 
by  Josiah,  destruction  by  the  Chaldees,  rebuilding  and  reestablishment 
through  Zerubbabel  and  Ezra.  Its  original  and  central  part  is  a  legend 
from  an  unknown  source  respecting  a  trial  of  wisdom  between  Zerubbabel 
and  two  other  young  men,  made  in  the  presence  of  Darius,  king  of  Persia, 
which  resulted  in  Zerubbabel's  favor,  and  so  x^leased  the  king  that  he 
issued  letters  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  and  conferred  many  other 
favors  on  the  Jews.  ChajDS.  3,  4.  The  preceding  and  following  parts  are 
made  up  of  extracts  from  2  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  in  which  the 
compiler  has  made  a  free  use  of  his  biblical  sources,  at  one  time  abridging 
the  narrative,  at  another  making  e;xplanatory  additions,  and  again  trans- 
posing the  order  of  events  contrary  to  historical  truth.  Some,  as  Keil, 
think  that  the  writer  made  use  of  the  Alexandrine  version  ;  others,  that  he 
drew  from  the  original  Hebrew.  His  design  was  to  exhibit  the  liberality 
of  Cyrus  and  Darius  towards  the  Jews  as  a  pattern  for  the  heathen  rulers 
of  Judea  in  his  own  day.  (Keil. )  Neither  the  author  nor  the  date  of  the 
book  is  known,  but  it  cannot  be  placed  earlier  than  the  second  century 
before  Christ. 

6.  The  second  book  of  Esdras  (called  also  the  fourth,  when  the  first  is 
reckoned  as  the  third)  is  extant  in  a  Latin,  an  Arabic,  and  an  Ethiopic 
version.  The  Greek  original  has  not  thus  far  been  found.  The  Arabic 
and  Ethiopic  are  thought  to  represent  the  primitive  text  more  correctly 
than  the  Latin  :  as  they  want  the  two  introductory  and  closing  chapters  of 
the  latter,  which  are  generally  admitted  to  be  spurious  additions  by  a  later 
hand ;  and  contain,  on  the  contrary,  a  long  passage  after  chap.  7  :  35,  which 
is  not  found  in  the  Latin,  and  is  thought  to  be  genuine. 

7.  If  we  reject  the  first  two  and  last  two  chapters  of  the  Latin  version, 
which  do  not  belong  to  the  original  work,  the  remainder  of  the  book  has 
entire  unity  from  beginning  to  end.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  pretended 
visions  vouchsafed  to  Ezra  through  the  angel  Uriel  in  the  thirtieth  year 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldees,  wiiile  he  mourned  over 
the  desolate  and  distressed  condition  of  the  covenant  people  wdth  fasting 
and  prayer.  Of  these  visions,  the  first  six,  which  are  preparatory  to  the 
last,  pertain  mainly  to  the  method  of  God's  dealing  with  men,  the  end  of 
the  present  age,  the  introduction  of  the  coming  age,  and  the  glorification 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  353 

of  Zion,  with  tlie  heavy  judgments  of  God  that  shall  accompany  these 
events.  Many  of  these  revelations  are  made  through  the  medium  of  sym- 
bols. In  the  seventh  and  last  revelation,  a  voice  addresses  Ezra  out  of  a 
bush,  as  it  did  Moses  of  old.  Upon  his  complaining  that  the  law  has  been 
burnt,  he  is  directed  to  take  five  ready  scribes,  with  a  promise  that  the 
holy  writings  which  are  lost  shall  be  restored  to  his  jDeople.  The  next  day 
the  voice  calls  to  him  again,  commanding  him  to  open  his  mouth  and 
drink  the  cup  which  is  offered  to  him,  "full  as  it  were  with  water,  but  the 
color  of  it  was  like  fire."  Upon  this  he  is  filled  with  the  spirit  of  inspira- 
tion, and  dictates  to  his  five  scribes  in  forty  days  204  books  (according  to 
some  94).  Of  these  the  last  70  are  secret,  to  be  delivered  only  "to  such 
as  be  wise  among  the  people."  The  rest  are  to  be  published  openly,  that 
the  worthy  and  unworthy  may  read  them.  The  historic  truth  underlying 
this  fabulous  revelation  seems  to  be  the  revision  of  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  by  Ezra  and  his  associates.  Chap.  15,  No.  17.  It  is  agreed 
that  this  book  is  the  production  of  a  Jew,  but  the  date  of  its  comx^osition 
is  a  disputed  point.  Some  assign  it  to  the  first  century  after  Christ ; 
others  to  the  century  preceding  our  Lord's  advent,  but  with  interpolations 
that  manifestly  belong  to  the  Christian  era. 

II.     TOBIT. 

8.  The  book  of  Tobit  contains  a  narrative  of  the  piety,  misfortunes, 
and  final  x^rosperity  of  Tobit,  an  Israelite  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  who  was 
among  the  captives  brought  to  Assyria  by  Enemessar  (Shalmaneser)  king 
of  Assyria.  With  Enemessar  he  was  in  favor,  became  his  purveyor,  and 
was  able  to  deposit  ten  talents  of  silver  with  Gabael  at  Bages,  a  city  of 
Media.  But  Sennacherib,  the  successor  of  Enemessar,  persecuted  him, 
especially  for  his  x^ious  care  in  burying  the  bodies  of  his  Jewish  brethren 
whom  that  king  had  slain,  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee  with  his  wife  Anna 
and  his  son  Tobias,  leaving  all  his  goods  as  plunder  to  the  Assyrian  king. 
Under  Sarchedonus  (Esarhaddon)  he  returned  again  to  his  home,  but  soon 
a  new  misfortune  overtook  him.  As  he  lay  one  night  by  the  wall  of  his 
courtyard,  being  unclean  from  the  burial  of  a  Jew  whom  his  son  had  found 
strangled  in  the  market-jDlace,  "the  sparrows  muted  warm  dung"  into  his 
eyes,  which  dex)rived  him  of  sight.  Wishing  now  to  send  his  son  Tobias 
for  the  ten  talents  of  silver  dejoosited  with  Gabael  at  Bages  in  Media,  he 
directs  him  to  seek  a  guide  for  the  way ;  when  the  angel  Baphael  offers 
himself  under  the  name  of  Azarias  the  son  of  Ananias  tlie  gTeat,  one  of 
Tobit's  brethren.  As  the  angel  and  Tobias  journey  together,  they  come 
one  evening  to  the  river  Tigris.  As  the  young  man  goes  down  to  the  river 
to  bathe,  a  fish  assaults  him ;  but  by  the  angel's  direction  he  seizes  him, 
drags  him  on  shore,  and  takes  for  future  use  his  heart,  liver,  and  gall.  On 
their  way  to  Bages  they  come  to  Ecbatane,  a  city  of  Media,  where  resides 


354  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Raguel,  tlie  cousin  of  Tobias,  whose  only  daughter,  Sara,  has  lost  seven 
husbands  on  the  night  of  their  marriage,  through  the  power  of  Asmodeus, 
ail  evil  spirit.  Tobias  being  her  nearest  surviving  kinsman,  marries  her 
according  to  the  law  of  Moses.  By  the  angel's  direction,  upon  entering 
the  marriage-chamber,  he  lays  the  heart  and  liver  of  the  fish  upon  embers. 
The  evil  spirit,  at  the  smell  of  the  smoke,  flees  away  into  the  utmost  parts 
of  Egypt,  where  the  angel  binds  him.  The  angel  goes  to  Rages  and  brings 
the  ten  talents  and  Gabael  himself  to  the  wedding  feast ;  the  wedded  pair 
return  in  safety  to  Tobit  with  the  silver,  and  also  the  half  of  KagTiel's 
goods,  which  Sara  receives  as  her  wedding  portion.  Finally  Tobias,  by 
the  angel's  direction,  anoints  his  father's  eyes  with  the  gall  of  the  fish ; 
whereupon  he  recovers  his  sight,  and  lives  in  honor  and  prosperity  to  a 
good  old  age.  Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  story,  which  is  told  in  an 
interesting  and  attractive  style.  How  much  historic  truth  lies  at  its  foun- 
dation, it  is  impossible  to  determine.  The  introduction  of  the  angelic 
guide  may  well  be  regarded  as  a  mythical  embellishment. 

9.  The  book  of  Tobit  is  extant  in  various  texts — Greek,  Latlii,  Syriac, 
and  Hebrew,  the  Hebrew  forms  being  all  translations  from  the  Greek  or 
Latin.  These  texts  differ  in  minor  details,  but  have  all  sprung  directly 
or  indirectly  from  one  original,  which  was  probably  Hebrew  or  Aramaic, 
though  some  maintain  that  it  w^as  Greek.  The  book  is  thoroughly  Jewish 
in  its  spirit.  The  date  of  its  composition  is  uncertain.  The  common  opin- 
ion of  bibUcal  scholars  is  that  it  was  composed  about  250 — 200  b.  c.  In  its 
general  scox)e  the  book  has  a  resemblance  to  that  of  Job.  A  good  man 
encounters  suffering  in  the  way  of  piety,  but  is  finally  delivered,  lives  in 
j.u'osperity,  and  dies  in  a  good  old  age.  The  portraiture  which  it  gives  of 
domestic  piety  is  very  pleasing,  and  affords  an  instructive  insight  into  the 
spirit  of  the  age  in  which  it  was  written.  It  gives  great  prominence  to 
deeds  of  charity ;  but  the  alms  on  which  it  insists  so  earnestly  flow  from 
inward  faith  and  love.  In  this  respect  they  are  distinguished  from  the 
dead  works  of  the  late  Scribes  and  Pharisees. 

III.     JUDITH. 

10.  This  book  relates  the  exploit  of  Judith,  a  Jewish  widow  distin- 
guished alike  for  beauty,  courage,  and  devotion  to  her  country.  When 
Holofernes,  one  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  generals,  was  besieging  Bethuha,  a 
city  of  Judea,  she  went  over  to  his  camp  with  her  maid  in  the  character  of 
a  deserter,  promised  to  guide  him  to  Jerusalem,  and  by  her  flattery  and 
artful  representations  so  insinuated  herself  into  his  favor  that  he  enter- 
tained her  with  high  honor.  At  last,  being  left  alone  with  him  at  night 
in  his  tent,- she  beheaded  him  with  his  own  falchion  as  he  lay  asleep  and 
intoxicated,  and  going  forth  gave  his  head  to  her  maid,  who  put  it  in  her 
bag,  and  they  two  passed  the  guards  in  safety  under  the  pretext  of  going 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  355 

out  for  prayer,  as  had  been  their  nightly  custom.  The  head  of  Holofernes 
was  suspended  from  the  wall  of  the  city,  and  when  the  warriors  within 
sallied  forth,  the  besieging  army  fled  in  consternation.  Judith  receives  as 
a  reward  all  the  stuff  of  Holofernes,  Uves  at  Bethulia  as  a  widow  in  high 
honor,  and  dies  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  five. 

11.  The  historical  and  geographical  contradictions  of  this  book  are 
too  many  and  grave  to  allow  the  sup^DOsition  that  it  contains  an  authentic 
narrative  of  facts.  It  was  manifestly  written  after  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  and  temple 
(chaps.  4:3;  5  :  18,  19),  when  the  nation  was  gb verned,  not  by  a  king,  but 
by  a  high  priest  and  Sanhedrim.  Chap.  4  :  6,  8  ;  15  :  8.  Yet  it  makes  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, who  reigned  in  Babylon  long  before,  king  in  Nineveh  in  the 
eighth  year  of  his  reign,  whereas  his  father  had  destroyed  Nineveh.  The 
attempts  that  have  been  made  to  reconcile  these  and  other  inconsistencies 
with  true  history  are  forced  and  unnatural.  Whatever  historical  truth 
may  lie  at  the  basis  of  the  story,  it  is  so  interwoven  with  fiction  that  the 
two  elements  cannot  be  separated  from  each  other.  It  was  probably  writ- 
ten by  a  Palestinian  Jew  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  somewhere  about  the  sec- 
ond century  before  Christ.  The  design  of  the  book  is  to  excite  the  peoi^le 
to  faith  and  courage  in  their  severe  conflicts  with  foreign  x)ersecutors ;  but 
its  morality  is  of  a  very  questionable  character.  Judith,  its  heroine,  while 
she  adheres  with  great  punctiliousness  to  the  Mosaic  ritual,  does  not  scru- 
ple to  employ  hypocrisy  and  falsehood  that  she  may  prepare  the  way  for 
assassination,  being  evidently  persuaded  that  in  the  service  of  the  covenant 
people  the  end  sanctifies  the  means. 

IV.  ADDITIONS  TO  THE  BOOK  OF  ESTHEE. 

12.  These  are  pi'inted  by  themselves  in  our  English  version,  and  enti- 
tled :  ' '  The  rest  of  the  chapters  of  the  Book  of  Esther,  which  are  found 
neither  in  the  Hebrew,  nor  in  the  Chaldee  ;"  but  in  the  Septuagint  and 
old  Latin  they  are  dis^Dersed  through  the  canonical  book  so  as  to  form  with 
it  a  consistent  whole.  They  profess  to  supply  deficiencies  in  the  canonical 
Esther — a  dream  of  Mordecai  with  its  interpretation ;  an  account  of  the 
conspiracy  of  the  two  eunuchs  to  destroy  Ahasuerus  ;  a  pretended  copy  of 
the  king's  edict  for  the  destruction  of  the  Jews  ;  the  prayer  of  Mordecai 
and  of  Esther  in  view  of  this  edict ;  various  details  of  Esther's  visit  to  the 
liing ;  and  the  pretended  edict  of  Artaxerxes  (Ahasuerus)  revoking  the 
former  edict,  and  giving  the  Jews  liberty  to  destroy  all  who  should  assault 
them — into  which  the  name  of  God,  which  nowhere  appears  in  the  genu- 
ine book  of  Esther,  is  abundantly  introduced.  The  origin  of  these  legends 
is  unknown. 


COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


V.     THE   AVISDOM  OF   SOLOMON. 

13.  The  author  of  this  book  personates  Solomon,  and  speaks  in  his 
name,  Solomon  being  to  the  ancient  Jews  the  representative  cf  all  wisdom. 
Keil  gives  the  summary  of  its  contents  in  three  divisions,  as  follows  : 
(1.)  "The  book  begins  with  a  forcible  exhortation  to  the  rulers  of  the 
earth  to  strive  after  wisdom  as  the  fountain  of  righteousness  and  the  guide 
to  immortality  and  happiness.  With  this  it  connects  a  warning  against  the 
folly  of  unbelieving  men  who  rebel  against  the  law,  ©impress  the  righteous, 
and  thus  bring  upon  themselves  just  punishment,  destruction,  and  ever- 
lasting shame.  Chaps.  1-6.  (2.)  After  the  example  of  King  Solomon,  who 
is  introduced  as  speaking,  the  w^ay  to  obtain  wisdom  is  next  pointed  out, 
and  she  is  described  in  her  nature  as  the  spirit  that  formed  and  sustains 
the  world,  and  is  the  author  of  all  that  is  good,  true,  and  great.  Chaps. 
7-9.  (3.)  Then  follows  a  long  historical  discourse  (interrupted  in  chaps. 
13-15  by  a  copious  discussion  concerning  the  origin  and  nature  of  idola- 
try), in  which  the  blessed  effects  of  wisdom  and  the  fear  of  God,  and  the 
unhappy  consequences  that  come  from  the  folly  of  idolatry  are  illustrated 
by  the  opposite  fortunes  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked  of  past  ages, 
especially  of  the  people  of  God  as  contrasted  with  the  idolatrous  Canaan- 
ites  and  Egyptians."  The  different  parts  of  the  book  constitute  a  well 
connected  whole. 

14.  The  book  was  originally  composed  in  Greek  by  an  Alexandi-ine  Jew, 
who  is  generally  placed  by  biblical  scholars  somewhere  in  the  second  cen- 
tury before  Christ.  Though  possessing  no  canonical  authority,  it  is  very 
interesting  and  valuable  for  the  view  which  it  gives  of  the  progress  of  Jew- 
ish thought  in  both  religion  and  philosophy.  This  writer  is  the  first  who 
expressly  identifies  the  serpent  that  deceived  Eve  with  the  devil :  "  Through 
envy  of  the  devil  came  death  into  the  world."  Chap.  2  :24.  He  teaches 
also  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  of  a  future  judgment. 
In  a  passage  of  great  beauty  he  personifies  "Wisdom,  after  the  example 
of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  as  the  worker  of  all  things,  and  the  teacher  and 
guide  of  men.  "She  is  the  breath  of  the  power  of  God,  and  a  pure  efflux 
from  the  glory  of  the  Almighty ;  therefore  nothing  defiled  can  find  en- 
trance into  her.  For  she  is  the  effulgence  of  the  everlasting  light,  and  the 
unsjDotted  mirror  of  the  divine  might,  and  the  image  of  his  goodness. 
And  being  but  one  she  can  do  all  things ;  and  remaining  in  herself  [un- 
changed] she  makes  all  things  new.  From  age  to  age  entering  into  holy 
souls,  she  makes  them  friends  of  God  and  prophets."  Chap.  7:25-27. 
But  along  with  this  true  development  of  doctrine  on  the  basis  of  the  Old 
Testament  he  holds  the  unscriptural  doctrine  of  the  preexistence  of  souls 
(chap.  8  :  20),  whether  borrowed  from  the  Plabonists,  or  taken  from  some 
other  source.     Some  have  thought  that  he  also  holds  matter  to  be  eternal. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  357 

But  wlien  he  speaks  of  God's  almiglity  hand  as  having  "created  the  world 
out  of  formless  matter"  (chap.  11  :  17),  he  may  have  reference  simply  to 
the  chaotic  state  described  in  Gen.  1  :  2. 

Jerome  left  the  Latia  translation  of  this  book  unrevised.  The  text, 
therefore,  of  our  Latin  Bibles  is  that  of  the  "Old  Latin"  version,  as  it 
existed  before  his  day. 

VI.     ECCLESIASTICUS. 

15.  The  Greek  title  of  this  book  is,  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son  of 
Sirach,  or  more  briefly  :  The  Wisdom  of  Sirach.  The  Latin  title,  Ecdesi- 
asticus,  that  is.  Ecclesiastical  book,  designates  it  as  a  book  that  was  read  fo 
edification  in  the  churches,  though  not  included  in  the  Hebrew  canon. 
We  give,  mainly  from  Keil,  the  summary  of  its  contents  :  This  copious 
book  is  rich  in  its  contents,  embracing  the  whole  domain  of  practical  wis- 
dom, and,  what  is  inseparable  from  this,  the  fear  of  God.  These  virtues 
it  describes,  commends,  and  inculcates  according  to  their  origin  and  na- 
ture, their  characteristics  and  results,  and  their  realization  in  life,  in  a  rich 
collection  of  ^proverbs,  with  rules  and  counsels  for  the  regulation  of  life  in 
all  its  manifold  relations.  The  whole  is  after  the  manner  of  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon,  only  with  much  greater  x)articularity  of  details,  extending  to 
all  the  spheres  of  religious,  civil,  and  domestic  life,  and  giving  rules  of 
conduct  for  the  regulation  of  the  same.  This  collection  of  wise  maxims, 
moral  precepts,  and  rules  of  life  constitutes  a  united  whole,  in  which  the 
particular  proverbs,  counsels,  and  warnmgs  are  strung  together  in  accord- 
ance with  an  association  of  ideas  that  is  often  quite  loose.  Interwoven 
with  these  are  a  number  of  connected  discussions  and  prayers.  The  author 
closes  his  instructions  with  two  extended  discourses,  in  the  former  of  which 
he  celebrates  the  works  of  God  in  creation  (chaps.  42  :  15 — 43  :  33) ;  in  the 
latter,  the  praises  of  the  famous  men  of  Scripture  from  Enoch  to  Simon 
the  high  priest,  the  son  of  Onias  (chaps.  44^50).  He  then  adds  in  the 
final  chapter  a  thanksgiving  and  prayer  (chap.  51).  This  book,  like  that 
of  Wisdom,  is  of  great  v^ahie  for  the  insight  which  it  gives  into  the  theol- " 
ogy  and  ethics  of  the  ^ews  at  the  time  of  its  composition. 

16.  It  is  undcrub'cedly  genuine,  having  been  written  in  Hebrew  by  the 
man  whose  name  it  boars,  ond  translated  into  Greek  in  Egyf)t  by  his 
grandson,  as  stc^ted  in  the  i^rologae.  But  the  age  of  the  translator,  and 
consequently  of  thei  p.uthor,  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  The  last  of  the  wor- 
thies described  by  him  is  "Simon,  the  son  of  Onias,  the  high  priest." 
There  were  two  high  priests  of  this  name,  both  sons  of  Onias,  but  the 
author's  eulogy  is  applicable  only  to  the  former,  who  flourished  about 
310 — 2G0  B.  c.  It  is  a  natural  inf'jrence  that  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach, 
wrote  not  many  years  afterwards.  The  translator,  again,  speaks  of  him- 
self as  coming  into  Egypt  "in  tho  eight  and  thirtieth  year,  when  Euer- 


358  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

getes  was  king."  Does  he  mean  the  eight  and  thirtieth  year  of  his  own 
Hie,  or  of  Euergetes'  reign?  If  the  latter,  then  of  the  two  kings  that 
bore  the  surname  Euergetes  the  latter  only  (b.  c.  170—117)  can  be  under- 
stood, since  the  former  reigned  only  twenty-five  years.  If  the  former,  as 
is  most  probable,  then  we  naturally  understand  Euergetes  I.,  who  reigned 
B.  c.  217—222,  during  which  i)eriod  the  translation  must  have  been  exe- 
cuted. 

The  Greek  text,  as  exhibited  in  manuscripts,  is  in  a  very  corrupt  and 
confused  state,  with  maiiy  variations  and  transpositions.  The  Latin  text 
is  that  of  the  "Old  Latin,"  which  Jerome  left,  as  he  did  that  of  the  book 
of  Wisdom,  without  revision. 

VII.     BAEUCH  AND   THE  EPISTLE    OF   JEREMIAH. 

17.  This  is  the  only  apocryphal  book  which  assumes  the  cha.racter  of 
proi^hecy.  It  is  formed  after  the  model  of  Jeremiah,  and  ascribed  to 
Baruch  his  friend.  But  its  spuriousness  is  generally  admitted.  Besides 
historical  inaccuracies,  such  as  are  not  conceivable  in  the  case  of  Baruch, 
the  fact  that  its  author  employed  the  Septuagint  translation  of  Jeremiah 
and  Daniel  mark  it  as  of  a  later  date.  Keil  assigns  it  to  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  b.  c.  The  book  professes  to  be  a  letter  written  by 
Baruch  in  the  name  of  the  captive  Jews  in  Babylon  to  their  brethren  at 
Jerusalem,  and  consists  of  two  well-marked  divisions,  the  first  of  which, 
extending  to  chap.  3  : 8,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  a  translation  from  an 
original  Hebrew  document.  This  part  contains,  after  an  introductory 
notice,  a  confession  of  sin  with  prayer  for  deliverance.  The  second  part 
begins  with  an  address  to  the  covenant  people,  in  which  they  are  rebuked 
for  neglecting  the  teachings  of  divine  wisdom,  and  encouraged  with  the 
hope  of  returning  i^rosperity  when  they  shall  obey  her  voice.  Chaps. 
3  : 9—4  : 8.  Zion  is  then  introduced  lamenting  over  the  desolations  which 
God  has  brought  upon  her  and  her  children  (chap.  4  :  9 — 4  :  29),  and  after- 
wards comforting  them  with  the  hope  of  certain  deliverance  and  enlarge- 
ment (cliaiDs.  1 :  30 — 5  :  9).  It  is  generally  agTeed  that  the  second  part  was 
originally  written  in  Greek,  and  some  think  that  the  same  is  true  of  the 
first  part  also.  , 

18.  There  is  another  Epistle  of  Baruch  iDreserved  to  us  in  the  Syriac, 
which  is  inserted  in  the  London  and  Paris  Polyglotts.  It  is  addressed  to 
the  nine  and  a  half  tribes,  and  "made  up  of  commonplaces  of  warning, 
encouragement,  and  exhortation."     Smith's  Bib.  Diet.,  Art.  Baruch. 

19.  There  is  a  spurious  Epistle  of  Jeremiah  which  appears  in  the  Vul- 
gate and  our  English  version  as  the  sixth  chapter  of  Baruch.  It  is  enti- 
tled :  "Copy  of  an  epistle  which  Jeremiah  sent  to  those  who  were  to  be  led 
captives  into  Babylon  by  the  king  of  the  Babylonians  to  make  announce- 
ment to  them,  as  it  was  commanded  him  by  God."    It  purports  to  be  a 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  359 

warning  to  these  captives  against  the  idolatrous  jDracticee  which  they  shall 
witness  in  Babylon,  and  is  made  up  of  a  long  discourse  on  the  impotence 
of  the  idols  which  the  heathen  worship,  written  in  a  rhetorical  style,  in 
imitation  of  Jer.  10  : 1-16.  Its  author  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Hellen- 
istic Jew  who  lived  towards  the  end  of  the  Maccabean  period. 

VIII.     ADDITIONS  TO  THE  BOOK  OF   DANIEL. 

20.  The  Greek  version  of  the  book  of  Daniel,  besides  many  departures 
from  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  original,  contains  three  large  additions. 
The  first  of  these  is  :  The  Prayer  of  Azarias,  and  the  Song  of  the  Three 
CJiildren  in  the  Fiery  Fu?mace,  which  is  appended  to  the  third  chapter. 
The  second  is :  The  Histo?y  of  Susanna,  who  is  exhibited  as  a  pattern  of 
chastity,  and  Avas  delivered  from  the  machinations  of  her  enemies  through 
the  wisdom  of  Daniel.  This  is  placed  sometimes  before  the  first  chapter 
of  Daniel,  and  sometimes  after  chapter  12.  The  third  addition  is  :  The 
St07'y  of  Bel  a7id  the  Dragon,  which  stands  at  the  end  of  the  book,  and  is 
falsely  ascribed  in  the  Septuagint  to  the  prophet  Kabakkuk.  Its  design 
is  to  show  the  folly  of  idolatry.  According  to  Keil,  these  three  pieces 
were  composed  in  Egypt  towards  the  end  of  the  third,  or  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  before  Christ. 

IX.     THE   PEAYER  OF   MANASSES. 

21.  A  genuine  prayer  of  Manasseh,  king  of  Judah,  existed  at  the  time 
when  the  books  of  Chronicles  were  composed.  2  Chron,  33  :  18,  19.  But 
the  existing  prayer  of  the  Apocrypha,  though  uj^on  the  whole  beautiful  and 
appropriate,  cannot  claim  to  be  a  true  representative  of  that  prayer. 
"The  author,"  says  Keil,  "was  a  pious  Jew  who  lived  at  all  events  before 
Christ,  though  his  age  cannot  be  more  accurately  determined." 

X.     THE   BOOKS  OF   THE   MACCABEES. 

22.  These  are  five  in  number.  The  first  two  passed  from  the  Greek 
into  the  early  Latin  versions,  and  thence  into  the  Vulgate  and  the  English 
versions,  and  were  received  as  canonical  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  Two 
others  are  found  in  some  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint.  The  fifth  exists 
only  in  Arabic.  ' '  If  the  historic  order  were  observed,  the  so-called  third 
book  would  come  first,  the  fourth  would  be  an  appendix  to  the  second, 
which  would  retain  its  place,  and  the  first  Avould  come  last ;  but  it  will  be 
more  convenient  to  examine  the  books  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
found  in  the  MSS. ,'  which  was  probably  decided  by  some  vague  tradition 
of  their  relative  antiquity."  Smith's  Bible  Diet.,  Art.  Maccabees.  The 
name  Maccabees  is  applied  to  the  family  and  posterity  of  the  illustrioua 
JeA\-ish  priest  Mattathias,  who  maintained  a  long  an  1  successful  struggle 


3j0  companion  to  the  bible. 

with  tlie  Syrian  kings,  and  finally  succeeded  in  establishing  for  a  period 
the  independence  of  the  Jews.  The  origin  of  the  term  has  been  variously 
explained ;  but  the  most  common  account  of  it  is,  that  it  comes  from  a 
Hebrew  word  signifying  hammer,  so  that  the  adjective  Maccahee  (Greek 
MaKKa(3a2og)  wiU  denote  Hammerer.  According  to  Josephus  (Antiq.  12, 
6.  1)  Mattathias  was  descended  from  one  Asmonaeus :  Hence  the  family  of 
the  Maccabees  are  also  called  Asmonaeans. 

23.  The  first  book  of  the  Maccabees.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  all  the  apocryphal  books.  It  contains  a  narrative  of  the  long  and 
bloody  struggle  of  the  Jews,  under  their  Maccabean  leaders,  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  their  religion,  and  the  deliverance  of  the  nation  from  the  yoke 
of  their  Syrian  oppressors.  The  history  bears  the  internal  marks  of  authen- 
ticity and  credibility,  being  distinguished  by  simplicity  and  candor.  It  is 
only  when  speaking  of  foreign  nations  that  the  writer  falls  into  some  inac- 
curacies. These  do  not  detract  from  his  trustworthiness  in  relating  the 
affairs  of  his  own  nation  through  a  period  of  forty  years  of  the  most  event- 
ful character  (b.  c.  175 — 135).  The  book  is  pervaded  throughout  by  the 
Jewish  spirit,  and  must  have  been  written  by  a  Palestinian  Jew.  Its  date 
is  uncertain,  but  may  probably  be  placed  somewhere  during  the  govern- 
ment of  the  high  priest  John  Hyrcanus  (b.  c.  135 — 106).  According  to  the 
testimony  of  Origen,  the  book  was  originally  written  in  Hebrew.  With 
this  agrees  its  internal  character ;  for  the  Greek  version  of  it  contains 
many  Hebraisms,  as  well  as  difficulties  which  are  readily  accounted  for 
upon  the  supposition  of  a  Hebrew  original. 

24.  The  second  booh  of  Maccabees.  This  book  opens  with  two  letters 
purportiug  to  have  been  written  by  the  Jews  of  Palestine  to  their  brethren 
in  Egypt,  in  Avhicli  the  former  invite  the  latter  to  join  with  them  in  the 
celebration  of  "the  feast  of  tabernacles  in  the  month  Casleu,"  that  is,  the 
feast  of  dedication  established  to  commemorate  the  purification  of  the 
temple  after  its  pollution  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  To  the  latter  of  these 
is  appended  an  epitome  of  the  five  books  of  Jason  of  Cyrene,  containing 
the  history  of  the  Maccabean  struggle,  beginning  with  Heliodorus'  attempt 
to  plunder  the  temple,  about  b.  c.  180,  and  ending  with  the  victory  of 
Judas  Maccabeus  over  Nicanor,  b.  c.  161.  Both  of  the  letters  are  regarded 
as  spurious.  The  second  of  them  abounds  in  marvellous  legends — how, 
upon  the  destruction  of  the  first  temple,  the  sacred  fire  of  the  altar  was  hid 
in  a  hollow  pit  without  water ;  how,  at  the  close  of  the  captivity,  it  was 
found  in  the  form  of  thick  water,  which  being  by  the  command  of  Nehe- 
miali  sprinkled  on  the  wood  of  the  altar  and  the  sacrifices,  there  was  kin- 
dled, when  the  sun  shone  upon  it,  a  gi-eat  fire,  so  that  all  men  marvelled; 
how  Jeremiah,  at  God's  command,  carried  the  tabernacle,  the  ark,  and  the 
altar  of  incense  to  the  mountain  "which  Moses  ascended  and  saw  the  her- 
itage of  God."  that  is.  mount  Nebo  (Deut.  34  :1),  and  hid  them  there  in  a 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  361 

hollow  cave,  where  they  are  to  remain  until  the  time  that  God  shall  gather 
his  people  together  again,  and  be  gracious  to  them. 

The  epitome  of  Jason's  history  begins  some  five  years  earlier  than  the 
history  contained  in  the  first  book,  and  covers  a  period  of  about  nineteen 
years ;  so  that  it  is  partly  anterior  to  that  history,  partly  supplementary, 
and  partly  parallel.  Alexander's  Kitto,  Art.  Maccabees.  The  two  books 
are  entirely  independent  in  their  sources  of  information  ;  and  although  the 
second  cannot  lay  claim  to  the  same  degree  of  trustworthiness  as  the  first, 
yet  the  general  judgment  of  bibhcal  scholars  is  that  it  is,  in  its  main  facts, 
authentic.  But  these  are  set  forth  with  embellishments  and  exaggerations, 
in  which  the  author  manifests  his  love  for  the  marvellous.  Where  the  his- 
tory of  the  two  books  is  parallel,  it  agrees  in  its  general  outlines,  but  the 
details  are  almost  always  dificrent,  and  sometimes  they  present  irreconcila- 
ble discrepancies.  In  its  religious  aspect  this  book  is  very  interesting.  In 
the  account  of  the  martyrdom  of  a  mother  and  her  seven  sons  for  their 
refusal  to  eat  swine's  flesh  (chap.  7)  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  is 
plainly  announced  :  "It  is  a  thing  to  be  desired,"  says  the  fourth  son  to 
the  king  Antiochus,  "that  one  being  put  to  death  by  men  should  wait  for 
the  hope  of  God  that  he  shall  be  again  raised  up  by  him  ;  but  for  thee 
there  is  no  resurrection  unto  life"  (v.  14).  Where  Jason  composed  his 
work  cannot  be  determined.  He  cannot  have  lived  long  after  the  events 
which  he  describes,  else  he  would  have  taken  notice  of  the  important 
events  that  followed.  The  author  of  the  epitome  contained  in  this  book  is 
beheved  to  have  been  a  Hellenistic  Jew  living  in  Palestine,  who  probably 
wrote  in  the  first  century  before  Christ. 

25.  The  tliird  booh  of  Maccabees.  This  book  does  not  belong  to  the 
Maccabean  age,  but  to  the  earlier  time  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  (b.  c. 
221 — 201).  Its  title  seems  to  have  come  simply  from  the  similarity  of  its 
contents.  It  relates  in  a  pompous  and  oratorical  style  how  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator, being  enraged  at  his  failure  to  enter  the  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem, 
determined  to  wreak  his  vengeance  on  the  Jews  in  Egypt,  and  assembled 
them  for  this  purpose  in  the  circus,  that  they  might  be  trampled  under 
foot  by  drunken  elephants,  but  was  hindered  by  the  miraculous  interposi- 
tion of  God ;  whereupon  the  king  liberated  the  Jews,  prepared  for  them  a 
sumptuous  feast,  and  gave  them  permission  to  take  vengeance  on  their 
apostate  countrymen.  The  narrative  probably  has  a  groundwork  of  truth 
with  legendary  embellishments,  after  the  manner  of  the  later  Jews.  Its 
author  is  believed  to  have  been  an  Alexandrine  Jew,  but  his  age  cannot  be 
determined.     It  wes  never  admitted  into  the  Romish  canon. 

26.  The  fourth  book  of  Maccabees  opens  with  a  philosophical  discussion 
respecting  the  supremacy  of  devout  reason  over  the  passions,  which  is  then 
illustrated  by  the  history  of  the  martyrdom  of  Eleazar  and  the  mother  with 
her  seven  sons,  an  account  of  which  we  have  in  2  Mace,  chaps.  6  and  7. 

Com  p.  to  Bible.  16 


362  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  autlior  of  this  book  was  a  Jew  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  stoical 
philosophy.     It  has  been  falsely  ascribed  to  Josephus. 

27.  The  fftJi  hook  of  Maccahees  exists  only  in  Arabic.  "We  draw  our 
notice  of  it  from  Alexander's  Kitto,  according  to  which  *'it  contains  the 
history  of  the  Jews  from  Heliodorus'  attempt  to  plunder  the  treasury  at 
Jerusalem  till  the  time  when  Herod  revelled  in  the  noblest  blood  of  tlie 
Jews;"  that  is,  from  184 — 86  b.  c,  thus  embracing  a  period  of  98  years. 
The  book  is  "a  compilation  made  in  Hebrew,  by  a  Jew  who  lived  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  from  ancient  Hebrew  memoirs  or  chronicles, 
which  were  written  shortly  after  the  events  transpired.  In  the  absence  of 
the  original  Hebrew,  the  Arabic  versions  of  it,  printed  in  the  Paris  and 
London  Polyglotts,  give  the  text  upon  which  we  must  rely. 


PART  111. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO 


The  New  Testament. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

FIRST  DIVISION,  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Language  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  In  the  character  of  the  original  languages  of  the  Bible,  as  in 
every  thing  else  pertaining  to  the  plan  of  redemption,  God's 
hand  is  to  be  reverently  acknowledged.  It  was  not  by  chance, 
but  through  the  provident  care  of  Him  who  sees  the  end  from 
tlie  beginning,  that  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  found  the 
Hebrew,  and  those  of  the  New  Testament  the  Greek  language 
ready  at  hand,  each  of  them  so  singularly  adapted  to  the  high 
office  assigned  to  it.  The  statelj^  majesty,  the  noble  simplicit}^, 
and  the  graphic  vividness  of  the  Hebrew  fitted  it  admirably  for 
the  historical  portions  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  which,  under 
the  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  direct  intuition  of  God's 
purposes  and  of  the  deep  springs  of  human  action  superseded 
the  necessity  of  philosophical  argument  and  deduction.  The 
historians  of  the  Old  Testament  did  not  pause  to  argue  con- 
cerning their  statements  of  men's  motives  and  God's  designs. 
They  saw  both  with  wonderful  clearness  of  vision ;  and  they 
found  in  the  simphcity  and  directness  of  the  Hebrew  syntax, 


o33  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

so  far  removed  from  all  that  is  involved  and  complex,  a  suita- 
ble vehicle  for  their  simple  and  direct  statements  of  truth. 
How  congenial  the  Hebrew  language  is  to  j^oetic  composition, 
as  well  in  its  rugged  and  sublime  forms  as  in  its  tender  and 
pathetic  strains,  every  reader  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  origi- 
nal understands.  The  soul  is  not  more  at  home  in  the  body 
than  is  sacred  poetry  in  the  language  of  the  covenant  people. 
As  the  living  spirit  of  the  cherubim  animated  and  directed  the 
wheels  of  the  chariot  in  Ezekiel's  vision,  so  does  the  spirit  of 
inspired  poesy  animate  and  direct  the  words  and  sentences  of 
the  Hebrew  language :  "When  the  cherubim  went,  the  wheels 
went  by  them ;  and  when  the  cherubim  lifted  up  their  wings  to 
mount  up  from  the  earth,  the  same  wheels  also  turned  not  from 
beside  them.  When  they  stood,  these  stood;  and  when  they 
were  lifted  up,  these  lifted  up  themselves  also :  for  the  spirit  of 
the  living  creatures  was  in  them."  Ezek.  10 :  16, 17.  The  same, 
characteristics  fitted  the  Hebrew  language  most  perfectly  for 
propJietic  vision,  in  which  the  poetic  element  so  largely  prevails. 
2.  Turning  now  from  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  to 
the  Greek  of  the  New,  we  have  a  language  very  different  in  its 
structure;  elaborate  in  its  inflections  and  syntax,  delicate  and 
subtle  in  its  distinctions,  rich  in  its  vocabulary,  highly  cultiva- 
ted in  every  department  of  writing,  and  flexible  in  an  eminent 
degree ;  being  thus  equally  adapted  to  every  variety  of  style — 
plain  unadorned  narrative,  impassioned  oratory,  poetry  of 
every  form,  philosophical  discussion,  and  severe  logical  reason- 
ing :  in  a  word,  a  language  every  way  fitted  to  the  wants  of  the 
gospel,  which  is  given  not  for  the  infancy  of  the  world  but  for 
its  mature  age,  and  which  deals  not  so  much  with  the  details  of 
particulars  as  with  great  principles,  which  require  for  their  full 
comprehension  the  capacity  of  abstraction  and  generalization. 
In  the  historical  records  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  its  poetic 
and  prophetic  parts,  the  Hebrew  language  was  altogether  at 
home.  But  for  such  compositions  as  the  epistle  to  the  Komans 
the  Greek  offered  a  more  perfect  medium ;  and  here,  as  every- 
where else,  God's  providence  took  care  that  the  founders  of  the 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  367 

Ghristian  cliurcli  should  be  furnislied  in  the  most   complete 
manner. 

3.  We  find,  accordingly,  that  centuries  before  our  Lord's 
advent,  preparation  began  to  be  made  in  the  providence  of  God 
for  this  change  in  the  language  of  the  inspired  writings.  One 
result  of  the  Babylonish  captivity  was  that  Hebrew  ceased  to 

•be  the  vernacular  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  and  a  form  of 
Aramaean  took  its  place.  Chap.  14,  No.  4.  After  the  return 
of  the  Jews  from  this  same  captivity  and  their  reestablishment 
in  their  own  land,  the  spirit  of  prophecy  was  also  withdrawn, 
aud  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  brought  to  a  close.  Thus 
the  cessation  of  Hebrew  as  the  spoken  language  of  the  people, 
and  the  withdrawal  of  the  spirit  of  prophecy  were  contempo- 
raneous events.  The  canon  was  locked  up  in  the  sacred  lan- 
guage, and  the  interpreter  took  the  place  of  ih.Q  prophet.  "The 
providential  change  of  language  suggested  a  general  limit 
within  which  the  voice  of  inspiration  might  be  heard,  as  the 
fearful  chastisements  of  the  captivity  turned  men's  minds  to 
the  old  Scriptures  with  a  devotion  unknown  before."  West- 
cott's  Introduc.  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,  chap.  1. 

4.  But  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  (b.  c.  334-323) 
brought  the  Greek  language  and  the  Greek  civilization  into 
Asia  and  Egypt,  as  a  sure  leaven  destined  to  leaven  the  whole 
mass.  To  this  influence  the  Jews  could  not  remain  insensible. 
It  reached  even  Palestine,  wdiere  they  naturally  clung  most 
tenaciously  to  the  Aramaean  language  and  to  the  customs  of 
their  fathers.  But  out  of  Palestine,  where  the  Jews  were  dis- 
persed in  immense  numbers,  it  operated  more  immediately; 
especially  in  Egypt,  whose  metropolis  Alexandria  was,  after 
the  age  of  Alexander  its  founder,  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  Gre- 
cian learning.  To  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  the  Greek  language 
was  vernacular.  By  them  was  executed,  as  w^e  have  seen, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Egyptian  king,  the  first  version  ever 
made  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  namely,  that  called  the  Septu- 
agint  (Chap.  16,  Nos.  1-7),  wdiich  was  begun,  if  not  completed, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century  before  Christ.     Though 


368  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

this  version  encountered  bitter  opposition  on  the  part  of  tliei 
unbelieving  Jews  after  the  establishment  of  the  Christian 
church,  in  consequence  of  the  effective  use  made  of  it  against 
them  by  Christian  writers,  it  was  received  from  its  first  appear- 
ance and  onward  with  general  favor.  The  Hellenistic  Jews — 
those  using  the  Greek  language  and  conforming  themselves  to 
Grecian  civilization — made  constant  use  of  it,  and  the  knowl-* 
edge  of  it  was  very  widely  diffused  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
Egypt.  In  our  Saviour's  day  it  was  in  very  general  use,  as  the 
abundant  quotations  from  it  in  the  New  Testament  show ;  and 
it  must  have  contributed  largely  to  the  spread  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Greek  language  among  the  Jewish  people  in  and 
out  of  Palestine.  Though  the  Roman  empire  succeeded  to 
that  of  the  Greeks,  the  Koman  could  not  supplant  the  more 
polished  Greek  tongue,  with  its  immense  and  varied  literature. 
On  the  contrary,  the  Greek  language  penetrated  into  Italy,  and 
especially  into  Eome,  the  metropolis  of  the  civilized  w^orld, 
where,  in  our  Saviour's  day,  Greek  literature  was  in  high 
repute,  and  the  Greek  language  was  very  generally  understood. 
Thus,  in  the  good  providence  of  God,  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament,  also,  found  ready  at  hand  a  language  singularly 
adapted  to  their  service. 

Biblical  scholars  have  noticed  the  significant  fact  that  of  the  long  list 
of  names  in  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  Komans,  the  greater  number  belongs 
to  the  Greek  language,  not  to  the  Latin.  "The  flexibility  of  the  Greek 
language  gained  for  it  in  ancient  time  a  general  currency  similar  to  that 
which  French  enjoys  in  modern  Europe ;  but  with  this  important  differ- 
ence, that  Greek  was  not  only  the  language  of  educated  men,  but  also  the 
language  of  the  masses  in  the  great  centres  of  commerce."  Westcott  in 
Smith's  Bible  Diet.,  Art.  Hellenist. 

5.  Respecting  the  character  of  the  New  Testament  Greek 
there  was  in  former  times  much  controversy,  often  accompa- 
nied wdth  unnecessary  heat  and  bitterness.  One  class  of  wri- 
ters seemed  to  think  that  the  honor  of  the  New  Testament  was 
involved  iii  their  ability  to  show  the  classic  purity  and  elegance 
of  its  style;  as  if,  forsooth,  the  Spirit  of  inspiration  could  only 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  369 

address  men  through  the  medium  of  language  conformed  to  the 
classic  standard  of  propriety.  Another  class  went  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme,  speaking  in  exaggerated  terms  of  the  Hebraisms 
and  solecisms  of  the  New  Testament  writers.  The  truth  lies 
between  these  extremes.  The  style  of  the  New  Testament  is 
neither  classical  nor  barbarous.  Its  characteristics  are  strictly 
conformable  to  the  history  of  its  origin.  (1.)  Its  basis  is  not 
the  Greek  of  Plato  and  Xenophon,  but  the  so-called  Hellenic 
or  common  dialect  which  arose  in  the  age  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  when  "the  previously  distinct  dialects',  spoken  by  the 
various  sections  of  the  Hellenic  nation,  were  blended  into  a 
popular  spoken  language."  Winer,  Gram,  of  the  New  Test., 
sec.  2.  The  Alexandrine  Jews  doubtless  learned  it  not  so  much 
from  books  as  from  the  daily  intercourse  of  life,  and  it  proba- 
bly had  its  provincial  peculiarities  in  Alexandria  and  the  adja- 
cent region.  (2.)  In  Jewish  usage  this  common  Greek  dialect 
received  an  Hebraic  coloring  from  the  constant  use  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version,  which  is  a  literal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  into  Greek,  of  course  with  the  retention  of  many 
Hebrew  idioms.  Only  such  thorough  Greek  scholars  as  Jose- 
phus  and  Philo  could  rise  above  this  influence.  The  New  Tes- 
tament writers  manifest  its  power  in  different  degrees;  for,  as 
it  respects  Hebraisms,  they  do  not  by  any  means  stand  on  a 
common  level.  (3.)  As  the  Aramaic — the  so-called  Syro-Chal- 
daic — was  the  language  of  the  mass  of  the  people^  the  style  of 
the  New  Testament  writers  received  a  tinge  from  this  also. 
(4.)  More  than  all,  the  style  of  the  New  Testament  receives  a 
peculiar  impress  from  the  fact  that  the  authors  were  Jews  wri- 
ting under  the  full  influence  of  a  Jewish  education  and  a  Jew- 
ish faith,  with  the  superadded  element  of  Christianit3^  It  is 
the  phenomenon  of  the  spirit  and  thoughts  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tians embodied  in  the  language  of  Greece;  and  this  at  once 
separates  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  by  a  wide  inter- 
val from  all  purely  classic  compositions.  The  apostolic  writers 
imposed  on  the  Greek  language  an  arduous  task,  that  of  ex- 
pressing ideas  foreign  to  the  conceptions  of  the  most  cultivated 

16' 


370  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

among  the  pagan  authors;  ideas  partly  common  to  the  old 
Jewish  and  the  Christian  religions,  partly  peculiar  to  Christi- 
anity. This  could  only  be  done  by  giving  to  existing  terms  a 
new  and  higher  meaning,  whereby  they  assumed  a  technical 
character  wholly  unknown  to  the  classic  writers. 

"  Compare  pai-ticularly  the  words  :  works  [to  work,  Bom.  4  :  A),  faith,  to 
believe  in  Christ,  or  to  believe  absolutely,  confession,  rigJiteousness,  to  be  jus- 
tified, to  be  chosen,  the  called,  the  chosen,  the  saints  (for  Christians),  edification 
and  to  edify  in  a  figurative  sense,  apostle,  to  publish  the  good  tidings  and  to 
publish  absolutely  fbr  Christian  preaching,  the  adoption  of  bapiisma,  bap- 
tism, for  Christian  baptism,  perhaps  to  break  bread  for  the  holy  repast  (the 
Agape  with  the  communion),  the  world,  the  flesh,  fleshly,  in  the  known  the- 
ological sense,"  etc.     Winer's  Gram,  of  the  New  Test.,  sec.  3. 

6.  From  all  the  abovenamed  causes  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament  received  a  form  differing  widely  from  the  clas- 
sic stjde,  but  admirably  adapted  to  the  high  office  assigned  to 
it.  To  those  who  study  the  New  Testament  in  the  original,  the 
peculiarities  of  its  language  offer  a  wide  and  interesting  field 
of  inquiry.  But  for  the  common  reader  the  above  hints  will 
be  sufficient. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  371 


CHAPTEK   XXV. 

External  Form  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  The  writings  of  the  New  Testament  fall  into  three  main 
divisions ;  the  Jiistorical,  the  epistolary,  and  the  pro2Jhetical,  the 
latter  including  only  the  Apocalypse.  This  distinction  is  not 
to  be  understood  in  an  absolute  sense ;  since,  as  every  reader 
knows,  there  are  prophetical  passages  in  the  historical  books, 
and  both  historical  and  prophetical  in  the  epistles ;  but  it  gives 
with  accuracy  the  general  character  of  each  division.  In  out- 
ward form  the  Apocalypse  is  epistolary,  being  addressed,  with 
the  apostolic  greeting,  to  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  and  con- 
taining messages  to  each.  But  its  contents,  after  the  first  three 
chapters,  are  so  wholly  prophetical,  that  it  is  entitled  to  stand 
by  itself  in  any  general  division. 

2.  The  order  of  these  main  divisions  is  natural  and  appro- 
priate. The  gospel,  as  was  remarked  at  the  outset  (Chap,  1, 
No.  1),  is  not  a  mere  sj^stem  of  philosophy  or  ethics,  but  rests 
on  a  basis  of  historic  facts.  On  these  its  whole  system  of  doc- 
trines and  duties  is  built ;  so  that  to  destroy  the  foundation 
would  be  to  destroy  the  superstructure  also.  It  is  suitable, 
therefore,  that  the  record  of  the  facts  should  hold  the  first 
place.  The  apostohc  epistles,  which  unfold  the  doctrines  and 
duties  involved  in  the  gospel,  and  make  a  practical  application 
of  them  to  all  the  manifold  relations  of  life,  naturally  follow 
the  historic  record.  The  mighty  system  of  prophecies  con- 
tained in  the  book  of  Bevelation,  which  stretches  over  the 
whole  future  history  of  the  church  to  the  end  of  time,  forms  an 
appropriate  close  to  the  entire  collection  of  writings. 

3.  Equally  appropriate  is  the  order  of  the  two  subdivisions 
of  the  historic  part — first,  the  four  Gospels,  containing  the  his- 
tory of  our  Lord's  life ;  secondly,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  In 
the  general  arrangement  of  the  epistles,  the  thirteen  which  bear 


372  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  nome  of  Paul  stand  first  in  order.  The  seven  so-called 
catholic  epistles  occupy  the  last  place.  Intermediate  between 
these  two  subdivisions  stands  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which 
is  anonymous,  though  generally  ascribed  to  Paul.  The  epistles 
which  bear  the  name  of  Paul  fall  into  two  groups — nine  ad- 
dressed to  Christian  churches ,  which  occupy  the  first  place;  then 
four  to  j^ct^'iiGular  j^ersons.  Of  these  last,  the  first  three,  being 
addressed  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  the  apostle's  companions  in 
travel  and  in  the  gospel  ministry,  are  appropriately  named 
from  their  contents  the  ijastorcd  epistles.  The  letter  to  Phile- 
mon, a  private  member  of  the  church  in  Colosse,  naturally 
stands  last  of  all. 

We  add  from  Bleek  (Introduc.  to  New  Test.,  sees.  18  and  254)  the  fol- 
lowing additional  notices : 

The  present  order  of  the  Gospels  is  very  ancient.  Only  in  some  man- 
uscripts of  the  Old  Latin  version,  m  one  Greco-Latin  manuscript  (the  so- 
called  Codex  Bezae  or  Cambridge  Codex),  and  in  the  manuscript  of  the 
Gothic  version,  the  two  apostles  Matthew  and  John  stand  first ;  then  the 
two  companions  of  apostles,  Luke  and  Mark,  or  sometimes  Mark  and  Luke. 
In  the  veiy  ancient  Curetonian-Syiian  manuscript  the  order  is  Matthew, 
Mark,  John,  Luke. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  stand  in  some  manuscripts  after  the  Pauhne 
or  after  the  cathohc  epistles. 

In  the  oldest  Greek  manuscripts,  and  generally  in  the  greatest  number 
of  Greek  manuscripts  which  contain  the  whole  New  Testament,  the  catho- 
lic epistles  stand  before  the  Pauline  ;  an  arrangement  which  some  modern 
editors,  as  Lachmann  and  Tischendorf,  have  followed.  In  many  manu- 
scripts, the  oldest  Greek  included,  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  stands  after 
2  Thessalonians,  immediately  before  the  pastoral  e^Distles.  Luther  placed 
together,  at  the  end  of  his  version,  the  epistles  to  the  Hebrews,  the  epis- 
tles of  James  and  Jude,  and  the  Apocalypse.  But  this  arrangement  rested 
on  no  authority  of  manuscripts.  It  was  only  an  expression  of  his  private 
judgment  respecting  their  canonical  authority,  which  he  placed  below  that 
of  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament. 

4.  We  have  seen  (Chap.  13,  No.  4)  that  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  order  of  time  is  follow^ed  only 
very  partially.  The  same  is  true  respecting  the  order  of  books  in 
the  New  Testament,  a  fact  which  the  biblical  student  ought  al- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  373 

ways  to  bear  in  mind.  If  we  look  to  the  several  divisions  and 
subdivisions  of  the  New  Testament  writings,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  arrangement  is  not  chronological.  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  the  Gospel  according  to  John  was  written  after  the  death 
of  Peter  and  Paul;  consequently,  after  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles (which  were  written  during  the  life  of  Paul,  Chap.  5,  No.  5), 
after  all  the  Pauline  epistles,  and  probably  after  all  the  Cath- 
olic epistles  except  those  which  are  ascribed  to  John  himself. 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  again,  are  of  later  date  than  several 
of  Paul's  epistles.  Finally,  neither  the  Pauline  nor  the  catho- 
lic epistles  are  arranged  in  chronological  order.  See  below, 
Chap.  30,  No.  6.  The  intelhgent  student  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment will  avail  himself  of  all  the  means  at  his  command  to 
ascertain  the  date,  proximately  at  least,  of  each  particular  book  ; 
that  he  may  thus  connect  it  with  the  development  of  Christian- 
ity in  the  threefold  line  of  doctrine,  practice,  and  polity. 

5.  The  present  distinction  of  large  letters  (capitals)  and 
small  did  not  Some  into  use  before  the  ninth  century.  In  con- 
formity with  ancient  usage,  the  manuscripts  executed  before 
this  period  are  written  in  large  disconnected  letters  (the  so- 
called  uncial),  Avithout  any  marks  of  interpunction,  or  even 
division  of  words.  This  is  called  the  continuous  luriting  {scriptio 
eoniinua),  in  which  it  is  left  to  the  reader's  discretion  to  make 
the  necessary  division  of  words  and  sentences ;  as  if  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Gosi^el  according  to  John  were  written  thus  in 
Latin  and  English : 

Latin.  English. 

INPRINCIPIOERATVERBUMET  INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORDAND 

VEEBUMERATAPUDDEUMETDEUSE  THEWORDWASWITHGODANDGODW 

RATVERBU]VIHOCERATINPRmCIPI  ASTHEWORDTHESAMEWASINTHEBEGIN 

OAPUDDEUMOMNIAPERIPSUMFA  NINGAVITHGODAELTHINGSBYHIMWEREMA 

"Writers  before  onr  Saviour's  time  do  indeed  speak  of  sjgns  of  inter- 
punction ;  but  tliey  seem  to  have  been  in  use  only  in  tho-  grammatical 
schools,  and  with  a  limited  apj)lication  to  certain  doubtful  passages  in  the 
ancient  writers.  That  they  were  unknown  in  the  older  manuscripts  of  the 
New  Testament  is  evident  from  the  discussions  that  arose  among  the  church 
fathers  respecting  the  right  division  of  certain  passages,  in  which  they  never 
appeal  to  the  authority  of  manuscripts,  but  argue  solely  from  the  nature  of 


374  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  connection.  The  reader  may  see  a  collection  of  exami^les  in  Hug's 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  §  43,  where  are  also  some  curious 
examples  of  the  wrong  division  of  words. 

6.  To  obviate  the  inconvenience  of  this  continuous  mode  of 
writing,  there  was  introduced,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century,  what  is  called  the  stichometriccd  mode  (Greek  sticlios,  a 
row  or  line,  and  mefron,  a  measure).  This  consisted  in  arranging 
in  a  single  line  only  so  many  words  as  could  be  read,  consist- 
ently wdth  the  sense,  at  a  single  inspiration. 

The  invention  of  stichometry  has  been  generally  ascribed  to 
Euthalius,  a  deacon  in  Alexandria,  who,  in  the  year  458,  set 
forth  a  copy  of  Paul's  epistles  stichometrically  arranged ;  but 
Tregelles  is  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  he  borrowed  the  sys- 
tem from  an  earlier  writer,  Pamphilus  the  maityr.  However 
this  may  be,  the  original  conception  doubtless  came  from  the 
stichometry  of  Hebrew  poetry.  Hug  (§  44)  and  Tregelles 
(Home's  Introduct.,  vol.  4,  chap.  4)  give  an  example  in  Greek 
from  a  fragment  of  the  Pauline  epistles.  This  example  (Titus 
2:2,  3),  when  literally  translated  into  EngUsh  according  to  the 
Greek  order  of  w^ords,  reads  as  follows : 

THEAGED]\IENTOBESOBEIl 

GRAVE 

SOBERMINDED 

SOUNDINTHEFAITH 

INLOVE 

INPATIENCE 

THEAGEDWOMENLIKEWISE 

,       INBEHAVIORASBECOMESHOLYWOMEN 

NOTSLANDERERS 

NOTGIVENTOMUCHWINE 

TEACHERSOFGOODTHINGS 

Though  the  design  of  stichometry  was  not  interpunction 
according  to  the  connection  of  thought,  yet  it  seems  to  have 
led  to  this  result.  The  expeusiveness  of  this  mode  of  writing, 
owing  to  the  waste  of  parchment,  naturally  suggested  the  idea, 
of  separating  the  lines  by  a  simple  point,  thus: 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  375 

THEAGEDMENTOBESOBER.  GEAVE. 
S.OBERMINDED.  SOUNDINTHEFAITH. 
INLOVE.  INPATIENCE.  THEAGED 
WOMENLIKEWISE.  INBEHAVIOEAS 
BECOMETHHOLYWOMEN.  NOTSLAN 
DERERS.  NOTGIVENTOMUCHWINE. 
TEACHERSOFGOODTHINGS. 

As  these  divisions  were  mainly  rhythmical,  and  often  broke 
the  true  connection  of  thought,  men  sought  to  introduce  a  more 
logical  system  of  interpunction.  Thus  was  laid  the  foundation 
of  our  present  system;  which,  however,  was  not  perfected  till 
after  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing. 

In  the  oi)inion  of  some,  the  use  of  the  dot,  at  least  to  some  extent,  was 
earher  than  stichometiy.  From  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  punctuation 
in  manuscripts  became  more  common  and  systematic.  In  cursive  manu- 
scriiDts — those  that  employ  the  running  hand  with  large  and  small  letters 
and  the  separation  of  the  words,  a  style  of  writing  that  became  the  com- 
mon one  from  the  ninth  century  and  onward — punctuation  also  prevails, 
though  not  according  to  any  one  established  system.  Tregelles,  uhi  sup. 
Various  other  particulars  interesting  to  those  who  study  the  Greek  text  in 
the  original,  as  those  relating  to  the  accents,  the  smooth  and  rough  breath- 
ing, and  the  iota  subscript,  are  here  omitted. 

7.  "We  come  next  to  consider  the  ancient  divisions  made  in 
tlie  contents  of  the  sacred  text.  Chapters  are  very  early  men- 
tioned, as  by  Tertuhian  and  Dionysius  of  Alexandria.  But  it 
is  uncertain  whether  any  thing  more  is  meant  than  parts  or 
sections  of  given  contents.  The  earliest  formal  division  of  the 
four  gospels  that  has  come  down  to  us  consists  of  the  Ammo- 
nian  sections  (Greek  kephalaia,  heads  or  chapters),  so  named  from 
Ammonius  of  Alexandria,  who,  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  prepared  a  harmony  of  the  four  gospels — the  Gospel 
hy  four,  as  Eusebius  calls  it.  His  plan  was,  to  arrange  in  the 
order  of  Matthew  the  parallel  passages  side  by  side,  interpo- 
lating those  that  were  wanting  in  Matthew.  To  this  end,  he 
divided  each  of  the  gospels  into  sections  the  length  of  which 
was  very  various,  being  wholly  determined  by  the  parallelisms 
of  the  other  gospels.     Of  these  sections  Matthew  contained 


37G  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

355;  Mark,  234  (in  Wordsworth's  Greek  Testament,  236  are 
given) ;  Luke,  342 ;  Jolm,  231  (in  Wordsworth's  Greek  Testa- 
ment, 232).  The  infelicity  of  this  arrangement  was  that,  with 
the  exception  of  the  first  gospel,  the  true  order  of  the  evange- 
lists was  broken  up — "  The  train  of  sequence  of  the  three  was 
destroyed  in  respect  to  the  orderly  course  of  reading,"  as  Euse- 
bius  says  (Letter  to  Carpianus,  given  in  Wordsworth's  Greek 
Testament). 

To  remedy  this  evil,  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Csesarea,  in  the 
following  century  connected  with  these  Ammonian  sections  his 
ten  canons.  These  are  ten  tables,  arranged  according  to  the 
order  of  Matthew,  or  where  sections  are  wanting  in  Matthew, 
according  to  the  order  of  the  next  evangelist  that  contains 
them,  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  at  a  glance  what  sections  of 
the  other  evangelists  answer  to  any  given  section  of  that  gos- 
pel which  stands  first  in  order  in  each  canon. 

Numbering  the  four  gospels  in  order — 1,  2,  3,  4 — the  ten  canons  of 
Eusebius  contain  as  follows  : 

I.  Sections  common  to  1,  2,  3,  4.  VI.  Sections  common  to  1,  2. 

11.  "             1,  2,  3.  VII.                      "                 1,  4. 

in.  "             1,      3,  4.  VIII.                    "                 2,  3. 

IV.  "             1,  2,       4.  IX.                    ''                 3,  4. 

V.  **              1,       3.  X.  Sections  peculiar  to  one. 

A  couple  of  examples  will  make  this  matter  plain.  Turning  to  wliat  is 
now  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Matthew,  we  find  (the 
Greek  numerals  being  exchanged  for  those  in  common  use)  the  sign  ^^ 
that  is,  the  131st  Ammonian  section  of  Matthew  with  the  second  canon  of 
Eusebius.  Turning  to  the  table  of  the  second  canon,  we  find,  correspond- 
ing to  the  131st  section  of  Matthew,  the  36th  of  Mark  and  the  76th  of 
Luke,  which  contain  the  parallel  passages  concerning  the  sower.  Again, 
connected  with  Mark  1 :  23,  is  the  sign,  yITi  "whence  we  learn,  by  refer- 
ence to  the  eighth  canon,  that  the  fourteenth  section  of  Mark  answers  to 
the  25th  of  Luke.  By  a  repetition  of  the  canons  as  often  as  necessary,  so 
as  to  allow  each  gospel  in  turn  to  take  the  lead,  Wordsworth  has  greatly 
facilitated  the  w^ork  of  comjDaring  parallel  passages. 

"The  Codex  Vaticanus  B,  contains  a  distribution  into  sections  wlioUy 
peculiar.  Of  these,  St.  Matthew  contains  170,  St.  Mark  61,  etc.  The 
length  of  these  divisions  is  very  unequal ;  the  sen&e  being  the  reason  of  tlie 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  377 

breaks  occurring  when  tliey  do.  In  the  gospels,  at  least,  tlie  sections  are 
perliax)s  the  best  that  were  ever  devised ;  and  this  system  of  capitulary 
division  is  probably  the  earliest  of  which  we  have  the  means  of  knowing 
any  thing."     Home's  Introduction,  vol.  4,  chap.  4,  revised  edition,  1860. 

8.  Different  from  the  Ammonian-Eusebian  sections,  and 
later  in  their  origin,  are  the  divisions  of  the  gospels  called  titleSy 
because  each  of  them  received  a  title  from  one  of  the  first  or 
principal  subjects  mentioned  in  it.  They  are  thought  to  have 
been  connected  with  the  public  reading  of  the  gospels.  Of 
these,  Matthew  contains  68;  Mark,  48;  Luke,  83;  John,  18. 
They  are,  therefore,  larger  than  the  Ammonian  sections,  and 
resemble  more  nearly  our  modern  chapters. 

These  titles  are  called  by  the  Latins  briefs  {breves),  and  the  tables  of 
their  contents  breviaries  [breviaria).  They  did  not  come  into  common  use 
before  the  fifth  century,  and  are  commonly  annexed  to  manuscripts  along 
with  the  Ammonian-Eusebian  sections.  But  they  are  the  only  divisions 
known  to  some  of  the  church  fathers,  as  Euthymius  and  Theophylact. 

9.  The  divisions  of  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament 
are  thought  to  be  of  later  origin.  Euthalius  introduced  into  a 
copy,  which  he  sent  to  Athanasius  the  younger,  divisions  called 
chapters.  He  has  sometimes  been  considered  the  author  of 
those  in  the  Acts  and  catholic  epistles ;  but  he  probably  took 
them  from  an  older  source.  Those  in  the  Pauline  epistles  he 
expressly  ascribed  to  "  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  Christ-loving 
of  our  fathers."  He  also  gave  headings  to  the  chapters,  descrip- 
tive of  their  contents,  but  collected  from  previous  sources. 
The  Apocalypse  was  divided  into  twenty-four  larger  sections 
and  seventy- two  smaller — a  work  ascribed  to  Andreas  of  Csesa- 
rea  in  Cappadocia.  Tregelles,  in  Home's  Introduction,  vol. 
4,  chap.  4 

10.  Our  present  division  of  chapters  was  made  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  by  Cardinal  Hugo,  from  whom  proceeded  also 
that  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  was  first  introduced  into  the 
Latin  copies,  and  afterwards  into  the  Greek.  Our  present 
division  of  verses  was  made  by  Kobert  Stephens,  in  1551.     It 


378  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

was  preceded  by  some  earlier  divisions,  as  that  of  Pagninus,  iu 
which  the  verses  were  longer  than  those  of  Stephens. 

Distinct  from  all  tlie  above  divisions  are  the  church-lessons,  made  very- 
early,  in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  Haphtaroth,  or  sections  from  the  proph- 
ets. Chap.  13,  No.  6.  The  beginning  of  these  seems  to  have  been  in  special 
selections  for  the  church  festivals.  But  the  usage  was  afterwards  extended 
so  as  to  include  selections  for  all  the  Sabbaths  and  feast-days  of  the  year. 
Hence  from  the  fifth  century  and  onward  the  whole  New  Testament  was 
no  longer  publicly  read,  as  in  the  x)rimitive  days  of  Christianity,  according 
to  the  free  judgment  of  those  who  conducted  the  church-services ;  but 
these  selected  sections  [pericopae).  Collections  of  these  lessons  were  called 
by  the  general  name  of  lectionaries  (lectionaria).  Those  from  the  gospels 
or  Acts  and  epistles  received  special  names  indicative  of  their  contents. 
See  Bleek,  |  265 ;  Home's  Introduction,  vol.  4,  chap.  4,  end. 

11.  From  the  above  brief  surve}^,  it  is  manifest  that  none 
of  the  external  divisions  of  the  sacred  text  rest  on  any  divine 
authority.  They  are  the  work  of  uninspired  men,  and  are  to 
be  treated  accordingly.  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  division 
of  the  Scriptures  into  chapters  and  verses  is  indispensable; 
and  we  may  well  rest  contented  with  that  which  now  prevails, 
though  it  cannot  claim  perfection.  But  in  the  inteiyretation  of 
the  inspired  word  we  must  go  behind  human  divisions,  care- 
fully inquiring  after  the  true  connection  of  thought,  according 
to  the  acknowledged  laws  of  interpretation.  To  give  one  exam- 
ple out  of  many,  we  must  not  infer  that  the  last  verse  of  the 
eleventh  chapter  of  the  book  of  Revelation  belongs  to  the  pre- 
ceding and  not  the  following  context,  because  of  its  separation 
from  the  latter  in  the  division  of  chapters ;  but  we  must  deter- 
mine its  true  connection  independently  of  this  division. 

A  very  good  arrangement  is  that  of  Paragraph  Bibles,  in  which  the 
distinctions  of  chapter  and  verse  are  thrown  into  the  margin,  the  text 
being  broken  into  longer  or  shorter  sections  according  to  the  true  course 
of  thought.  Yet  this  mode  of  division  also  is  human,  and  cannot  be  infal- 
lible. 

12.  The  titles  of  the  several  books  of  the  New  Testament  did 
not  proceed  immediately  from  the  authors  themselves.     In  form 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  379 

tliey  present  some  diversity;  for  example:  TJie  Gosjjel  accord- 
ing to  Matthew ;  according  to  Matthtio ;  the  holy  Gospel  according 
to  3Iattheiv,  etc.,  the  shorter  and  simpler  titles  being,  as  a  rule, 
the  more  ancient.  For  substance,  however,  the  different  forms 
are  the  same.  They  represent  the  ancient  church  tradition, 
and  are  of  very  high  authority.  The  subscriptions,  on  the  other 
hand,  which  stand  at  the  end  of  the  epistles  of  Paul,  that  to 
the  Hebrews  included — are  confessedly  the  work  of  later  copy- 
ists. They  are  of  no  authority,  and  are  sometimes  manifestly 
incorrect. 


380  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTER  XXYI. 

The  New  Testament  Text  and  its  History. 

The  history  of  the  New  Testament  text  naturally  falls  into 
two  main  divisions,  that  of  the  manuscript  text,  and  that  of  the 
printed  text.     A  few  remarks  will  be  added  on  the  princijdes  of 

textual  criticism.      See  PLATES  at  the  beginning  of  this  hook. 

I.    THE  MANUSCEIPT  TEXT. 

1.  The  preservation  of  the  primitive  text  of  the  gospels 
from  all  essential  corruptions,  additions,  and  mutilations  has 
already  been  shown  at  some  length  (Part  1,  Chap.  3).  The 
.same  line  of  argument  applies  substantially  to  the  other  books 
of  the  New  Testament.  Though  the  text  of  different  books 
varies  in  respect  to  puritj^  there  is  no  ground  for  supposing 
that  if  we  had  the  autographs  of  the  evangelists  and  other 
sacred  writers,  they  would  present  to  us  a  gospel  differing  in 
any  essential  particular  from  that  which  we  now  possess.  We 
should  see  in  them  the  same  glorious  Saviour,  and  the  same 
holy  system  of  doctrines  and  duties. 

2.  But  it  has  not  pleased  God  to  interpose  in  a  miraculous 
way  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  primitive  text  in  a  state  of 
immaculate  purity.  He  has  left  it  subject  to  those  common 
influences  which  produce  what  are  called  various  readings  in 
all  works  that  are  perpetuated  from  age  to  age  by  transcrip- 
tion. Compared  indeed  with  any  other  ancient  writings,  the 
text  of  the  New  Testament  has  immensely  the  advantage  in 
regard  to  uncorruptness  of  preservation  and  means  of  verifica- 
tion. This  arises  from  the  early  multiplication  of  copies,  as 
well  as  from  the  high  value  attached  by  the  primitive  churches 
to  their  sacred  books,  and  their  consequent  zeal  for  their  uncor- 
rupt  preservation.  But  the  same  multiplication  of  copies  which 
constitutes  a  sure  guarantee  against  essential  mutilations  and 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  381 

corruptions  increases  also  the  number  of  various  readings. 
Suppose,  for  example,  that  of  two  books  equal  in  size  the  sec- 
ond has  been,  from  the  first,  copied  a  hundred-fold  oftener 
than  the  first.  It  is  plain  that,  while  the  means  of  ascertain- 
ing and  verifying  the  true  text  of  the  second  will  abound, 
the  number  of  variations  among  the  different  manuscripts  will 
abound  also.  The  greater  the  number  of  copies,  the  greater 
will  be  the  number  of  various  readings,  but  this  will  make  the 
true  text  not  more  but  less  uncertain ;  for  by  diligent  collation 
a  text  may  be  produced  which,  though  not  absolutely  immacu- 
late, is  very  near  to  the  primitive  autograph,  and  which  can  be 
certainly  known  to  agree  with  it  in  every  essential  respect. 
God  does  not  rain  down  upon  men  bread  and  raiment  from 
heaven,  as  he  could  do  with  infinite  ease ;  but  he  imposes  upon 
them  the  necessity  of  gaining  both  by  hard  labor.  "In  the 
sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread"  is  the  stern  law.  God 
does  not  miraculously  communicate  to  the  missionary  who 
goes  to  Sj^ria  or  India  or  China  a  knowledge  of  the  vernacular 
in  his  field  of  labor;  but  he  must  learn  it  by  years  of  patient 
study.  And  when  he  begins  the  work  of  translating,  God  does 
not  keep  him  in  a  supernatural  way  from  all  errors.  He  must 
find  out  and  correct  his  errors  by  the  diligent  use  of  the  means 
at  his  disposal.  Just  so  it  is  the  will  of  God  that  we  should 
have  a  pure  text  of  the  New  Testament — pure  in  a  critical 
sense  —  not  without  hard  labor,  but  by  years  of  patient  toil 
in  the  study  and  collation  of  the  abundant  materials  which 
his  good  providence  has  preserved  for  us. 

3.  Various  readings  have  arisen  in  the  manuscripts  of  the 
New  Testament,  as  elsewhere,  from  the  mistakes,  and  some- 
times from  the  unskilful  corrections  of  the  copyists  and  those 
subsequently  employed  to  compare  and  correct  the  copies. 
They  are  commonly  divided  into  the  three  classes  of  substitu- 
tions, insertions,  and  omissions. 

Substitutions  from  similarity  of  sound  would  naturally  arise 
among  the  vowels  when,  as  was  sometimes  the  case,  the  copy- 
ist wrote  from  dictation,  being  guided  by  the  ear  instead  of  the 


382  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

eye.  Most  of  these,  however,  are  mere  matters  of  orthography. 
It  is  only  when  they  affect  the  sense  that  they  come  under  the 
head  of  various  readings.  Synonymous  words,  or  those  of  kin- 
dred meaning,  are  frequently  put  for  one  another,  or  the  order 
of  words  is  altered ;  sometimes  a  different  word  is  made  through 
inadvertence  by  the  change  of  a  single  letter  or  a  couple  of  let- 
ters; compound  words  are  interchanged  with  simple;  contract- 
ed words  are  confounded  with  each  other;  plainer  or  more 
grammatical  readings  are  substituted  for  those  that  are  difficult 
or  less  grammatical,  etc.  Especially  are  parallel  passages  in 
one  writer  altered,  so  as  to  be  brought  into  conformity  with 
the  same  in  another. 

Insertions  are  the  most  frequent  mode  of  variation.  The 
cop^dst  fills  out  the  text  of  his  author  from  a  parallel  passage, 
inserts  marginal  notations  in  the  text,  repeats  clauses  through 
inadvertence,  etc. 

Of  amphfication  from  parallel  passages  many  undoubted  examples  could 
be  given.  A  single  one  must  suffice.  In  Acts  9  : 5,  the  words,  It  is  hard 
for  tliee  to  kick  against  the  pricks,  have  been  added  from  Acts  26  :  14. 

The  most  fruitful  source  of  omissions  is  the  similar  termina- 
tion of  two  adjacent  words,  lines,  or  sentences,  causing  the*  eye 
of  the  copyist  to  overlook  the  word,  line,  or  sentence  interve- 
ning betw^een  the  two  similar  endings.  The  same  error  may 
be  caused  by  the  circumsttince  of  two  sentences  beginning  in 
the  same  w^ay.  It  should  be  remembered  that  in  the  ancient 
manuscripts  the  text  was  written  continuously  in  uncial — that 
is,  capital — letters,  without  any  division  between  the  words, 
wdiich  made  it  more  difficult  for  the  copyist  to  follow  the  manu- 
script before  him,  and  for  both  the  copyist  and  collater  to  dis- 
cover the  errors  made  in  transcription. 

By  far  the  greatest  number  of  various  readings  had  their 
origin  in  simple  inadvertence.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  due 
to  unskilful  criticism ;  as  when  the  copyist  or  the  corrector 
sought  to  bring  a  passage  in  one  writer  into  more  exact  agree- 
ment with  the  corresponding  passage  in  another,  to  supply 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  S8*J 

supposed  deficiencies  or  correct  supposed  errors  in  his  copy,  or 
to  substitute  smoother  and  more  grammatical  forms  of  expres- 
sion. Wilful  falsifications  in  the  interest  of  a  particular  sect 
or  party  cannot  with  any  show  of  justice  be  imputed  to  the 
men  who  have  perpetuated  to  us  the  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

4.  The  materials  for  textual  criticism  are  much  more  abun- 
dant in  the  case  of  the  New  Testament  than  of  the  Old.  A 
vast  mass  of  manuscripts  has  been  collected  from  different  and 
distant  regions,  dating  from  the  fourth  century  and  onward. 
Of  these,  part  are  in  the  original  Greek,  part  in  ancient  ver- 
sions, or  bilingual,  that  is,  containing  the  original  and  a  ver- 
sion of  it  side  by  side.  In  addition  to  these  are  the  quotations 
of  the  early  fathers,  which  are  so  abundant  that  a  large  part  of 
the  New  Testament  text  might  be  collected  fi^om  them  alone. 
The  question  of  the  history  of  the  text,  as  gathered  from  this 
rich  mass  of  materials,  is  very  interesting,  but  is  foreign  to  the 
plan  of  the  present  w*ork.  To  give  even  a  history  of  the  con- 
troversies respecting  the  proper  classification  of  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  New  Testament  according  to  their  characteristic 
readings  would  require  a  volume,  and  the  question  must  be 
regarded  as  ^^et  unsettled.  There  are,  however,  some  general 
results,  a  few  of  the  more  important  of  which  are  here  given 
from  Tregelles  (in  Home,  vol.  4,  chap:  8). 

The  variations  in  the  form  of  the  sacred  text  are  not  due  to  any  general 
recensions  or  revisions  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  but  arose  gradually  from 
the  causes  above  considered  (No.  3).  These  variations  exhibit  such  grada- 
tions of  text  that  it  is  impossible  to  draw  definite  lines  of  classification, 
without  admitting  so  many  exceptions  as  almost  to  destroy  the  ax^plication 
of  such  a  system. 

There  is  a  general  difiference  in  characteristic  readings  between  the  more 
ancient  manuscrii)ts,  versions,  and  citations,  and  the  cox^ies  of  general  cir- 
culation in  more  recent  times.  This  gives  rise  to  the  general  line  of  demar- 
cation between  the  more  ancient  and  the  onore  recent  texts ;  each  of  these 
two  classes,  however,  having,  in  turn,  its  own  points  of  difference  among 
the  texts  belonging  to  it. 

The  more  ancient  manuscripts,  versions,  and  citations  which  we  pos- 
sess range  themselves  under  what  we  know  from  their  combined  testimony 


33i  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

to  be  the  more  ancient  text.  Among  the  manuscnpts  and  documents  so 
allied  there  are  such  shades  of  difference  and  characteristic  pecuharities, 
that  the  versions  and  manuscripts  might  be  easily  contemplated  as  ramify- 
ing into  two  subclasses. 

The  most  ancient  documents  in  general  are  sufficiently  dissimilar  to 
enable  us  to  regard  their  testimony,  when  combined,  as  cumulative. 

5.  Eespecting  the  materials  for  writing  in  ancient  times- 
papyrus  and  parchment,  afterwards  paper  made  from  linen  or 
cotton;  the  form  of  manuscripts — the  roll  with  papyrus,  and 
the  book-form  with  leaves  when  parchment  was  used ;  the  use 
oi  palimpsests ;  the  uncial  and  cursive  styles  of  writing;  and  the 
means  of  determining  the  age  of  manuscripts,  see  in  Chap.  3, 
No.  2.  The  existing  manuscripts  have  been  all  numbered  and 
catalogued.  The  custom  since  the  time  of  Wetstein  has  been 
to  mark  the  uncial  manuscripts  by  capital  letters,  and  the  cur- 
sives by  numbers  or  small  letters.  "We  append  a  brief  notice 
of  a  few  of  the  more  celebrated  manuscripts. 

There  are  four  very  ancient  and  important  manuscripts,  all  of  which 
originally  contained  the  entire  Greek  Bible  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
and  which  belong  to  a  time  when  the  an-angements  of  EuthaUus,  especially 
his  stichometrical  mode  of  writing  (Chap.  25,  Nos.  6-9),  had  either  not 
been  introduced  or  not  come  into  common  use.     These  are  the  following  : 

(1.)  The  Codex  Vaiicanus,  Vatican  manuscript,  marked  by  the  letter  B, 
and  so  called  from  the  Vatican  hbrary  at  Eome  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is 
written  continuously  (without  any  division  of  words)  on  very  fine  vellum — 
one  of  the  marks  of-  liigh  antiquity — in  small  but  neat  uncial  letters,  very 
much  hke  those  of  the  manuscript  rolls  of  Herculaneum,  and  has  three 
columns  to  the  page,  which  is  of  the  quarto  size.  Originally  it  had  at  the 
end  of  particular  sections  a  small  empty  space  of  the  breadth  of  a  letter  or 
half  a  letter,  but  no  ornamental  capitals,  marks  of  punctuation,  or  accents, 
though  some  of  these  have  been  added  by  later  hands.  The  divisions  into 
sections  made  by  the  empty  spaces  above  named  are  peculiar  to  this  codex, 
not  agreeing  with  those  of  any  other  system.  Of  these  Matthew  has  170  ; 
Mark,  62  (so  says  Cardinal  Mai,  but  others  say  72  or  61) ;  Luke,  152  ;  John, 
80.  Most  of  the  books  have  also  brief  titles  and  subscriptions.  The  man- 
uscript contained  originally  the  whole  Bible,  the  Apocrypha  included,  as 
also  the  epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians.  The  order  of  the  books  in 
the  New  Testament,  if  entire,  would  be  the  same  as  in  the  Alexandrine 
manuscript,  the  Catholic  epistles  preceding  the  Pauline,  and  the  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  coming  in  between  2  Thessalonians  and  1  Timothy.     See 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  385 

below.  At  present  the  Old  Testament  wants  the  greater  part  of  Genesis 
and  a  part  of  the  Psahns.  In  the  New  Testament  the  epistle  to  Philemon, 
the  three  pastoral  epistles,  the  latter  part  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
and  the  Apocalyi^se  are  wanting.  This  manuscript  is  generally  referred  to 
the  fourth  century.  Its  authority  is  very  high,  but  through  the  jealousy 
of  its  Roman  conservators  it  has  been  of  late  years,  for  all  practical  pur- 
jioses,  inaccessible  to  biblical  scholars.  Cardinal  Mai's  edition  of  it  in 
]  858,  and  the  revision  of  this  in  1859,  are  unreliable.  Tischendorf  has 
pubhshed  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament  part  of  it.     l^o.  (3)  PLATE  11. 

(2.)  The  Codex  Sinaiticus,  Sinai  manuscript,  designated  by  Tischendorf , 
its  discoverer,  by  the  Hebrew  letter  alepli  (N).  One  of  the  most  interest- 
ing events  of  the  present  century,  in  the  department  of  biblical  science, 
is  the  very  unexpected  discovery  of  a  complete  manuscript  of  the  New 
Testament,  belonging,  as  is  generally  agreed,  to  the  fourth  century ; 
therefore  as  old,  at  least,  as  the  Vatican  manuscript,  perhaps  older,  and  of 
very  high  authority  in  biblical  criticism.  In  a  visit  to  Mount  Sinai  in 
ISitt,  Tischendorf  had  found  at  the  convent  of  St.  Catharine  on  Mount 
Sinai  forty-three  beautiful  parchment  leaves  belonging  to  a  manuscript  of 
fciie  Septuagint  not  before  known  to  biblical  scholars.  In  a  subsequent 
visit  to  the  same  convent  in  February,  1859,  it  was  his  high  privilege  to 
iind  of  the  same  manuscript  all  the  Greek  New  Testament  entire,  i^art  of 
the  Old,  the  so-called  epistle  of  Barnabas,  and  part  of  the  writing  called 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  the  whole  contained  in  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
two  thousand  columnar  lines,  written  on  three  hundred  and  forty-six 
leaves.  This  precious  manuscript  Tischendorf  managed  to  obtain  for  the 
emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  as  the  gTeat  patron  of  the  Greek  church,  and 
it  is  now  at  St.  Petersburg.  It  is  ^vritten  on  parchment  of  a  fine  quality 
in  large  plain  uncial  letters,  with  four  columns  to  a  page.  It  contains,  as 
is  commonly  the  case  with  ancient  manuscripts,  revisions  and  so-called 
corrections  by  a  later  hand ;  but,  as  it  proceeded  from  the  pen  of  the  origi- 
nal writer,  it  had  neither  ornamented  capitals,  accents,  nor  divisions  of 
words  or  sentences.  The  style  of  writing  is  plain,  and  every  tiling  about 
it  bears  the  marks  of  high  antiquity.  The  order  of  the  books  is  as  fol- 
lows :  (1)  the  gospels ;  (2)  the  epistles  of  Paul,  that  to  the  Hebrews  inclu- 
ded, which  stands  after  2  Thessalonians ;  (3)  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ; 
(4)  the  Catholic  epistles  ;  (5)  the  Apocalypse.  It  has  the  Ammonian  sec- 
tions and  Eusebian  canons,  but  whether  from  the  first  or  a  subsequent 
hand  is  doubtful.  A  splendid  edition  of  this  Codex  was  published  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  1862,  Avhich  seeks  to  preserve  with  the  greatest  possible 
accuracy  the  form  of  writing,  columns,  corrections,  etc.  The  Leipsic 
edition  is  adapted  to  popular  use.      See  No.  (1),  PLATE  J. 

(3.)  We  will  consider  next  in  order  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  Alexan- 
drine manuscript,  placed  first  in  the  list  of  uncial  manuscripts,  and  accord- 

lomr- to  Bible.  17 


386  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ingly  marked  A.  It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum,  London.  In  the  year 
1628  it  was  sent  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.,  king  of  England,  by  Cyrillus 
Lucaris,  patriarch  of  Constantinoj^le,  by  whom  it  was  brought  from  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt,  where  Cyiillus  had  formerly  held  the  same  office.  Hence 
the  name  Alexandrine.  Cyrillus  himself,  in  a  notice  attached  to  it,  says 
that  tradition  represented  a  noble  Egyptian  woman  of  the  fourth  century 
named  Thecla  as  the  wi'iter  of  it  (an  Arabic  subscription  makes  her  to  have 
been  Thecla  the  martyr).  These  external  notices  are  not  so  rehable  as  the 
internal  marks,  all  of  which  show  it  to  be  of  a  great  age.  Some  assign  it 
to  the  fourth  century,  but  it  is  more  commonly  assigned  to  the  fifth,  and 
Egypt  is  generally  regarded  as  the  place  where  it  was  written.  It  is  on 
parchment  in  uncial  letters,  without  divisions  of  words,  accents,  or  brea- 
things, and  with  only  occasional  marks  of  interpunction — a  dot  to  indicate 
a  division  in  the  sense.  The  lines  are  arranged  in  two  columns,  and  the 
sections  begin  with  large  letters,  placed  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  column — 
outside  the  measure  of  the  column.  The  order  of  the  books  is  :  (1)  the 
gospels ;  (2)  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  (3)  the  Catholic  epistles ;  (4)  the 
epistles  of  Paul,  with  that  to  the  Hebrews  between  2  Thessalonians  and 
1  Timothy ;  (5)  the  Apocalypse.  In  the  gospels,  the  Ammonian  sections 
with  the  Eusebian  canons  are  indicated,  and  at  the  top  of  the  pages  the 
larger  sections  or  titles.  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  defective  in  part  of 
the  Psalms.  In  the  New  it  wants  all  of  Matthew  as  far  as  chap.  25  : 6 ; 
also  from  John  6  :  50  to  8  :  52  ;  and  from  2  Cor.  4 :  13  to  12  : 6.  It  has 
npjDended  at  the  end  the  genuine  letter  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corin- 
thians, and  a  fragment  of  a  second  spurious  letter.  To  these  apocryphal 
additions  we  owe  the  preservation  of  the  Apocalypse  in  an  entire  state. 
Until  the  discovery  of  the  Sinai  codex,  the  Alexandrine  exhibited  the  text 
of  the  New  Testament  in  far  the  most  entire  state  of  all  the  uncial  manu- 
scripts,     ^ee  Ko.  (2),  PLATE  I. 

(4.)  The  fourth  manuscript  of  this  group  is  the  celebrated  palimpsest 
called  Codex  Epliraemi,  Ephraem  manuscript,  preserved  in  the  Imperial 
library  of  Paris,  and  marked  in  the  list  of  uncials  with  the  letter  C.  Origi- 
nally it  contained  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  and  apparently  the 
Old  also,  elegantly  written  on  thin  vellum,  with  a  single  column  to  a  page. 
The  writing  is  continuous,  without  accents  or  breathings,  and  the  letters 
are  rather  larger  than  in  the  Alexandrian  manuscript,  the  first  letter  of  each 
section  being  of  larger  size  than  the  rest,  and  standing,  as  in  that  manu- 
script, a  Httle  to  the  left  of  the  column.  The  Ammonian  sections  stand  in 
the  margin,  but  without  the  Eusebian  canons.  The  gospels  were  preceded 
by  the  list  of  titles,  or  larger  sections,  of  which  those  of  Luke  and  John 
alone  are  preserved.  The  titles  and  subscriptions  are  short  and  simple. 
The  date  of  the  manuscript  is  supposed  to  be  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury.    It  has  undergone  corrections  at  the  hand  of  at  least  two  persons, 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  387 

possibly  a  third.  These  can  be  readily  distiDguished  from  the  original 
writing.  The  critical  authority  of  this  codex  is  very  high.  Tregelles  (in 
Home,  vol.  4,  chap.  13)  places  it  next  to  the  Vatican  manuscript. 

A  few  words  on  its  history.  About  the  thirteenth  century,  being  regard- 
ed- as  a  worn-out  and  obsolete  manuscript,  the  vellum  on  which  it  was 
written  was  taken  for  a  new  j)urpose,  that  of  receiving  the  Greek  works  of 
Ephraem  the  Syrian  saint,  a  celebrated  theologian  of  the  old  Syrian  churcli, 
who  flourished  in  the  fourth  century.  ' '  For  this  purpose  the  leaves  were 
taken  j)romiscuously,  without  any  regard  to  then-  proper  original  order, 
and  sewed  together  at  hap-hazard,  sometimes  top  end  down,  and  front  side 
behind,  just  as  if  they  had  been  mere  blanks,  the  sermons  of  Ephraem 
being  the  only  matter  regarded  in  the  book."  Stowe,  Hist,  of  the  Books 
of  the  Bible,  p.  75,  In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Allix 
first  observed  the  older  writing  under  the  works  of  Ephraem.  It  was  very 
illegible,  but  a  chemical  preparation  applied  in  1834-5  revivified  it  to  a 
certain  extent.  It  has  been  diligently  collated  by  eminent  scholars,  and  in 
1842  Tischendorf  printed  an  edition  of  it  page  for  page  and  line  for  line. 
Of  the  two  hundred  and  nine  leaves  contained  in  this  manuscript,  one 
hundred  and  forty-five  belong  to  the  New  Testament,  containing  not  quite 
two-thirds  of  the  sacred  text.  The  order  of  the  books  is  the  same  as  in 
the  Alexandrine  codex.       See  No.  (4),   PLATE  III. 

Besides  the  abovenamed  four  manuscripts,  a  few  others  may  be  briefly 
naticed. 

An  interesting  pahmpsest  of  great  critical  value  is  the  Codex  Duhlinen- 
sis  rescriptus,  Dublin  ]jaliinpsest  manuscript,  in  the  library  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  designated  by  the  letter  Z.  It  contains  with  other  writings 
thirty-two  leaves  of  the  gospel  by  Matthew.  They  were  edited,  as  far  as 
legible,  in  1801,  by  Dr.  John  Barrett,  Fellow  of  Trinity  College.  In  1853 
Dr.  Tregelles  made  a  new  and  thorough  examination  of  the  manuscript, 
and,  by  the  aid  of  a  chemical  j)rocess,  brought  all  that  exists  of  the  gospel 
text  to  a  legible  condition.  This  manuscript  is  assigned  to  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. Its  letters  are  wi'itten  in  a  singularly  bold  style,  which  unites  the 
three  qualities  of  ease,  elegance,  and  symmetry. 

A  celebrated  bilingual  manuscript  (in  this  case  Graeco-Latin,  containing 
the  Greek  and  Latin  texts)  is  the  Codex  Bezae,  Beza's  manuscript,  called 
also  Codex  Cantabrigiensis,  Cambridge  manuscript,  from  the  place  of  its 
dej)osit,  which  is  the  public  library  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land. It  is  designated  by  the  letter  D,.and  contains  the  four  gospels  and 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  Greek  and  Latin  on  opposite  pages,  stichometri- 
cally  written.  The  account  of  Theodore  Beza,  its  former  possessor,  was 
that  he  found  it  during  the  French  civil  wars  in  1562,  in  the  monastery  of 
St.  Irenaous,  at  Lyons.     In  1581  he  sent  it  as  a  present  to  the  University 


388  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  Cambridge.  The  interest  felt  in  this  maniiscriiDt  arises  in  great  part 
from  the  veiy  pecuHar  character  of  its  readings.  "  The  text  of  this  codex," 
says  Bleek  (Introduc.  to  New  Test.,  sec.  270),  "jDresents  much  that  is 
X)ectdiar — many  additions  and  alterations  that  have  even  an  aj^ocryphal 
character,  but  are  yet  not  uninteresting.  Its  nntive  country  is  the  West, 
and  more  definitely  the  south  of  Gaul."     See  iVo.   (5),  PLATE  IT. 

Among  the  fragments  of  manuscripts  of  high  antiquity  is  one  called 
Codex  pur pureus,  Purple  manuscript.  Four  leaves  of  this  are  in  the  Cot- 
ton Library  in  the  British  Museum,  six  in  the  Vatican,  two  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Vienna.  The  manuscript  to  which  they  belonged  was  written 
in  silver  letters  (the  nanres  of  God  and  Christ  in  gold)  on  purple  vellum. 
The  writing  is  in  two  columns  with  large  and  round  letters.  It  is  ref  eiTed 
to  the  end  of  the  sixth  or  beginning  of  the  seventh  century. 

Many  other  uncial  manuscrii)ts,  or  fragments  of  manuscripts,  some  of 
them  of  great  critical  value,  might  be  described  ;  but  the  above  brief  noti- 
ces must  suffice.  Of  those  which  contain  ancient  versions,  a  few  of  the 
more  important  will  be  noticed  in  the  following  chapter. 

The  cursive  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  are  numbered  by  hun- 
dreds. In  general  their  authority  is  less  than  that  of  the  more  ancient 
uncials.  But  a  cursive  manuscript  may  give  indirectly  a  very  ancient  text. 
There  are  some  cursives  which,  from  their  characteristic  readings,  were 
manifestly  executed  from  codices  of  high  antiquity,  and  are  for  this  rea- 
son very  valuable.  As  such  Tregelles  specifies  those  numbered  1  and  33. 
For  further  notices  of  these,  as  also  of  the  lectionaries,  containing  selec- 
tions for  church  readings,  the  reader  may  consult  the  works  devoted  to 
biblical  criticism. 

II.     THE  FEINTED  TEXT. 

6.  The  primary  editions  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  wlience 
is  derived  wliat  is  called  the  received  text  ( Text  us  rece]3tus)  are 
the  following:  (1)  the  Complidensian ;  (2)  the Erasmian ;  (3)  those 
of  Robert  Stephens ;  (4)  those  of  Beza  and  Elzevir.  Their  au- 
thority in  textual  criticism  depends  wholly  upon  that  of  the 
manuscripts  from  which  their  text  was  formed.  As  no  stream 
can  rise  higher  than  its  fountains,  so  no  printed  text  can  obtain 
a  just  weight  of  influence  above  that  of  its  manuscript  sources. 
It  becomes,  then,  a  matter  of  interest  to  inquire  what  was  the 
basis  of  these  early  printed  editions. 


THE  NEAV  TESTAMENT.  389 

(1. )  The  entire  New  Testament  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in  Greek  in 
the  fifth  volume  of  the  Complutensian  Polyrilott  (so  called  from  Complutmn, 
that  is  Alcala  in  Spain,  wJiere  it  was  printed  under  the  i^atronage  of  Cardi- 
nal Ximenes).  It  bears  the  date  of  1514,  but  was  not  pubhshed  until  1522, 
■when  Erasmus  had  already  printed  three  editions  of  his  Greek  Testament. 
Its  editors  professed  to  have  formed  their  text  from  manuscripts  sent  to 
them  from  the  papal  library  at  Eome.  What  these  manuscripts  were  can- 
not now  be  ascertained ;  but  that  they  were  very  ancient  and  correct,  as 
alleged  by  these  editors,  is  contradicted  by  the  character  of  the  text,  which 
agrees  with  the  modern  in  opposition  to  the  most  ancient  manuscripts. 

(2.)  At  the  request  of  Froben,  a  celebrated  printer  and  publisher  of 
Basle,  Erasmus,  who  was  then  in  England,  where  he  had  devoted  some 
time  to  a  revised  Latin  translation  of  the  New  Testament  with  annotations, 
went  to  Basle  in  1515,  and  began  the  work  of  editing  a  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment. "By  the  beginning  of  March,  1516,"  says  Tregelles,  "the  whole 
volume,  including  the  annotations  as  well  as  the  Greek  and  Latin  texts, 
was  complete  ;  in  less,  in  fact,  than  six  months  from  the  time  that  the  first 
sheet  was  begun."  The  design  of  this  haste  was  to  anticipate  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Complutensian  edition.  The  critical  apparatus  in  Erasmus' 
Ijossession  was  quite  slender.  It  consisted  of  such  manuscripts  as  he 
found  at  Basle,  with  the  help  of  the  revised  Latin  translation  already  pre- 
pared in  England  and  Brabant.  For  the  Apocalypse  he  had  but  one  man- 
uscript, and  that  defective  at  the  end.  In  his  four  subsequent  editions— 
1519,  1522,  1527,  1535 — he  made  many  corrections.  In  that  of  1527  he 
availed  himself  of  the  Complutensian  text.  This  edition,  from  which 
the  fifth  and  last  published  during  his  life  differs  but  slightly,  is  the 
basis  of  the  common  text  now  in  use. 

(3.)  In  1546,  1549,  1550,  api^eared  the  three  editions  of  Robert  Stephens, 
tiie  celebrated  Parisian  printer.  In  the  first  two  of  these  the  text  is  said 
to  have  been  formed  from  the  Complutensian  and  Erasmian.  In  the  third 
edition,  although  he  had  the  aid  of  thirteen  Greek  manuscripts,  his  text  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  Erasmus'  fifth  edition. 

(4.)  In  1565,  Tlieodore  Beza  published  at  Geneva  his  first  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  with  his  own  Latin  version,  and  also  the  Vulgate  with 
annotations.  Three  other  editions  followed  in  1576,  1582,  1588-9.  He 
had  the  use  of  the  Codex  Bezse  above  described,  the  Codex  Claromon- 
tanus  (an  ancient  Grseco-Latin  manuscript  of  the  Pauline  epistles),  the 
Syriac  version  then  recently  published  by  Tremellius,  with  a  close  Latin 
translation,  and  Stephens'  collations.  But  he  is  said  not  to  have  made 
much  use  of  these  helps. 

The  first  of  the  Elzevir  editions,  so  celebrated  for  their  typographical 
beauty,  was  issued  in  1624,  its  text  being  mainly  copied  from  that  of  Beza. 
This  is  the  text  that  has  acquired  the  name  of  Textus  receptus,  the  Received 


390  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Text,  as  it  was  for  niore  tliaii  a  century  the  basis  of  almost  all  subsequent 
editions.  The  genealogy  of  this  Textus  recepius  is  thus  succinctly  given  by 
Bishoj)  Marsh  :  "The  Textus  recepius,  therefore,  or  the  text  in  common 
use,  was  copied,  with  a  few  exceptions,  from  the  text  of  Beza.  Beza  him- 
self closely  followed  Stejjhens  ;  and  Stephens  (namely,  in  his  third  and 
chief  edition)  co]oied  solely  from  the  fifth  edition  of  Erasmus,  except  in  the 
Eevelation,  where  he  followed  sometimes  Erasmus,  sometimes  the  Com- 
plutensian  edition.  The  text,  therefore,  in  daily  use,  resolves  itself  at 
last  into  the  Complutensian  and  the  Erasmian  editions."  Divinity  Lec- 
tures, part  1,  p.  111. 

7.  It  requires  but  a  moderate  acquaintance  with  the  history 
of  textual  criticism  to  understand  that  the  Elzevir  text  is  not 
only  not  perfect,  but  is  more  imperfect  than  that  which  has 
been  elaborated  by  the  help  of  the  abundant  manuscripts,  ver- 
sions, and  citations  of  the  early  fathers,  of  which  modern  criti- 
cism has  availed  itself.  It  is  no  reproach  to  the  editors  of  the 
primary  editions  that,  with  their  comparatively  scanty  mate- 
rials, they  could  not  accomplish  as  much  as  we  can  with  the 
rich  and  varied  means  at  our  disposal.  The  essential  integrity 
of  the  received  text,  we  do  indeed  thanMully^jktiowledge  and 
firmly  maintaiii.'  Our  fathers  had'  presented  to  tliem  in  this 
text  the  same  divine  and  glorious  Saviour,  the  same  way  of 
salvation,  the  same  holy  system  of  doctrines  and  duties,  as  we 
now  find  in  the  most  carefully  revised  modern  text.  Neverthe- 
less, a  true  reverence  for  the  inspired  word  must  impel  us  to 
the  diligent  use  of  all  the  means  at  our  command  for  setting 
forth  a  pure  text,  that  is,  a  text  conformed  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble to  that  of  the  original  autographs.  Yiewed  in  this  light 
the  modern  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament  must  pos- 
sess a  deep  interest  for  all  who  are  able  to  read  it  in  the  ori- 
ginal tongue.  But  to  discuss  the  merits  of  these  would  be  for- 
eign to  the  design  of  the  present  work. 

Examples  of  the  more  important  various  readings  occur  in  John  1  :  18  ; 
Acts  20:28;  1  Tim.  3:16.  The  passage  1  John -5: 7,  8,  in  heaven-^in 
earth,  is  generally  rejected  on  the  testimony  of  the  manuscripts  (see  the 
full  discussion  in  Home,  vol.  4,  ch.  36).  Among  the  passages  which  are 
regarded  as  more  or  less  doubtful  may  be  mentioned  John  5:4;    8  :  3-11  ; 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  3D1 

Acts  8: 37.  In  regard  to  all  tliese  the  biblical  scholar  must  be  referred  to 
the  critical  commentaries.  So  also  for  the  questions  connected  with  the 
text  of  Mark  16  : 9-20,  which  are  of  a  peculiar  character. 


III.     PRINCIPLES  OF  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM. 

8.  The  end  proposed  by  textual  criticism  is  to  restore  the 
sacred  text  as  nearly  as  possible  to  its  primitive  purity  (Chap.  7, 
No.  1).  To  this  work  the  biblical  scholar  should  come  in  a 
candid  and  reverential  spirit,  prepared  to  weigh  carefully  all 
the  evidence  which  is  accessible  to  him,  and  decide,  not  as  an 
advocate,  but  as  a  judge,  in  the  simple  interest  of  truth.  The 
three  great  sources  of  evidence  for  the  original  text  of  the  New 
Testament  are  Greek  manuscripts,  versions,  and  the  citations 
of  the  fathers.  Of  these,  Greek  manuscripts  hold  the  first 
place.  But  all  manuscripts  are  not  of  equal  value.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  oldest  manuscripts  have  the  highest 
authority.  "  If  the  multiplication  of  copies  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment had  been  uniform,  it  is  evident  that  the  number  of  later 
copies  preserved  from  the  accidents  of  time  would  have  far  ex- 
ceeded that  of  the  earlier,  yet  no  one  would  have  preferred  the 
fuller  testimony  of  the  thirteenth  to  the  scantier  documents  of 
the  fourth  century.  Some  changes  are  necessarily  introduced 
in  the  most  careful  copying,  and  these  are  rapidly  multiplied." 
Westcott  in  Smith's  Bible  Diet. ;  Art.  New  Test.  Yet,  as  the 
same  writer  remarks,  we  may  have  evidence  that  a  recent  man- 
uscript has  been  copied  from  one  of  great  antiquity,  and  thus 
has  preserved  to  us  very  ancient  readings.  Revisions  and 
corrections  by  a  later  hand  are  to  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  primitive  writing.  Yet  these  may  be  valuable,  as 
testifying  to  the  prevailing  reading  of  the  age  to  which  they 
belong.  The  general  class  or  family  to  which  a  given  manu- 
script belongs  is  also  to  be  taken  into  the  account.  In  a  word, 
so  many  elements  of  judgment  are  to  be  taken  into  account  in 
determining  the  relative  weight  of  authority  that  belongs  to  a 
given  manuscript,  that  the  right  decision  of  the  question  re- 
quires large  observation  combined  Avith  much  critical  tact. 


392  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

9.  Ancient  cersion.^  are  of  great  vulne  in  textual  oi'itici.sni ; 
for  some  of  then),  as  the  <^ld  Latin  and  Sy ritio.  to  which  may 
be  added  the  old  Egyptian  versions,  nre  based  on  a  text  more 
ancient  than  that  preserved  to  us  in  any  mannscript.  In  text- 
ual criticism,  the  testimony  of  a  version  is  valuable  in  propor- 
tion to  its  antiquity,  its  fidelity — not  its  elegance  or  even  its 
correctness  of  interpretation,  but  its  literal  closeness — and  the 
purity  of  its  text.  Versions  are  liable  to  all  the  corruptions  of 
text  incident  to  Greek  manuscripts,  and  far  more  liable  to  in- 
terpolations by  explanatory  glosses.  The  difference  of  idiom, 
moreover,  frequently  prevents  such  a  literal  rendering  as  shall 
be  a  sure  indication  of  the  form  belonging  to  the  original 
text. 

10.  The  citations  of  the  church  fathers,  which  are  immensely 
numerous,  constitute  another  source  of  testimony.  But  less 
authority  belongs  in  general  to  these,  because  they  are  often 
made  loosely  from  memory  alone.  Their  testimony  is  chiefly 
valuable  as  corroborative.  "  Patristic  citations  alone  have  very- 
little  weight ;  such  citations,  even  when  in  accordance  with  a 
version,  have  but  little  more  ;  but  when  a  citation  is  in  accord- 
ance with  some  ancient  MSS.  and  translations,  it  possesses 
great  corroborative  value.  It  is  as  confirming  a  reading  known 
independently  to  exist,  that  citations  are  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance. If  alone,  or  nearly  alone,  they  may  be  looked  at  as 
mere  casual  adaptations  of  the  words  of  the  New  Testament." 
Tregelles  in  Home,  vol.  4,  ch.  34. 

11.  The  application  of  the  above  sources  of  criticism  to  the 
sacred  text  demaiids  very  extensive  research  and  much  sound 
judgment.  "  Canons  of  criticism,"  as  they  are  cajled  are  valu- 
able in  their  proper  sphere  ;  but,  as  Westcott  remarks  {uhi 
supra),  "they  are  intended  only  to  guide  and  not  to  dispense 
with  the  exercise  of  tact  and  scholarship.  The  student  will 
judge  for  himself  how  far  they  are  applicable  in  every  particular 
case  ;  and  no  exhibition  of  general  principles  can  supersede 
the  necessity  of  a  careful  examination  of  the  characteristics  of 
separate  Avitnesses,  and  of  groups  of  witnesses." 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  393 

We  bring  tliis  subject  to  a  close  by  an  enameration  of  the  last  six  of  tbe 
thirteen  rules  laid  down  by  Westcott. 

8.  "  The  agreement  of  ancient  MSS.,  or  of  MSS.  containing  an  ancient 
text,  with  all  the  ancient  versions  and  citations  marks  a  certain  reading," 

9.  "  The  disagreement  of  the  most  ancient  authorities  often  marks  the 
existence  of  a  corrugation  anterior  to  them.'* 

10.  ' '  The  argument  from  internal  evidence  is  always  precarious, "  This 
canon  he  illustrates  by  several  examples  :  "If  a  reading  is  in  accordance 
with  the  general  style  of  the  writer,  it  may  be  said  on  the  one  side  that 
this  fact  is  in  its  favor,  and  on  the  other  that  an  acute  copyist  probably 
changed  the  excex)tional  expression  for  the  more  usual  one,"  &c. 

11.  "The  more  difficult  reading  is  preferable  to  the  simpler."  Tliis 
canon  rests  on  the  obvious  ground  that  a  copyist  would  be  more  apt  to  sub- 
stitute an  easy  reading  for  a  difficult  than  the  reverse. 

12.  "The  shorter  reading  is  generally  preferable  to  the  longer."  Be- 
cause of  all  corruj)tions  of  the  text,  additions  from  parallel  passages,  or  to 
meet  its  supposed  wants,  are  the  most  common. 

13.  "That  reading  is  preferable  which  explains  the  origin  of  the 
others." 


17* 


J94:  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTEE    XXYII. 

Formation   and    History   of  the    JN^ew  Testament 

Canon. 

1.  Respecting  the  canon  of  tlie  New  Testament  there  are 
two  distinct  but  related  fields  of  inquiry.  The  first  has  refer- 
ence to  the  origin  and  gradual  accumulation  of  the  materials 
which  enter  into  the  canon ;  the  second,  to  the  collection  of  these 
materials  into  a  volume  or  series  of  volumes  possessing  coordi- 
nate authority  with  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  con- 
stituting with  them  the  sum  of  written  revelation.  The  first  of 
these  questions  has  been  already  discussed  in  great  measure. 
In  Chs.  2-4,  the  genuineness,  uncorrupt  preservation,  authenti- 
city, and  credibility  of  the  four  gospels  were  shown  at  some 
length ;  in  Ch.  5  the  same  was  done  in  respect  to  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  acknowledged  epistles  ;  in  Ch.  6  was  con- 
sidered the  position  of  the  disputed  books  in  respect  to  the 
canon  ;  and  in  Ch.  7  the  inspiration  of  the  canon  was  demon- 
strated. Connected  with  these  inquiries  were  some  general 
notices  respecting  the  date  of  the  several  books  of  the  New 
Testament ;  but  the  fuller  consideration  of  this  latter  question 
is  reserved  for  the  second  division  of  the  present  Part — that  of 
Particular  Introduction.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  state  here  in  a 
general  way  that,  if  we  leave  out  of  account  the  writings  of  the 
Apostle  John,  the  remaining  books  of  the  New  Testament  were 
written  somewhere  between  A.  d.  45-70  (according  to  the  com- 
monly received  opinion,  between  A.  D.  50  -  70)  ;  while  the 
most  probable  date  of  John's  writings  is  A.  D.  70-100.  The 
composition  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  then,  spreads 
itself  OA^er  a  period  of  about  half  a  century. 

2.  Turning  our  attention,  now,  to  the  second  question,  that 
of  the  collection  and  arrangement  of  these  writings  in  a  volume 
or  series  oi  volumes  coordinate  in  authority  with  the  books  of 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  395 

the  Old  Testament,  we  have  a  succession  of  periods,  not  sharplj^ 
separated  from  each  other,  but  each  of  them  possessing,  never- 
theless, its  prominent  characteristics  in  relation  to  the  canon- 
ical writings. 

3.  First  in  order  is  the  apostolic  age,  extending  to  about  A.  d. 
100,  especially  the  first  half  of  it  when  many  of  the  apostles 
still  survived.  This  is  the  period  of  the  composition  of  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  but  we  have  no  certain  evidence  that 
they  were  then  collected  into  a  whole.  The  writings  of  apos- 
tles and  apostolic  men  had  of  course  the  same  authority  as 
their  spoken  word  :  that  is,  an  authority  that  was  supreme 
and  decisive,  according  to  the  principle  laid  down  by  the 
Saviour  :  "  He  that  receiveth  you,  receiveth  me  ;  and  he  that 
receiveth  me,  receiveth  him  that  sent  me."  Matt.  10  :  40.  But 
so  long  as  the  churches  had  the  presence  of  the  apostles  they 
could  not  feel,  as  we  do  now,  the  need  of  an  authoritative  writ- 
ten rule  of  faith  and  practice ;  nor  is  there  any  proof  that  the 
apostles  themselves  understood  in  the  beginning  of  the  gospel 
God's  purpose  to  add,  through  them,  a  second  part  to  the 
canon  of  revelation  that  had  been  for  so  many  centuries 
closed.  A  considerable  number  of  years  elapsed  after  the  as- 
cension before  it  was  thought  necessary  to  give  to  the  churches 
under  apostolic  sanction  a  written  account  of  our  Lord's  life 
and  teachings.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  not  composed 
till  about  A.  D.  61-63.  The  apostolic  epistles  were  for  the  most 
part  written  on  special  occasions  and  to  meet  special  exigen- 
cies, the  greater  number  of  them  not  till  between  A.  D.  50-70, 
those  of  John  still  later.  The  .Christians  of  this  age  drew  their 
knowledge  of  the  gospel  mainly  from  the  same  sources  to  which 
Luke  refers  in  the  preface  to  his  gospel ;  from  oral  tradition, 
namely,  received  directly  or  indirectly  from  them  "  who  from 
the  beginning  were  eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of  the  word." 

4.  After  the  death  of  the  apostles  came  what  may  be  called 
the  age  of  the  apostolic  fathers  ;  men  who,  like  Ignatius,  Polycarp, 
and  others  whose  names  have  not  come  down  to  us,  had  been 
the  disciples  of  the  apostles.     Ignatius  suffered  martyrdom  at 


39ci  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

Home,  A.  D.  107  or  116.  Polycarp  survived  beyond  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  century.  The  literary  remains  of  this  period 
are  very  scanty,  the  genuine  writings  of  the  apostolic  fathers 
being  confined  to  a  few  epistles — one  of  Clement  of  Home  to 
the  Corinthians,  seven  of  Ignatius,  one  of  Polycarp  to  the  Phi- 
lippians,  to  which  we  may  add  the  so-called  epistle  of  Barna- 
bas ;  since  whoever  was  the  author,  it  does  not  date  from  later 
than  the  early  part  of  the  second  century.  From  these  wri- 
tings we  gather  in  general  that  the  gospels  and  apostolic  epis- 
tles were  in  current  use  in  the  churches,  but  nothing  definite  in 
regard  to  the  collection  of  these  writings  into  a  whole. 

"  With  the  exception  of  the  epistles  of  Jude,  2  Peter  and  2,  3  John,  with 
■which  no  coincidences  occur,  and  1,  2  Thessalonians,  Colossians,  Titns, 
and  Philemon,  with  which  the  coincidences  are  very  questionable,  all  the 
other  epistles  were  clearly  known,  and  used  by  them  ;  but  still  they  are 
not  quoted  with  the  formulas  which  preface  citations  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (The  Scripture  saith,  It  is  written,  &c.),  nor  is  the  famous  phrase  of 
Ignatius  (To  the  Philadelphians  5  :  Betaking  myself  to  the  gospel,  as  to 
the  flesh  of  Christ,  and  to  the  apostles,  as  the  eldership  of  the  church)  suffi- 
cient to  prove  the  existence  of  a  collection  of  apostohc  records  as  distinct 
from  the  sum  of  apostolic  teaching.  The  coincidences  with  the  gospels  on 
the  other  hand  are  numerous  and  interesting,  but  such  as  cannot  be  refer- 
red to  the  exclusive  use  of  our  present  written  gospels,"  "Westcott,  in 
Smith's  Bible  Diet. ;  Art.  Canon.  The  reason  of  this,  as  the  writer  goes  on 
to  show,  was  that  ' '  the  details  of  the  Uf e  of  Christ  were  still  too  fresh  to  be 
sought  for  only  in  written  records."  There  is,  however,  one  remarkable 
passage  in  the  epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  Greek  text  oi  which  has  been  recently 
discovered  appended  to  the  Sinaitic  manuscript,  in  which  he  says  (ch.  4)  : 
"  Let  us  take  care  that  we  be  not  found  as  it  is  written,  many  are  called,  but 
few  are  chosen."  This  formula,  "as  it  is  written,"  distinguishes  the  gospel 
from  which  it  is  quoted  as  a  part  of  the  inspired  word  ;  for  it  is  the  cus- 
tomary formula  employed  by  Christ  and  his  apostles  in  accordance  with  the 
usage  of  their  age,  when  they  appeal  to  the  Old  Testament  as  of  divine  au- 
thority ;  and  is  never  applied  to  writings  of  mere  human  authority. 

5.  Next  in  order  comes  what  may  be  called  the  period  of 
transition  between  the  age  of  the  apostolic  and  that  of  the  early 
church  fathers.  Tlie  most  distinguished  writer  of  this  period 
is  Justin  Martyr.  It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  the  "  Me- 
moirs "  of  which  he  so  often  speaks  were  our  canonical  gospels. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  397 

Chap.  2,  No.  7.  Besides  the  abundant  use  of  these  he  mentions 
the  Apocalypse  by  name,  and  ascribes  it  expressly  to  the  apos- 
tle John — "  a  certain  man  among  us  named  John,  one  of  the 
apostles  of  Christ,  prophesied,  in  the  revelation  given  him,  that 
those  who  have  believed  in  our  Christ  will  spend  a  thousand 
years  in  Jerusalem,"  etc.  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  chap.  81.  Ho 
has  also  some  apparent  allusions  to  the  Pauline  epistles,  but 
how  far  he  possessed  and  used  a  collection  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings,  we  have  no  means  of  judging.  Towards  the 
middle  of  the  second  century,  however,  events  occurred  which 
had  a  powerful  influence,  not  indeed,  for  estabhshing  the  au- 
thority of  the  apostolic  writings  (since  that  existed  from  the  be- 
ginning), but  for  bringing  home  to  the  consciousness  of  the 
churches  their  supreme  importance  as  an  authoritative  rule  of 
faith  and  practice,  and  also  the  necessity  of  carefully  defining 
their  extent  as  well  as  their  true  interpretation.  Heretical 
teachers  arose  who  sowed  in  the  Christian  church  the  seeds  of 
gnosticism.  Of  these  some,  as  Marcion,  rejected  on  dogmatical 
grounds  a  portion  of  the  apostolic  writings,  and  mutilated  those 
which  they  retained ;  others,  as  Valentinus,  sought  by  fanciful 
principles  of  interpretation  to  explain  away  their  true  meaning. 
Chap.  2,  No.  12.  The  reaction  upon  the  churches  was  immedi- 
ate and  effectual.  They  set  themselves  at  once  to  define  and 
defend  the  true  apostolic  writings  as  well  against  Marcion's 
false  and  mutilated  canon,  if  canon  it  may  be  called,  as  against 
the  false  interpretations  of  Yalentinus,  Heracleon  and  others. 
The  occasion  had  now  come  for  the  recognition  of  a  New  Testa- 
ment canon  coordinate  in  authority  with  that  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  from  this  time  onward  we  find  the  idea  of  such  a 
canon  clearly  developed  in  the  writings  of  the  church  fathers. 
AVhat  aided  essentially  in  this  work  was  the  execution,  about 
this  time,  of  versions  of  the  New  Testament  books,  such  as  the 
Old  Latin  and  Syriac  ;  for  the  authors  of  these  versions  must 
of  necessity  have  brought  together  the  writings,  wliich,  in  their 
judgment,  proceeded  from  the  apostles  and  their  companions. 
6.  We  find,  accordingly,  when  the  age   of  the  early  clmrch 


398  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

fatJiers  opens,  about  a.  d.  170,  a  clearly  recognized  canon — some- 
times described  in  two  parts,  the  gospels  and  the  apostles — which 
is  placed  on  a  level  with  that  of  the  Old  Testament  as  the  in- 
spired word  of  God,  and  cited  in  common  with  it  as  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  divine  Scriptures,  the  Scriptures  of  the  Lord,  etc.  Both 
canons  are  mentioned  together  as  The  entire  Scriptures  both  pro- 
phetical and  evangelical;  The  pro2ohets,the  gospel,  and  the  blessed, 
apostles  ;  the  law  and  the  prophets,  ivith  the  evangelical  and  apostoli- 
cal ivritings ;  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament;  the  entire  instrument 
cfeach  Testament,  etc.  Irenceus,  against  heresies,  2.  46;  5.  20; 
Letter  to  Florinus  in  Eusebius'  Hist.  Eccl.,  5.  20:  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Strom.,  7,  p.  757  ;  TertuUian,  against  heretics,  chap. 
30.  36 :  against  Marcion,  4.  6,  etc.  The  canon  was  not,  how- 
ever, completed  in  its  present  form ;  for  the  right  of  certain 
books — the  so-called  antilegomena,  chap.  6.  6. — to  a  place  in  it 
remained  for  a  considerable  time  an  open  question,  which,  in  its 
application  to  particular  books  was  answered  differently  in  the 
East  and  the  West.  See  chap.  6.  On  the  other  hand,  certain 
writings  of  the  apostolic  fathers  (as  the  so-called  epistle  of  Bar- 
nabas, the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  the  epistle  of  Ckment  of  Eome 
to  the  Corinthians),  being  read  in  certain  of  the  early  churches, 
found  their  way  into  some  codices  of  the  New  Testament. 
Chap.  6,  No.  4. 

To  the  latter  j)art  of  the  second  century  belong  two  important  canons, 
that  of  the  Syriac  Peshito,  and  the  Muratorian  canon.  The  former  of 
these  represents  the  judgment  of  the  Eastern  churches  ;  the  latter  appa- 
rently that  of  the  Western. 

The  canon  of  the  Peshito  has,  of  the  seven  disputed  books,  Hebrews  and 
James.     It  wants  the  other  five,  namely,  2  Peter,  2,  3  John,  Jude,  Revelation. 

The  Muratorian  canon  is  in  such  an  imperfect  state  that  its  testimony 
on  some  points  is  doubtful.  It  contains  Jude  and  Revelation  ;  perhaps  also 
2,  3  John.  It  wants  Hebrews,  and  2  Peter,  and  it  adds  the  apocr^^phal  book 
called  the  Apocalypse  of  Peter. 

Origen  in  the  third  century  (as  quoted  by  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl. ,  6.  25) 
and  Eusebius  in  the  fourth,  Hist.  Eccl.,  3.  25,  give  each  a  review  of  the 
New  Testament  canon  with  a  statement  of  the  differing  judgments  as  to  the 
disputed  br)oks.  The  details  will  come  up  hereafter  in  connection  with  the 
books  in  qaestion. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  399 

The  Synodical  Council  of  Loadicea,  which  was  probably  held  between 
A.  D.  343-381,  gives  in  its  60th  canon  (the  genuineness  of  which,  how- 
ever, has  been  called  in  question  by  some)  a  list  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments.     That  of  the  New  Testament  wants  the  Apocalypse. 

The  third  Council  of  Carthage,  held  a.  d,  397,  contains  all  the  books 
of  our  present  canon.  So  also  the  Latin  fathers,  as  Jerome,  Rufinus,  etc. 
But  the  Syrian  churches  still  adhered  to  the  canon  of  the  Peshito. 

7.  The  history  of  Christian  opinion  in  regard  to  the  canon 
of  the  New  Testament,  of  which  a  very  brief  outline  has  been 
given,  has  all  the  marks  of  naturalness  and  truthfulness.  The 
Biblical  student  should  carefully  remember  the  two  following 
important  considerations  : 

(1.)  The  books  of  the  New  Testament  were  not  received  as 
a  whole,  but  separately  upon  the  evidence  that  each  gave  of  its 
apostolic  origin.  Doubts  in  respect  to  certain  books  throw  no 
shadow  of  suspicion  upon  the  rest,  the  genuineness  and  authen- 
ticity of  which  were  acknowledged  by  all  from  the  beginning. 
The  question,  therefore,  is  not  concerning  the  truth  of  revelation, 
but  simply  concerning  the  claims  of  certain  books  to  be  a  part 
of  the  record  of  revelation.  However  it  may  be  decided  in  par- 
ticular cases,  the  apostolic  authority  of  the  universally  acknowl- 
edged books,  which  constitute  the  main  body  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, remains  perfectly  sure. 

(2.)  The  early  diversities  of  judgment  in  respect  to  certain 
books  furnish  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  freedom  of  thought 
and  discussion  among  the  primitive  Christians,  and  of  the  sin- 
cerity and  earnestness  of  their  investigations.  It  was  precisely 
because  they  would  not  accept  any  book  without  full  evidence 
of  its  apostolic  authority,  that  these  diversities  of  judgment 
prevailed. 


400  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTER    XXVIIL 

Ancient  Versions  of  the   ]^ew   Testament. 

In  the  present  chapter  those  versions  of  the  Old  Testament 
also  that  were  made  in  connection  with  versions  of  the  New, 
and  in  the  interest  of  Christianity,  will  be  briefly  considered. 

I.     LATIN  VERSIONS. 

1.  A  peculiar  interest  attaches  to  the  early  Latin  versions. 
The  "  Old  Latin  "  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  in  connec- 
tion with  which  one  of  the  Old  Testament  was  executed  from 
the  Septuagint,  is  perhaps  the  earliest  that  exists  in  any  lan- 
guage. The  Old  Syriac  alone  can  rival  it  in  antiquity,  and  if 
either  may  claim  the  precedence,  it  is  probably  the  Latin. 
This  version,  and  afterwards  the  revision  of  it  by  Jerome,  was 
the  grand  medium  through  which  the  Holy  Scriptures  were 
known  to  the  Western  or  Latin  churches  for  more  than  twelve 
centuries.  It  has  exercised  no  small  influence  on  the  popular 
modern  versions  of  Christendom,  and  it  is  the  great  storehouse 
of  theological  terms  for  both  Catholic  and  Protestant  Chris- 
tianity. 

The  English  version  of  Wiclif  (1324-1384)  is  a  literal  translation  of 
the  current  text  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The  Psalter  of  the  English  Prayer 
Book  is  taken  from  Cranmer's  Bible  called  the  "Great  Enghsh  Bible  :" 
and  the  version  of  the  Psalms  follows  the  GalHcan  Psalter,  the  second  of 
the  revisions  made  by  Jerome  from  the  Old  Latin.    See  below,  No.  4. 

2.  How  early  the  cuite-Hieronymian  Latin  version  (that 
current  before  the  days  of  Hieronymus,  that  is,  Jerome),  was  ex- 
ecuted is  unknown  ;  but  the  writings  of  Tertullian  furnish  sat- 
isfactory proof  that  it  was  in  popular  use  in  North  Africa 
(the  place  where  it  was  made)  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  second 
century.      According  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancient    church 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  401 

fathers,  its  text  e.xistecliij  a  great  Yariety  of  forms,  and  tli6  same 
variety  has  comedown  to  ns  in  the  old  manuscripts  that  contain 
it.  Some,  indeed,  have  maintained  that  several  independent 
versions  existed.  But  the  sum  of  the  evidence  from  both  the 
early  fathers  and  the  manuscripts  goes  to  show  that  there  was 
never  more  than  one  that  could  be  called  independent.  The 
copies  of  this  were  subjected  to  multiplied  emendations  or  re- 
visions from  the  Greek  original,  till  the  text  had  fallen  in  the 
days  of  Augustine  and  Jerome  into  a  state  of  great  confu- 
sion. 

The  language  of  Augustine  is  very  strong  :  "  The  translators  of  the 
Scriptures  from  the  Hebrew  tongue  into  the  Greek  can  he  numbered,  but 
the  Latin  interpreters  can  by  no  means  be  numbered.  For  whenever,  in 
the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  any  one  had  gained  possession  of  a  Greek 
manuscript,  and  imagined  himself  to  possess  some  little  skill  in  the  two 
languages,  he  ventured  to  become  an  interpreter."  De  Doct.  Christ.  2.  16. 
According  to  the  received  opinion  the  so-called  liala  [Italian)  was  not  an 
independent  version,  but  one  of  these  revisions,  apparently  made  in  Italy, 
and  as  some  think,  under  ecclesiastical  auspices.  This,  Augustine  recom- 
mends as  more  faithful  and  perspicuous  that  the  rest. 

3.  The  canon  of  the  Old  Latin  version  seems  to  have  wanted, 
in  the  New  Testament,  Hebrews,  James,  and  2  Peter.  In  the 
Old  Testament  it  followed  the  Septuagint.  It  contained,  there- 
fore, the  apocryphal  books  of  that  version,  to  which  was  also 
added  the  second  of  Esdras.  Appendix  to  Pt.  2,  No.  6.  The  text 
of  this  version  is  known  to  us  from  two  sources,  quotations  and 
manuscripts.  For  our  knowledge  of  the  Old  Testament  we  are 
dependent  mainly  on  the  quotations  of  the  early  Latin  fathers, 
since  only  a  few  fragments  remain  in  the  shape  of  manuscripts. 
The  same  is  true  of  some  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  jDarticu- 
larly  the  Apocalypse.  But  of  the  gospels  as  well  as  other 
parts  of  the  New  Testament,  we  have  some  very  ancient  manu- 
scripts which  are  of  high  value  in  textual  criticism.  The 
agreement  of  this  version  in  many  characteristic  readings  with 
the  oldest  known  Greek  manuscripts  has  already  been  noticed. 
Chap.  3,  No.  3.     Such  agreement  is  the  strongest  possible  tes- 


492  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

timoiiy  for  the  genuineness  of  the  readings  in  question.     Chap. 
26,  No.  2. 

The  Codex  Vercellensis,  belonging  to  the  fourth  century,  and  said  to  have 
been  written  by  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Vercellse  (now  Vercelli)  in  Northern 
Italy  where  the  manuscript  is  preserved,  is  one  of  the  oldest  manuscripts  of 
the  sacred  text  in  existence.  The  Codex  Veronensis  at  Verona,  the  Grseco- 
Latin  Codex  Claromontanus  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris,  the  Codex 
Vindobonensis  at  Yienna,  the  Codex  Bohbiensis  at  Turin,  and  others  that 
might  be  named,  are  also  very  ancient.  Among  the  codices  that  contain 
what  is  called  the  Italic  version,  is  the  Brixianus  of  the  sixth  century. 

4.  About  A.  D.  383,  Jerome  at  the  solicitation  of  Damasus, 
bishop  of  Rome,"  undertook  the  arduous  task  of  revising  the 
Old  Latin  version  by  a  comparison  with  the  original  Greek 
text.  In  this  work  he  proceeded  ver}^  cautiously,  being  well 
aware  of  the  prejudices  which  he  must  encounter  on  the  part  of 
multitudes  who  could  not  discriminate  between  the  authority 
of  the  original  Greek  text  and  that  of  the  Latin  version  rnade 
from  it.  He  began  with  the  .four  gospels.  According  to  his 
own  testimony,  he  selected  ancient  Greek  manuscripts,  but 
such  as  did  not  differ  much  from  the  Latin  usage ;  and  in  the 
use  of  these  he  so  restrained  his  pen  that,  when  he  had  corrected 
those  things  only  which  seemed  to  change  the  sense,  he  suf- 
fered the  rest  to  remain  as  they  were.  (Preface  to  the  four 
gospels  addressed  to  Damasus.)  His  work  of  revision  was  af- 
terwards extended  to  the  remaining  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  a  revision  which  Tregelles  describes  as  "  less  complete 
and  uniform  than  that  of  the  gospels,  and  in  which  many  parts 
seem  to  have  received  hardly  any  alterations  from  his  hand." 
In  Home,  vol.  4,  ch.  23.  About  the  same  time  he  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  had 
been  made,  not  from  the  original  Hebrew,  but  from  the  Greek 
Septuagint.  Of  this  he  first  revised  the  Psalter,  but  not  very 
thoroughly;  in  his  own  w^ords,  "cursorily  for  the  most  part." 
This  first  revision  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Boman  Psalter. 
A  later  and  more  thorough  revision,  executed  by  Jerome  at 
Bethlehem  between  A.  d.  384-391,  is  called  the  Gcdlican  Psal- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  403 

ter.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  Jerome's  revision  ex- 
tended to  all  the  remaining  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  though 
we  have  positive  evidence  in  respect  to  only  a  part  of  them — 
Job,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Chronicles. 

Gregory  of  Tours  is  said  to  have  introduced  Jerome's  second  revision 
of  tlie  Psalter  into  tlie  public  service  in  France  ;  whence  its  name  Gallican. 
The  Roman  Psalter  was  retained  in  Italy  till  the  time  of  Pius  V.,  who  in- 
troduced the  Gallican  generally.  But  three  churches,  one  of  them  that  of 
the  Vatican,  continued  to  use  the  Eoman  Psalter.  Westcott  in  Smith's 
Bible  Diet. ;  Art.  Vulgate. 

5.  Jerome  was  soon  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  underta- 
king a  neiv  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original 
Hebrew.  To  this  arduous  task  he  addressed  himself  with 
great  earnestness,  availing  himself  of  the  help  of  Jewish  schol- 
ars to  complete  his  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew.  The  whole  work 
occupied  his  time,  witii  periods  of  intermission,  from  A.  D.  385 
to  A.  D.  405.  See  in  Home,  vol.  2,  p.  89.  He  did  not  venture, 
however,  to  make  a  new  version  from  the  Hebrew  of  the  book 
of  Psalms,  the  constant  use  of  which  in  the  church  service  was 
a  barrier  to  the  substitution  of  a  new  transhition.  He  accord- 
ingly 'retained  his  second  revision  from  the  Septuagint,  which  is 
called  the  Gallican  Psalter.  Of  the  Apocryphal  books  he 
translated  only  two,  Judith  and  Tobit.  The  remaining  Apocry- 
phal writings  Avere  retained  in  their  old  form.  The  Latin  bible 
thus  in  part  revised  and  in  part  translated  by  Jerome  (most  of 
the  Apocryphal  writings  being  left  unre vised)  is  called  the  Vul- 
gate, that  is  common  or  current  version,  although  this  term  be- 
longed, before  the  days  of  Jerome,  to  the  Old  Latin  itself.  Its 
diversified  character  is  thus  briefly  indicated  by  Westcott. — 
"(1.)  Unrevised  Old  Latin:  Wisdom, Eccl.,  1,  2  Mace,  Baruch. 
(2.)  Old  Latin  revised,  from  the  LXX. :  Psalter.  (3.)  Jeromes 
free  translcdion  from  the  original  text:  Judith,  Tobit.  (4.)  Je-^ 
romes  translcdion  from  the  original :  Old  Testament  except  Psal- 
ter. (5.)  Old  Lcdin  revised  from  Greek  3ISS.:  Gospels.  (6.) 
Old  Lcdin  cursorily  revised:  the  remainder  of  New  Testament." 
In  Smith's  Bible  Diet. ;  Art.  Yulsfate. 


404  COMPANION   TO   THE  BIBLE. 

It  is  not  neces.^ary  to  follow  the  history  of  the  text  of  the  Vulgate  siuce 
Jerome's  day.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  simultaneous  use  of  the  Old  Latin 
iiud  Vulgate  led  to  a  corruption  of  both  texts,  which  has  not  yet  been  thor- 
oughly removed.  The  i:)re3ent  standard  text  is  that  called  the  Clementine. 
from  Pope  Clement  VIII. ,  under  whose  auspices  the  Vulgate  was  edited  in 
1592.  This  is  better  than  the  preceding  Sixtine  edition,  a.  d.  1590,  but  not 
l)y  any  means  the  pure  text  of  Jerome,  as  it  might  be  recovered,  proximate- 
ly at  least,  by  a  careful  collation  of  ancient  manuscripts  and  quotations. 

The  oldest  and  best  manuscript  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, is  the  Codex  Amiaiinus  in  the  Laurentian  Library  at  Florence.  It 
belongs  to  the  sixth  centuiy,  and  exhibits  the  text  of  Jerome  in  a  very- 
pure  form,  carrying  us  back  to  about  120  years  from  Jerome's  death.  The 
Codex  Fuldensis  is  said  to  belong  to  the  same  century.  There  are  other 
good  manuscripts  more  or  less  complete  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries. 

Many  other  Latin  versions  have  appeared  in  modern  times,  sometimes 
in  connection  with  the  original  text,  and  sometimes  separately,  which  it  is 
not  necessary  to  notice  in  detail. 

II.  SYEIAC  VEESIONS. 

6.  The  ancient  S3'riac  version  called  the  PesJiito  belongs,  in 
the  judgment  of  biblical  scholars,  to  the  second  century.  It 
comprises  the  Old  Testament  as  well  as  the  New.  The  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  was  made  from  the  original  Hebrew, 
and  thus  has  the  honor  of  being  the  oldest  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  for  Christian  use,  the  Old  Latin  version 
having  been  made  from  the  Septuagint.  The  version  of  the 
New  Testament  was  made  in  connection  with  that  of  the  Old, 
so  that  both  together  constitute  one  work. 

Syrian  tradition  makes  extravagant  claims  in  respect  to  the  antiquity 
of  the  Peshito,  telling  us  that  it  was  executed  by  men  sent  to  Palestine  by 
the  apostle  Thaddeus  (whom  tradition  connects  with  the  founding  of  the 
church  at  Edessa),  and  by  Abgarus,  King  of  Edessa,  a  contemporary  of 
the  Saviour.  The  Old  Testament  was  sometimes  referred  to  a  still  earlier  age 
— that  of  Solomon  and  Hiram,  or  that  of  the  cajjtivity  of  the  ten  tribes. 
Without  giving  credence  to  such  traditions,  we  may  well  believe  that  it 
belongs  to  the  earliest  period  of  the  Syrian  churches,  and  cannot  be  placed 
later  than  the  last  part  of  the  second  century.  Of  the  term  Peshito,  that 
is,  simple,  there  are  different  explanations.  The  most  usual  is  that  it  de- 
notes a  simple  and  literal  version,  free  from  glosses  and  allegorical  inter- 
pretations. Tregelles  suggests  that  it  was  called  simple  in  contrast  with 
the  translation  made  by  Paul  of  Tela  from  the  Hexaplar  text  of   Origen 


THE  NE^\'    TESTAMENT.  405 

(see  below,  No.  8),  which  was  replete  -with  asterisks  aud  obeli  to  mark  Ori- 
gen's  revisions,  and  had  also  marginal  references.  It  is  agreed  that  the 
Old  Testament  was  translated  from  the  original  Hebrew  and  Chaldee, 
though  the  translators  seem  to  have  had  before  them  the  Greek  version  of 
the  Seventy,  and  to  have  consulted  it  in  the  progress  of  their  work. 

7.  The  Pesliito  is  a  free,  and  at  the  same  time,  a  faithful 
version  of  Scripture,  holding  the  first  place  among  the  ancient 
versions  for  its  general  excellence,  while  it  ranks  with  the  Old 
Latin  in  antiquity.  Its  authority  in  both  textual  criticism  and 
interpretation  is  deservedly  high.  As  it  regards  textual  criticism, 
however,  its  value  is  diminished  by  the  fact  that  its  text  has  not 
come  down  to  us  in  a  pure  state.  It  has  suffered  in  the  same 
way  as  the  text  of  the  Old  Latin,  though  not  to  the  same  extent. 

Among  the  manuscripts  brought  from  the  Nitrian  monaster- 
ies, and  deposited  in  the  British  Museum,  is  one  of  great  antiq- 
uity, containing  large  portions  of  the  four  gospels  in  Syriac. 
Dr.  Cureton  published  in  1858  the  text  of  this  manuscript  as 
"Remains  of  a  very  ancient  Syriac  recension  of  the  four  gos- 
pels in  Syriac,  hitherto  unknown  in  Europe,"  with  an  English 
translation  and  preface.  Its  appearance  was  hailed  with  lively 
interest  and  has  excited  warm  discussions.  The  manuscript 
itself  is  assigned  to  the  fifth  century,  but  it  presents  a  text 
which,  in  the  judgment  of  competent  scholars,  is  older  than  the 
current  text  of  the  Peshito.  Whether  it  is  an  older  form  of  the 
Peshito  version,  or  another  and  earlier  version  of  the  gospels,  is 
a  question  that  has  been  differently  answered.  It  is  main- 
tained, on  the  one  hand,  that  the  Peshito  is  a  revision  of  the 
Curetonian  text,  "  replete  with  readings  unknown  in  the  second 
century  "  (Tregelles  in  Smith's  Bible  Diet.) ;  on  the  other,  that 
it  is  "  an  older  version  than  the  Peshito ;  which  the  author  or 
authors  of  the  latter  consulted  throughout."  Davidson  in  Al- 
exander's Kitto.  Its  great  value  for  critical  purposes  must  be 
acknowledged  by  all. 

In  many  oharacteristic  readings  it  agrees  with  the  oldest  manuscripts 
and  quotations.  It  has  also  some  erroneous  readings  known  to  be  of  great 
antiquity.  In  a  word,  the  high  antiquity  of  its  text  cannot  be  reasonably 
questioned,     ^rs.  Ciu-eton  and  Tregelles  think  that  the  gospel  of  Matthew 


406  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

may  be  a  translation  from  the  apostle's  Hebrew  copy.     But  this  is  denied 
by  Davidson  and  others. 

8.  The  Philoxenian  Syriac  version  was  executed  A.  D.  508, 
under  the  auspices  of  Philoxenus,  or  Xenaias,  bishop  of  Hie- 
rapolis  or  Mabug  in  Syria.  Philoxenus  belonged  to  the  sect 
of  the  Monophysites,  and  it  is  generally  thought  that  the  ver- 
sion was  made  in  the  interest  of  that  sect.  The  translator's 
name  was  Polycarp,  one  of  Philoxenus'  rural  bishops.  With 
the  exception,  perhaps,  of  certain  books  (see  below),  the  text 
of  this  version  has  not  come  down  to  us  in  its  original  form. 
We  have  only  a  revision  of  it  made  A.  D.  616  by  Thomas  of  Har- 
kel  in  a  monastery  of  Alexandria,  whence  this  version  is  also 
called  the  Hardean  Syriac.  The  characteristic  of  this  version 
is  its  extremely  literal  character.  It  is  the  translator's  aim  to 
represent  every  Greek  word,  even  the  article,  by  a  correspond- 
ing Syriac  word,  even  where  the  idiom  of  the  language  must 
thereby  be  violated.  Hence  its  style  is  of  necessity  barbarous. 
But  this  very  character  of  literalness  gives  to  the  Philoxenian 
version  high  authority  in  respect  to  textual  criticism.  So  far  as 
it  has  come  down  to  us  in  its  primitive  form,  it  is,  in  truth, 
equal  to  the  Greek  text  of  its  own  time. 

About  the  time  that  Thomas  of  Harkel  revised  the  Philoxe- 
nian version  of  the  New  Testament,  Paul  of  Tela,  another  Mon- 
ophysite,  executed  what  is  called  the  Hexaplar  Syriac  version  of 
the  Old  Testament,  because  it  was  made  from  the  text  of  Ori- 
gen's  Hexaplar.  Chap.  16,  No.  12.  It  coincides  with  the 
Philoxenian  version  of  the  New  Testament  in  respect  to  its 
character  as  well  as  the  time  of  its  appearance,  being  made  on 
the  principle  of  following  the  Greek  text  word  for  word  as  ex 
actly  as  possible.  Thus  the  Hexaplar  version  of  the  Old,  and 
the  Philoxenian  version  of  the  New,  constitute  together  a  whole 
of  like  character  throughout. 

After  the  example  of  Origen,  Paul  introduced  into  his  version  asterisks 
and  obeli ;  the  asterisk  (*)  to  indicate  insertions  made  in  the  text  on  the 
authority  of  manuscripts  and  other  versions ;  the  obelus  (-^),  to  mark  pas- 
sages of  doubtful  character.  Thus  it  supplies,  as  far  as  a  version  can,  the 
Hexaplar  of  Origen,  of  wliich  only  a  few  fragments  remain. . 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  4.07 

The  Pliiloxeiiian  version  of  tlie  New  Testament,  as  revised  hj  Thomas 
of  Harkel,  contains  also  the  same  asterisks  and  obeli.  Critical  marks  and 
marginal  readings  also  ax)pear  in  most  of  the  manuscripts.  This  critical 
apparatus  is  generally  thought  to  have  proceeded  from  Thomas  himself,  in 
imitation  of  the  Hexaplar  Syriac  of  the  Old  Testament ;  but  whether  to  indi- 
cate comparison  with  the  Peshito,  or  with  the  Greek  manuscripts  employed 
by  Thomas  is  not  certain. 

There  is  a  version  of  the  Catholic  epistles  wanting  in  the  Peshito — 2  Pet., 
2,  3  John,  Jude — exi^sting  in  two  forms,  one  of  which  is  thought  to  be  the 
unrevised  Philoxenian  text.  There  is  a  codex  at  Rome  containing  the  four 
gospels  which  has  also  been  supposed  to  contain  the  same  unrevised  text. 

The  Jerusalem  Syriac  Ledionary,  containing  simply  lessons  from  the  four 
gospels,  is  a  peculiar  version  knoAvn  to  us  from  a  single  manuscript  in  the 
Vatican  Library  which  belongs  to  the  eleventh  century.  The  version  itself 
is  referred  by  some  to  the  sixth  century,  by  others  to  a  later  date.  Its  dia- 
lect is  barbarous,  being  a  mixture  of  Chaldee  and  Syriac,  but  its  readings 
are  said  often  to  coincide  with  the  oldest  and  best  authorities. 

III.  EGYPTIAN  AND  ETHIOPIC  VERSIONS. 
9.  Formerly  but  one  version  was  known  to  exist  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  This,  which  was  made  in  the 
dialect  of  lower  Egypt,  was  naturally  called  Coptic.^  When  it 
was  discovered  that  another  version  existed  in  the  dialect  of 
upper  Egypt,  the  Arabic  term  Sahidic  was  applied  to  it.  But 
since  the  word  Coptic  is  generic,  applying  to  both  dialects  alike, 
it  has  been  proposed  to  call  the  former  version  Copto-Memphitic 
or  simply  3IempMtic,  from  Memphis,  the  ancient  capital  of  lower 
Egypt ;  and  the  latter  Copto-  Thebaic  or  Thebaic,  from  Thebes, 
the  celebrated  capital  of  ancient  upper  Egypt.  "When  these 
versions  were  executed  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty. 
•But  they  existed  in  the  fourth  century,  and  probably  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  third  century.  Their  high  antiquity  gives  to 
them  great  value  in  textual  criticism.  The  latter  of  them,  how- 
ever, exists  only  in  a  fragmentary  form.  Some  fragments  of  a 
third  version,  differing  from  both  the  Memphitic  and  the  The- 
baic, have  been  discovered.  To  this,  the  epithet  Bashmuric  has 
been  applied,  from  the  Arabian  name  Bashmur,  a  district  of  lower 
Egypt  in  the  Delta  to  the  East.  But  Egyptian  scholars  doubt 
whether  the  term  is  well  applied,  as  the  version  is  said  to  have 
stronger  affinity  to  the  Thebaic  than  to  the  Memphitic  version. 


408  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

The  Memioliitic  and  Thebaic  versions  are  said  to  have  contained  the 
whole  Bible,  that  of  the  Old  Testament  being  made  from  the  Septuagint. 
The  whole  Memphitic  New  Testament  has  been  several  times  published, 
but  never  in  such  a  manner  as  to  meet  the  wants  of  Biblical  criticism.  Of 
the  Thebaic  version  only  some  fragments  have  been  published. 

10.  An  Ethiopic  version  of  the  wliole  Bible  exists  in  the  an- 
cient dialect  of  Axum.  That  of  the  Old  Testament  was  made 
from  the  Septuagint ;  that  of  the  New  is  a  close  version  of  the 
original  Greek.  The  age  to  which  it  belongs  is  not  known. 
Many  of  the  readings  of  its  text  are  said  to  show  an  affinity 
with  the  older  class  of  Greek  manuscripts,  while  others  are  of  a 
later  character.  This  leads  to  the  suspicion  that  the  version 
has  undergone  revision  by  the  aid  of  later  Greek  manuscripts. 
An  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  is  in  process  of  publication  in 
Germany. 

IV.  THE  GOTHIC  AND  OTHEE  VEESIONS. 

11.  The  first  information  which  European  scholars  had  of  the 
existence  (^  a  6^o^/^^c  version  of  the  New  Testament  was  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  when  one  Morillon  copied  from  a  Gothic  manu- 
script in  the  library  of  the  Monastery  of  Werden  in  Westphalia 
the  Lord's  Prayer  and  some  other  parts,  Avliich  were  afterwards 
published.  When  the  Swedes,  in  1648,  took  Prague,  among 
the  spoils  sent  to  Stockholm  was  the  celebrated  Codex  Ar- 
genteus,  Silver  manuscript,  containing  a  copy  of  the  Gothic  gos- 
pels written  on  purple  vellum  in  silver  letters,  except  the  begin- 
nings of  the  sections  Avhich  are  in  gold.  When  entire  the  man- 
uscript is  said  to  have  contained  320  leaves,  but  when  found  it 
had  but  188  in  quarto  size.  In  its  present  state  it  wants  parts 
of  all  the  gospels.  The  letters  are  deeply  furrowed,  and  beau- 
tifully regular.  It  is  thought  that  this  manuscript  was  exe- 
cuted for  the  use  of  some  Gothic  king.  After  various  changes 
of  place,  it  was  finally  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  University 
of  Upsal  in  Sweden,  where  it  is  now  preserved  enclosed  in  a 
silver  case.  The  Gothic  version,  of  which  the  Codex  Argenteus 
IS  a  transcript,  was  made  in  the  fourth  century  by  Ulphilas, 
second   bishop  of   the  Goths  in  Mcesia  (the  so-ealled  Moeso- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  409 

Gotlis).      The  manuscript  itself  belongs,  it  is  thought,  to  the 
sixth  century. 

12.  In  1762  a  palimpsest  was  discovered  by  Knittel  at 
Wolfenbiittel,  a  city  of  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  in  Germany, 
containing,  as  the  earlier  writing,  part  of  the  epistle  to  the 
Romans  in  Gothic  and  Latin,  the  versions  standing  side  by 
side.  In  1817  the  late  Cardinal  Mai  discovered  in  the  Ambro- 
sian  Library  at  Milan  five  palimpsests,  from  which,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Wolfenbiittel  palimpsest,  the  Gothic  text  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Pauline  epistles  (that  to  the  Hebrews  not  in- 
cluded) has  been  recovered,  as  also  some  fragments  of  the  gos- 
pels, and  of  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  All  that  has 
been  recovered  of  the  Gothic  version  was  edited  in  1835-6  by 
Gabelentz  and  Loebe  with  a  Latin  translation,  notes,  and  a 
Gothic  dictionary  and  grammar.  There  are  several  later  edi- 
tions partly  of  the  Codex  Argenteus,  and  partly  of  all  the  Gothic 
remains  of  the  Scriptures.  Thus  this  interesting  version,  which 
represents  the  text  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  fourth  century 
as  it  Y/as  known  to  Ulphilas,  is  made  available  for  the  purposes 
of  Biblical  criticism. 

13.  There  is  an  ancient  Armenian  version  unaccompanied 
as  yet  by  any  Latin  translation;  and  thus  available  for  critical 
purposes  only  through  the  help  of  those  who  know  the  language. 
By  means  of  such  help  Dr.  Tregelles  used  it  for  his  critical  edi- 
tion of  the  New  Testament,  and  he  speaks  of  its  value  "  as  a 
critical  witness  as  to  the  general  reading  of  certain  Greek 
copies  existing  in  the  former  half  of  the  fifth  century."  In 
Smith's  Bible  Diet.,  Art.  Armenian  Version. 

Other  ancient  versions,  as  the  Arabic  and  Slavonic,  we  pass 
by ;  as  their  comparatively  late  date  makes  them  of  little  im- 
portance for  critical  studies.  The  history  of  modern  versions, 
among  which  is  our  own  authorized  version,  presents  a  wide 
and  interesting  field  of  inquiry,  but  it  does  not  come  within  the 
scope  of  the  present  work. 

Conop.  to  Bibifc  1 S 


410  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

SECOND  DIVISION,  PARTICULAR  INTRODUCTION 
CHAPTER  XXIX. 

The   Historical   Books. 

1.  The  New  Testament,  like  the  Old,  is  not  an  abstract  sys- 
tem of  doctrines  and  duties,  but  a  record  of  facts  involving  doc- 
trines and  duties  of  the  highest  import.  This  record  does  not 
constitute  an  independent  history,  complete  in  itself,  and  to  be 
explained  in  its  own  light.  It  is  rather  the  necessary  sequel  to 
the  record  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  interprets  the  Old*  Testa- 
ment, and  is  itself  interpreted  by  it.  The  two  constitute  to- 
gether an  organic  whole,  and  can  be  truly  understood  only  in 
their  mutual  connection.  To  discard  the  Old  Testament 
whether  formally  or  in  practice,  is  to  throw  away  the  key  which 
unlocks  to  us  the  treasures  of  the  New ;  for  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  continually  reason  out  of  the  Scriptures  of  the 
Old.  If  we  cannot  truly  comprehend  the  Old  Testament  except 
when  we  view  it  as  preparatory  to  the  revelation  contained  in 
the  New,  so  neither  can  we  have  a  full  understanding  of  the 
New  except  as  the  completion  of  the  revelation  begun  in  the 
Old.  In  a  word,  we  understand  revelation  aright  only  in  its 
unity. 

2.  The  New  Testament  uses  all  the  teachings  of  the  Old,  but 
it  does  not  repeat  them  all.  The  unitj^,  personality,  and  infinite 
perfections  of  God ;  his  universal  providence,  and  his  suprem- 
acy as  well  over  nations  as  individuals  ;  the  duties  that  men 
owe  to  God  and  each  other,  as  embodied  for  substance  in  the 
ten  commandments  and  expanded  in  the  teachings  of  Moses  and 
the  prophets;  the  indissoluble  connection,  on  the  one  hand,  be- 
tween righteousness  and  true  prosperity,  and  on  the  other,  be- 
tween sin  and  ruin — all  these  great  truths  are  so  fully  unfolded 
in  the  Old  Testament  that  they  need  no  formal  rei3etition  in  the 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  411 

New.  The  person  and  office  of  the  Messiah — as  that  great 
prophet,  like  unto  Moses,  whom  God  should  raise  up  for  his 
people  in  the  latter  days ;  as  that  mighty  king  of  David's  line, 
who  should  sit  on  his  throne  and  in  his  kingdom  to  order  it 
and  to  establish  it  with  judgment  and  with  justice  forever;  as 
that  high  priest  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec  whom  God 
should  establish  forever  with  a  solemn  oath — had  been  prefig- 
ured in  the  institutions  of  Moses,  in  the  Psalms,  and  in  the 
writings  of  the  prophets. 

Some  other  important  truths  not  so  fully  revealed  in  the 
Old  Testament  but  deducible  in  a  legitimate  way  either  from 
its  general  scope  or  from  some  brief  hints  in  its  teachings,  had 
become  firmly  established  in  the  faith  of  the  Jewish  people 
during  the  long  interval  that  elapsed  between  Malachi 
and  Christ.  Such  particularly  were  the  doctrines  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  and  of  future  rewards  and  punishments. 
These  truths,  also,  as  well  as  those  more  directly  and  fully 
taught  in  the  Old  Testament,  were  assumed  by  the  Saviour 
and  his  apostles  as  a  platform  for  the  peculiar  revelations  of 
the  gospel,  the  sum  of  which  is  Jesus  Christ  crucified  for  the 
salvation  of  the  world.  The  four  gospels,  then,  as  containing  the 
history  of  our  Lord's  appearance  and  works,  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  the  revelation  contained  in  the  New  Testament.  To 
these,  then,  our  attention  must  first  be  given ;  after  which  the 
history  of  the  apostolic  labors,  as  given  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  will  naturally  follow. 

I.  THE  GOSPELS  AS  A  WHOLE. 

3.  The  word  gosjoel  (Anglo-Saxon,  god,  good,  and  spell,  history 
ov  tidings)  answers  to  the  Greek  word  euangelion,  good-tidings j 
whence  comes  the  Latin  evangelium,  with  the  derived  words  in 
use  among  us,  as  evangelist,  evangelical,  etc.  It  proj)erly  signi- 
fies the  good  message  itself,  and  it  is  only  by  a  secondar}^  usage 
that  it  is  applied  to  the  ivritten  histories  of  the  Saviour's  life,  as 
being  the  embodiment  of  this  message.  The  titles  prefixed  to 
these  gospels  from  the  beginning  ;  "  The  Gospel  according  to 


412  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Matthew,  "The  Gospel  according  to  Mark,"  etc., indicate  that 
the  written  record  is  not  itself  the  gospel,  but  rather  an  ac- 
count of  the  gospel  according  to  these  different  writers.  Christ 
himself  is  the  author  of  the  gospel.  It  existed  and  was  re- 
ceived by  many  thousands  before  a  line  of  it  was  put  upon 
record  on  the  written  page. 

4.  The  genuineness,  uncorrupt  preservation,  and  authenti- 
city of  the  four  canonical  gospels  have  already  been  shown  at 
some  length.  Chaps.  2,  3,  4.  In  connection  with  the  argument 
for  their  genuineness,  their  natural  division  into  two  parts — the 
first  three,  commonly  called  the  synoptical  gosj)els,  and  the 
gospel  according  to  John ;  the  remarkable  agreements  and  dif- 
ferences of  the  three  synoptical  gospels  among  themselves  ;  and 
the  remarkable  contrast  which  the  fourth  gospel  presents  to  all 
three  of  the  synoptical  gospels,  have  also  been  considered 
simply  as  eocisting  facts.  Chap.  2,  Nos.  14  and  15.  But  when  we 
seek  an  explanation  of  these  remarkable  phenomena,  we  enter 
upon  a  very  difficult  problem,  one  on  which  the  ingenuity  of 
Biblical  scholars  has  exhausted  itself  for  several  successive 
generations  without  reaching  thus  far  a  result  that  can  be  re- 
garded as  perfectly  satisfactory.  Almost  all  conceivable  theo- 
ries and  combinations  of  theories  have  been  proposed,  some  of 
which,  however,  are  now  generally  abandoned  as  untenable, 
and  need  not  be  considered  at  large. 

5.  Looking  at  the  three  synoptical  gospels,  Matthew,  Mark, 
and  Luke,  we  find  a  remarkable  agreement  not  only  in  their 
general  plan,  but  in  many  of  their  details  also.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  our  Lord's  last  journey  to  Jerusalem  and  the  history 
of  his  passion  there,  they  are  mainly  occupied  with  his  ministry 
in  Galilee.  The  selection  of  incidents  is  also  to  a  great  extent 
the  same.  "The  most  remarkable  differences  lie  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  long  series  of  events  connected  with  the  Galilean 
ministry,  which  are  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
(Matt.  14  :  22—16:  12;  Mark  6:45—8  :  26),  and  a  second  se- 
ries of  events  connected  with  the  journey  to  Jerusalem  (Luke 
9  :  51 — 18  :  14),  which  is  pecuHar  to  St.  Luke."     "Westcott,  In- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  413 

trocluct.  to  tlie  Study  of  the  Gospels,  cliap.  3.  The  coincidences 
of  language,  as  well  as  incident,  are  also  remarkable ;  and  here 
the  general  law  prevails  that  these  coincidences  are  more  com- 
mon, as  has  been  shown  bj  Norton  and  others,  in  the  recital  of 
the  words  of  others  than  in  the  narrative  parts  of  the  gospels, 
and  most  common  when  our  Lord's  own  words  are  recited. 

6.  But  with  these  remarkable  agreements  coexist  equally  re- 
markable differences.  Each  writer  has  his  own  peculiarities  of 
style,  which  appear  more  distinctly  in  the  original  than  they 
can  in  any  version.  It  has  been  noticed  also  by  Biblical  schol- 
ars that  these  peculiarities  are  more  marked  in  the  narrative 
than  in  the  recitative  parts  of  the  gospels  in  question.  Each 
writer,  moreover,  brings  in  incidents  peculiar  to  himself,  not  in 
the  form  of  patchwork,  but  as  parts  of  a  self  consistent  whole. 
So  far  is  he  from  exact  outward  conformity  to  either  of  the 
other  gospels,  in  respect  to  arrangement  and  circumstantial  de- 
tails, that  the  diversity  between  him  and  them  in  these  particu- 
lars, sometimes  creates  serious  difficulties  when  we  attempt  to 
arrange  the  three  different  narratives  in  the  form  of  a  harmony. 

7.  No  theory  of  the  origin  of  these  three  gospels  can  be  true 
which  does  not  explain  both  their  coincidences  and  their  differ- 
ences. Hence  we  may  set  aside  at  once  the  hypothesis  of  their 
midual  cJe2Jendence  on  each  other — that  the  later  evangelists  used 
the  writings  of  the  earlier.  By  the  different  advocates  of  this 
theory,  each  of  the  three  synoptic  gospels  has  been  made  in 
turn  the  primary  record  from  which  the  others  drew  ;  but  no  one 
of  them  has  been  able,  upon  this  hypothesis,  to  account  for  the 
omissions  or  insertions  of  the  supposed  later  evangelists,  much 
less  for  the  remarkable  fact  already  noticed,  that  the  peculiari- 
ties of  each  writer  appear  more  fully  in  the  narrative  than  in 
the  recitative  part  of  his  gospel.  The  later  evangelists  may,  in- 
deed, have  been  acquainted  with  the  writings  of  the  earlier  and 
have  consulted  them,  but  this  supposition  alone  does  not  ex- 
plain their  peculiar  coincidences  and  differences. 

Another  hypothesis  is  that  of  an  original  document  or  docu~ 
ments,  from  Avhich  all  three  are  supposed  to  have  drawn.     The 


4:11  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

assumption  of  a  single  original  written  gospel,  as  the  basis  of 
our  first  three  canonical  gospels,  is  manifestly  untenable.  Had 
a  primitive  gospel  existed  of  such  compass  and  authority  as  to 
be  the  common  source  of  our  three  synoptic  gospels,  it  is  incon- 
ceivable that  the  churches,  which  carefully  preserved  these 
three  gospels,  -though  two  of  them  proceeded  not  from  apostles 
themselves  but  onl}^  from  their  companions,  should  have  allowed 
the  original  gospel  so  speedily  and  utterly  to  perish,  that  no 
traces  of  it  remained  in  the  days  of  Ir  en  sens,  Tertullian,  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria.  Besides,  this  hypothesis,  as  it  was 
soon  seen,  does  not  explain  the  peculiar  relation  of  these  gos- 
pels to  each  other  in  respect  to  coincidences  and  differences. 
Hence  various  modifications  were  proposed — an  original  Ara- 
maic gospel  with  various  Greek  translations,  this  original  Ara- 
maic gospel  variously  increased  with  new  matter,  etc.  In  a 
word,  the  form  of  these  assumed  original  documents  was  hy- 
pothetically  explained  from  the  actual  form  of  our  three  synop- 
tic gospels  ;  the  very  reverse  of  the  true  problem,  which  was  to 
exjDlain,  from  some  reliable  data,  the  form  of  the  canonical  gos- 
pels themselves. 

The  remaining  hypothesis  is  that  of  oral  tradition  emanating 
from  the  apostles  themselves,  and  maintained  in  its  purity  dur- 
ing their  lives  hj  their  personal  presence  and  teaching.  That 
the  gospel  existed  in  this  form  alone  for  some  years  after  the 
beginning  of  Christianity  is  admitted  by  all.  The  apostles 
were  Christ's  chosen  witnesses  of  his  life  and  teachings.  From 
their  lips  proceeded  the  tradition  which  now  constitutes  our 
written  gospels.  The  necessity  of  embodying  this  tradition  in 
the  form  of  permanent  records  was  not  felt  at  the  beginning. 
But,  as  the  churches  were  multiplied,  oral  tradition  became  lia- 
ble to  corruption  in  many  ways  through  the  multiplicity  of  the 
organs  employed  in  its  transmission.  Then  the  need  of  written 
gospels  began  to  manifest  itself,  and  it  was  natural  that  the 
apostles  should  look  to  the  supply  of  this  need  either  by  their 
own  direct  agency,  or  by  that  of  men  writing  with  their  knowl- 
edge and  approbation.     How  many  years  elapsed  before  the 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  415 

appearance  of  tlie  earliest  of  our  canonical  gospels,  whicli  is 
commonly  supposed  to  have  been  that  of  Matthew,  we  have  no 
means  of  ascertaining  with  accuracy.  But  we  may  reasonably 
suppose  that  the  period  was  long  enough  to  allow  the  apostolic 
tradition  of  our  Lord's  life  and  teachings  to  assume  a  somewhat 
definite  shape  in  respect  to  both  matter  and  outward  form. 
First,  in  respect  to  matter.  As  their  public  instructions  could 
not  cover  the  whole  of  our  Saviour's  history  (John  20 :  30 ;  21 : 
25),  they  naturally  selected,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  those  parts  of  it  which  embodied  the  spirit  and  meaning 
of  the  whole.  Since,  moreover,  the  apostles  remained  together 
at  Jerusalem  for  some  time  after  our  Lord's  ascension  (Acts  8  : 
1  ;  15 :  6),  it  is  highly  reasonable  to  suppose  that  in  a  matter 
of  such  moment  they  had  a  mutual  understanding — an  under- 
standing which,  while  it  interfered  with  the  freedom  of  no  one, 
secured  a  general  agreement  as  to  the  points  in  our  Lord's  his- 
tory and  teachings  which  should  be  especially  insisted  on. 
Secondly  in  respect  to  outward  form.  While  the  apostles  were 
preserved  by  the  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  any  super- 
stitious regard  to  the  letter  of  our  Lord's  teachings,  their  rever- 
ence for  him  as  a  perfect  teacher,  whose  words  were  truth  un- 
mixed with  error,  must  have  made  them  anxious  to  put  the 
oral  tradition  of  his  sayings  into  as  perfect  a  form  as  possible ; 
whence  the  tradition  of  our  Saviour's  words  would  assume  from 
the  first  a  more  fixed  form  than  that  of  his  life  generally. 

It  is  supposed  by  many  that  the  writers  of  the  first  three 
gospels  drew  each  from  this  common  body  of  oral  tradition 
such  materials  as  suited  liis  general  plan  ;  no  one  of  them  pro- 
posing to  give  the  whole  of  our  Lord's  history,  or  even*  to  ob- 
serve a  strict  chronological  order  in  the  events  recorded  by  him, 
any  farther  than  such  order  was  rendered  necessary  by  their 
nature  and  essential  connection.  In  the  case  of  Matthew,  who 
was  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  it  might  be  thought  that  he 
wrote  simply  from  his  own  personal  knowledge ;  but  his  gospel 
could  not  cover  all  the  ground  of  our  Lord's  history  as  known 
to  him,  and  we  may  well  suppose  that  in  the  selection  of  his 


416  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

materials  he  had  regard — not  a  servile,  but  a  free  regard — to 
the  common  oral  tradition  of  the  apostles,  which  was,  in  fact, 
the  embodiment  of  their  united  wisdom  under  the  illumination 
of  the  Divine  Spirit.  Each  evangelist,  as  well  Mark  and  Luke 
who  were  not  apostles,  as  Matthew  who  belonged  to  the  number 
of  the  twelve,  wrote  independently  of  the  other  two.  The  later 
writers  may,  indeed,  have  been  acquainted  with  the  v/ritings  of 
the  earlier,  but  a  bare  inspection  of  the  three  gospels  shows  that 
there  was  no  labored  effort  on  the  part  of  one  evangelist  to  ad- 
just his  work  to  those  of  the  others.  Hence  arise  apparent  dis- 
crepancies, as  in  the  two  genealogies  of  our  Lord,  which  it  is 
sometimes  hard  to  explain.  But  these  very  difficulties  witness 
to  the  independent  truthfulness  of  the  writers.  Had  they  writ- 
ten in  concert,  or  borrowed  systematically  from  each  other,  such 
difficulties  would  not  have  existed. 

Although  apostolic  oral  tradition  is  thus  made  the  main 
source  whence  the  writers  of  these  gospels  drew  their  materials, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  affirm  or  deny  their  use,  in  a  subordinate 
way,  of  written  documents.  That  such  documents  existed  in 
the  time  of  Luke  we  know  from  his  own  words,  chap.  1 : 1. 
He  does  not  condemn  them,  but  neither  does  he  rely  upon  them. 
His  gospel  is  not  derived  from  them,  but  from  his  own  accurate 
investigations;  "It  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  accurately 
traced  out  all  things  from  the  beginning  "  (as  the  original  Greek 
means),"  to  write  to  thee  in  order,  most  excellent  Theophilus." 
Chap.  1 :  3.  And  if  Luke,  the  companion  of  Paul,  was  not 
dependent  for  his  materials  on  any  previously  existing  writings, 
neither  was  Mark,  the  companion  of  l5oth  Peter  and  Paul,  nor 
Matthew,  who  Avas  himself  an  apostle.  Nor  can  the  incorpora- 
tion of  such  writings  into  the  synoptic  gospels  be  shown  with 
any  degree  of  probabihty.  If  it  cannot  be  claimed  for  this 
hj^pothesis  of  a  primitive  apostolic  tradition,  as  the  source 
whence  the  writers  of  the  synoptic  gospels  drew  their  materials, 
that  it  explains  all  the  phenomena  of  their  mutual  relation  to 
each  other,  it  is,  nevertheless,  more  satisfactory  than  any  other 
that  has  been  proposed,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  near  aj^prox- 
imation  to  the  actual  facts  in  the  case. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  417 

Between  the  traditions  of  which  the  apostle  Paul  speaks  (2  Tliess.  2:15; 
3:6;  also,  according  to  the  original,  1  C^r.  11:2)  received  immediately 
from  his  mouth  or  pen,  and  the  pretended  traditions  of  later  days,  handed 
down  from  century  to  century  through  a  succession  of  uninspired  men,  the 
difference  is  that  between  light  and  darkness,  between  truth  and  fiction. 
We  have  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  the  genuine  apostohc 
tradition,  at  first  oral,  but  put  into  a  ^\T?itten  form  during  the  lifetime  of 
the  apostles.  These  traditions  are  the  "gold,  silver,  precious  stones  "of 
divine  truth.  AH  other  traditions  are  the  "wood,  hay,  stubble  "  of  human 
origin.  In  settling  the  question  respecting  the  genuineness  of  the  New 
Testament  writings,  we  proceed  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  writings.  "We 
avail  ourselves  of  all  the  evidence  within  our  reach,  external  and  internal. 
We  take  the  testimony  of  Irenseus  and  Tertullian,  and  also  of  Marcion  and 
Valentinus  ;  though  none  of  them  were  inspired,  and  the  two  latter  were 
heretical.  But  when  we  have  once  determined  what  books  were  written  by 
apostles  or  apostolic  men,  these  contain  for  us  the  only  autlioritative 
tradition,  as  defined  by  the  apostle :  ' '  Therefore,  brethren,  stand  fast,  and 
hold  the  traditions  which  ye  have  been  taught,  whether  by  word  or  our 
epistle."    2Thess.  2:15. 

8.  In  comparing  the  synoptic  gospels  with  each  other  and 
with  the  fourth  gospel,  we  must  ever  bear  in  mind  that  no  one 
of  them  professes  to  give  a  complete  history  of  our  Lord's  life, 
or  to  arrange  all  the  incidents  which  he  relates  in  the  exact 
order  of  time.  Under  the  guidance  of  the  divine  Spirit  each 
one  pursues  his  own  course,  independently  of  the  others,  here 
inserting  what  one  or  more  of  the  rest  have  omitted,  or  omit- 
ting what  one  or  more  of  them  have  inserted ;  and  here,  again, 
bringing  in  incidents  without  regard  to  their  exact  chronological 
order,  with  some  general  preface  like  the  following:  "at  that 
time,"  Matt.  12  : 1 ;  "  and  he  began  again,"  Mark  4:1;  "and  it 
came  to  pass  as  he  was  alone  praying,"  Luke  9  :  18  ;  "  and  it 
came  to  pass  as  they  went  in  the  way,"  Luke  9  :  57;  etc.  Thus 
the  wisdom  of  God  has  given  us,  not  all  the  particulars  of  our 
Lord's  history,  but  such  a  selection  from  both  the  incidents  of 
his  public  life  and  his  public  and  private  teachings  as  best 
embodies  the  great  facts  of  the  gospel,  and  the  doctrines  and 
duties  connected  with  them.  In  the  four  canonical  gospels  the 
church  has,  not  all  of  our  Lord's  history  and  teachings,  but  all 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  judged  needful  for  her  establishment  and 
edification  to  the  end  of  time. 


418  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Of  our  Lord's  history  before  liis  baptism  we  have  only  his  genealogy  in 
a  twofold  form  ;  some  notices  of  his  miraculous  conception  ;  an  account  o^ 
his  birth  and  circumcision,  with  the  visions  and  projphecies  connected  with 
them  ;  a  history  of  his  preservation  from  Herod's  attempt  to  destroy  him  > 
the  subsequent  residence  of  his  parents  in  Nazareth,  with  a  single  incident 
of  his  childhood.  Luke  2  :  40-52.  All  these  particulars  have,  in  one  way 
or  another,  a  bearing  on  his  divine  mission  and  work  as  the  Son  of  God- 
The  ajjocryphal  gospels  on  the  contrary,  as,  for  example,  the  Gospel  of  the 
Infancy,  and  the  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  abound  in  frivolous  stories  relating 
to  our  Lord's  infancy  and  later  life,  which  have  no  connection  with  the 
great  work  of  redemp)tion. 

9.  The  peculiarities  of  the  fourth  gospel,  as  well  as  its  rela- 
tion to  the  three  preceding  gospels,  will  come  up  for  considera- 
tion hereafter.  At  present  we  only  remark  that  John  wrote 
many  years  after  the  appearance  of  the  synoptic  gospels,  and 
that,  whatever  reference  he  may  have  had  to  them,  his  gospel 
constitutes,  in  the  plan  of  revelation,  a  true  complement  to  the 
other  three.  For  (1)  if  we  except  the  narrative  of  our  Lord's 
passion,  it  covers,  for  the  most,  part  ground  not  occupied  by 
them.  They  give  mainly  the  history  of  the  Saviour's  ministry 
in  Galilee  (Luke  also,  at  some  length,  that  of  his  last  journey 
to  Jerusalem);  the  scene  of  much  of  John's  gospel,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  Jerusalem  and  its  near  vicinity.  (2.)  John  unfolds 
more  fully  the  nature  of  our  Lord's  person,  and  his  peculiar 
relation  to  the  Father  and  to  his  church.  This  he  does,  more 
especially,  in  his  prologue  (chap.  1 : 1-18) ;  in  the  record  of  the 
Saviour's  discussions  with  the  Jews  (chaps.  3,  5-12) ;  and  in  that 
of  his  discourses  addressed  in  private  to  the  circle  of  the 
apostles,  chaps.  13-17.  Thus  John's  gospel  is  emphatically  that 
of  Christ's  ]person,  as  illustrated  by  his  works  and  words  ;  while 
the  three  earlier  evangelists  give  rather  the  gospel  of  his  louhlic 
ministry,  through  which  his  divine  person  everywhere  shines 
forth.  This  deeper  view  of  our  Lord's  person  and  office  which 
the  gospel  of  John  unfolds  met  the  wants  of  the  primitive 
church  in  a  more  advanced  stage,  when  false  teachers  were 
already  beginning  to  sow  the  seeds  of  those  errors  which,  in  the 
next   generation,  brought    forth  such   a   rank   and   poisonous 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  419 

harvest.  The  same  great  characteristics  adapt  it  to  the  wants 
of  the  church  in  all  ages.  Without  the  fourth  gospel  she 
could  not  be  completely  furnished  to  meet  the  assaults  of  error, 
which,  from  one  generation  to  another,  makes,  with  unerring 
instinct,  its  main  assault  upon  the  person  and  office  of  the  Son 
of  God. 

But  if  the  evangelical  narrative  would  not  be  complete 
without  the  fourth  gospel,  neither  would  it  be  perfect  for  the 
use  of  the  church  with  this  alone.  The  record  of  our  Lord's 
life  and  teachings  as  given  in  the  first  three  gospels  is  preemi- 
nently adapted  to  popular  instruction.  It  is  precisely  such  a 
record  as  the  preachers  of  the  gospel  need  in  their  public 
ministrations.  With  it  they  can  use  the  fourth  gospel  with 
effect;  but  without  it  they  would  want  the  natural  preparation 
for  and  introduction  to  those  deep  and  spiritual  views  of  Christ's 
person  and  office  which  the  bosom-disciple  unfolds.  It  is  not 
in  the  three  synoptic  gospels,  nor  in  the  gospel  of  John  taken 
separately,  that  we  find  the  complete  evangelical  armor,  but  in 
the  perfect  whole  of  the  four. 

10.  Very  numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  construct 
harmonies  of  the  four  gospels.  One  plan  is  to  form  out  of  the 
whole,  in  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  true  chronological  order, 
a  continuous  narrative  embracing  all  the  matter  of  the  four,  but 
without  repetitions  of  the  same  or  similar  words.  Another 
plan  is  to  exhibit  in  chronological  order,  the  entire  text  of  the 
four  gospels  arranged  in  parallel  columns,  so  far  as  two  or  more 
of  them  cover  the  same  ground.  The  idea  is  very  imposing, 
but  the  realization  of  it  is  beset  with  formidable  if  not  insur- 
mountable difficulties.  It  is  certain  that  the  evangelists  do  not 
always  follow  the  exact  order  of  time,  and  it  is  sometimes 
impossible  to  decide  between  the  different  arrangements  of 
events  in  their  records.  In  the  four  narratives  of  the  events 
connected  with  the  resurrection  all  harmonists  find  themselves 
baffled.  Had  we  a  full  account  of  all  the  particulars  of  that 
exciting  scene,  we  might  undoubtedly  assign  to  the  different 
parts  of   each  narrative  its    true    place  in   the  order  of  time. 


4^10  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

But  with  our  present  means  of  information  this  is  impossible. 
Experience  shows  that  the  most  profitable  way  of  studying 
the  evangelical  narrative  is  to  take  each  gospel  as  a  tuJiole,  but  with 
continual  reference  to  the  parallel  parts  of  the  other  gospels,  so 
far  as  they  can  be  ascertained.  In  this  work  a  good  harmony, 
Uke  that  of  Robinson,  may  render  essential  service,  though  its 
arrangements  must  in  many  cases  be  regarded  only  as  tentative 
— essays  at  obtaining  the  true  order,  rather  than  the  certain 
determination  of  it. 

The  relative  number  of  chapters  in  the  different  gospels  does  not  give 
their  true  relation  in  respect  to  size.  The  chapters  are  respectively  28,  16, 
24,  21;  which  are  to  each  other  in  the  proportion  of  7,  4,  6,  5  J.  But 
estimating  according  to  the  number  of  pages  (in  an  edition  without  breaks 
for  the  verses),  it  will  be  found  that  the  gospel  of  Luke  holds  the  first 
place,  its  size  being  to  that  of  the  other  gospels  nearly  as  60  to  57,  35,  46. 
The  relation  of  Matthew's  gospel  to  that  of  Mark,  in  respect  to  the  quantity 
of  matter  is  then  nearly  that  of  8  to  5. 

In  the  notices  of  the  separate  gospels  which  follow  it  is  not  thought 
necessary  to  give  an  elaborate  analysis  of  their  contents.  The  aim  will  be 
rather  to  exhibit  the  prominent  characteristics  of  each,  and  its  special  office 
in  the  economy  of  divine  revelation. 

II.     MATTHEW. 

11.  The  unanimous  testimony  of  the  ancient  church  is  that 
the  first  gospel  was  written  by  the  apostle  Matthew,  who  is  also 
called  Levi.  With  his  call  to  the  apostleship  he  may  have 
assumed  the  name  of  Matthew,  as  Saul  took  that  of  Paul.  He 
was  of  Hebrew  origin,  the  son  of  Alphseus,  and  a  tax-gatherer 
under  the  Bo  man  government,  Matt.  10 : 3 ;  Mark  2 :  14 ;  3  :  18 ; 
Luke  5:27,  29;  6:15;  Acts  1:13.  He  was  evidently  a  man  of 
some  means  (Luke  5  :29),  and  his  office  must  have  required  for 
its  proper  discharge  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  as  well  as  of  his 
native  Hebrew ;  that  is,  Aramaean,  as  the  word  Hebrew  means 
in  the  New  Testament,  when  applied  to  the  vernacular  of  the 
Palestine  Jews. 

12.  The  question  respecting  the  original  language,  of  Mat- 
thew's gospel  has  been,  since  the  time  of  Erasmus,  a  matter  of 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  42] 

controversy,  in  which  eminent  biblical  scholars  have  been 
found  on  different  sides.  The  problem  is  to  find  a  solution 
which  shall  bring  into  harmony  the  following  well-established 
facts :  (1)  that,  according  to  the  united  testimony  of  the  early 
church  fathers,  Matthew  originally  wrote  his  gospel  in  Hebrew  . 

(2)  that  our  present  Greek  gospel  has  all  the  freedom  of  an 
original  work,  that  it  has  remarkable  coincidences  in  language 
with  the  second  and  third  gospels,  and  especially  tliat  the 
citations  from  the  Old  Testament  which  stand  in  our  Lord's 
discourses  follow  as  a  rule  the  Greek  vei'sion  of  the  Seventy ; 

(3)  that  all  the  early  writers,  those  who  testify  to  the  Hebrew 
original  of  this  gospel  included,  receive  and  use  our  present 
Greek  gospel  as  the  genuine  and  authoritative  gospel  of 
Matthew ;  (4)  that  the  original  Hebrew  gospel,  to  the  existence 
of  which  there  is  such  abundant  testimony,  was  allowed  utterly 
to  perish,  while  the  Greek  form  of  it  alone  was  preserved  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  canonical  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

13.  The  testimony  from  Papias,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century,  and  onward  to  the  fourth  century,  has  often 
been  quoted  and  discussed.  It  is  not  necessary  to  adduce  it 
here  at  length.  It  may  be  found  in  Kirchhofer,  in  the  critical 
commentaries  and  introductions,  and  also  in  the  modern  Bible 
dictionaries.  The  words  of  Papias,  as  preserved  to  us  by 
Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  3.  39)  are  as  follows:  "Matthew 
therefore  wrote  the  oracles  in  the  Hebrew  dialect,  and  every 
one  interpreted  them  as  he  was  able."  If  there  were  any 
ground  for  doubting  what  Papias  meant  by "  the  oracles,"  it 
would  be  removed  by  the  testimony  of  the  later  writers,  as 
Pantsenus  and  Origen  (in  Eusebius'  Hist.  EccL,  5.  10;  6.  25), 
Irenseus  (Against  Heresies,  3.  1),  Eusebius  himself  (Hist.  EccL, 
3.  24),  Epiphanius  (Heresies,  29.  9;  30.  3),  and  others.  They 
who  maintain  that  Matthew  wrote  originally  in  Greek  suppose 
that  the  early  fathers  confounded  an  apocrj^plial  gospel,  the 
so-called  "  gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,"  with  the  true 
gospel  of  Matthew.     Others  think,  perhaps  with  more  reason, 


422  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

that  tlie  gospel  accordiDg  to  the  Hebrews  was  a  corrupted  form, 
or,  what  amounts  to  nearly  the  same  thing,  a  close  imitation  of 
the  true  Hebrew  gospel  of  Matthew. 

Tlie  Ebionites  and  Nazarenes  used  each  apparently  a  different  form  of 
a  Hebrew  gospel  which  is  sometimes  called  the  gospel  according  to  Mat- 
thew, but  more  properly  "the  gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews"  (once  by 
Jerome  "the  gospel  according  to  the  apostles  " }.  According  to  Epiphanius 
that  in  use  among  the  Ebionites  was  "not  entire  and  full,  but  corrupted 
and  abridged. "  Heresies,  30.  13.  Jerome  says  :  "  Matthew,  who  is  called 
Levi,  having  become  from  a  publican  an  aj)ostle,  first  composed  in  Judea, 
for  the  sake  of  those  who  had  believed  from  among  the  circumcision,  a 
gospel  of  Christ  in  Hebrew  letters  and  words.  Who  was  the  person  that 
afterwards  translated  it  into  Greek  is  not  certainly  known.  Moreover,  the 
Hebrew  copy  itself  is  at  this  day  preserved  in  the  library  of  Csesarea  which 
Pampilus  the  Martyr  collected  Avith  much  diligence.  The  Nazarenes,  who 
live  in  Bercea,  a  city  of  Syria,  and  use  this  volume,  gave  me  the  opportu- 
nity of  writing  it  out."  De  Vir.  Illustr.,  3.  Here  he  certainly  identifies 
this  gospel,  which,  as  he  repeatedly  informs  us,  he  translated,  with  the 
true  Hebrew  gospel  of  Matthew.  But  he  afterwards  speaks  of  it  more 
doubtfully,  as  "  the  gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,"  and  more  fully  a& 
"the  gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,  which  is  written  indeed  in  the 
Chaldee  and  Syriac  language,  but  in  Hebrew  letters,  which  the  Nazarenes 
use  to  the  present  day,  [being  the  gospel]  according  to  the  apostles,  or,  as 
most  think,  according  to  Matthew"  (xigainst  the  Pelagians,  3);  "the 
gosi3el  which  the  Nazarenes  and  Ebionites  use,  which  we  have  lately 
translated  from  the  Hebrew  language  into  the  Greek,  and  which  is  called 
by  most  the  authentic  gospel  of  Matthew."  Comment,  in  Matt.  12:13. 
The  most  probable  suj)position  is  that  Jerome,  knowing  that  Matthew 
originally  wrote  his  gospel  in  Hebrew,  hastily  assumed  at  first  that  the 
copy  which  he  obtained  from  the  Nazarenes  was  this  very  gospel.  The 
character  of  the  quotations  which  he  and  Epiphanius  give  from  it  forbids 
the  supposition  that  it  was  the  true  Hebrew  gospel  of  IMatthew.  It  may 
liave  been  a  corrupted  form  of  it,  or  an  imitation  of  it. 

14.  Of  those  who,  in  accordance  with  ancient  testimony, 
believe  that  the  original  language  of  Matthew's  gospel  was 
Hebrew,  some  assume  that  the  apostle  himself  afterwards  gave 
a  Greek  version  of  it.  In  itself  considered  this  hypothesis  is 
not  improbable.  Matthew,  writing  primarily  for  his  countrymen 
in  Palestine,  might  naturally  employ  the  language  which  was  to 
them    vernacular.      But    afterwards,   when    Christianity    had 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  423 

begun  to  spread  thrcugli  the  Koman  empire,  and  it  became 
evident  that  the  Greek  hmguage  was  the  proper  medium  for 
believers  at  large ;  and  when  also,  as  is  not  improbable,  some 
of  the  existing  canonical  books  of  the  New  Testament  had 
appeared  in  that  language,  we  might  well  suppose  that,  in  view 
of  these  circumstances,  the  apostle  himself  put  his  gospel  into 
the  present  Greek  form.  But  it  is  certainly  surprising  that,  in 
this  case,  no  one  of  the  ancient  fathers  should  have  had  any 
knowledge  of  the  matter.  In  view  of  their  ignorance  it  seems 
to  be  the  part  of  modesty  as  well  as  prudence  that  we  also 
should  say  with  Jerome  :  "  Who  was  the  person  that  afterwards 
translated  it  into  Greek  is  not  known  with  certainty."  The 
universal  and  unhesitating  reception  of  this  gospel  by  the  early 
Christians  in  its  present  Greek  form  can  be  explained  only 
upon  the  supposition  that  it  came  to  them  with  apostolic 
authority ;  that  it  received  this  form  at  the  hand,  if  not  of 
Matthew  himself,  yet  of  an  apostle  or  an  apostolic  man,  that  is, 
a  man  standing  to  the  apostles  in.  the  same  relation  as  Mark 
and  Luke. 

This  supposition  wiU  explain  the  freedom  of  Matthew's  gospel  and  its 
coincidences  in  language  with  the  gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke.  An  apostle 
or  apostolic  man  would  give  a  faithful,  but  not  a  servile  version  of  the 
original.  The  oral  tradition  of  our  Lord's  life  and  teachings  from  which 
the  first  three  evangehsts  drew,  as  from  a  common  fountain  (see  above, 
No.  7),  must  have  existed  in  Palestine  in  a  twofold  form,  Aramsean  and 
Greek.  The  translator  would  naturallj  avail  himself  of  the  Greek  phrase- 
ology, so  far  as  the  oral  tradition  coincided  with  that  embodied  in  Matthew's 
gospel.  Those  who  have  carefully  examined  the  subject  affirm  that  the 
citations  from  the  Old  Testament  adduced  by  Matthew  himself  in  proof  of 
our  Lord's  Messiahship  are  original  renderings,  with  more  or  less  Hteralness, 
from  the  Hebrew.  The  citations,  on  the  contrary,  embodied  in  the 
discourses  of  our  Loru.  mmscii  loilow,  as  a  rule,  the  Greek  version  of  the 
Seventy  ;  probably  because  the  translatpr  took  these  citations  as  they  stood 
in  the  oral  tradition  of  these  discourses. 

Meanwhile  the  original  Hebrew  form  of  the  gospel,  being 
superseded  by  the  Greek  in  all  the  congregations  of  believers 
except  those  that  used  exclusively  the  vernacular  language  of 


^24:  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Palestine,  gradually  fell  into  disuse.  The  "gospel  according  to 
the  Hebrews,"  noticed  above,  may  have  been  a  corrupted  form 
of  this  gospel  or  an  imitation  of  it.  As  Marcion  chose  the 
Greek  gospel  of  Luke  for  the  basis  of  his  revision,  so  the 
Ebionites  and  Nazarenes  would  naturally  use  the  Hebrew 
gospel  of  Matthew  for  their  purposes. 

15.  The  gospel  of  Matthew  opens  with  the  words:  "The 
book  of  the  generation  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  son  of  David,  the 
son  of  Abraham."  In  accordance  with  this  announcement,  it 
traces  back  our  Lord's  lineage  through  David  to  Abraham, 
giving,  after  the  manner  of  the  Jews,  an  artificial  arrangement 
of  the  generations  from  Abraham  to  Christ  in  three  sets  of 
fourteen  each,  chap.  1:17.  To  effect  this,  certain  kings  of 
David's  line  are  omitted  —  between  Joram  and  Ozias  (the 
Uzziah  of  the  Hebrew\s),  Ahaziah,  Joash,  and  Amaziah ; 
between  Josias  and  Jechonias,  Eliakim — and  David  is  reckoned 
twice ;  once  as  the  last  of  a  set  of  fourteen,  then  as  the  first  of 
the  following  fourteen.  The  thoroughly  Jewish  form  of  this 
introduction  indicates  the  primary  design  of  Matthew's  gospel, 
which  was  to  exhibit  to  his  countrymen  Jesus  of  Nazareth  as 
their  long  ijromised  Messiah  and  Mng.  To  this  he  has  constant 
reference  in  the  facts  which  he  relates,  and  which  he  connects 
with  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  by  such  forms  of 
quotation  as  the  following:  "that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which 
was  spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet,"  chaps.  1:22;  2:15, 
23 ;  13  :  35 ;  21 :4 ;  27 :  35 ;  "  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was 
spoken  by  Esaias  the  prophet,"  chaps.  4 :  14 ;  8  :  17  ;  12  :  17  i 
"  then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremy  the 
prophet,"  chap.  2:17;  etc.  His  direct  references  to  the  Old 
Testament  in  proof  of  our  Lord's  Messiahship  are  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of  either  of  the  other  evangelists.  Peculiar  to 
him  is  the  expression  "the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  to  signif}^,  in 
accordance  with  Rabbinic  usage,  the  kingdom  which  the 
Messiah  was  to  establish  in  accordance  with  the  prophecies'  of 
the  Old  Testament;  though  he  takes  a  spiritual  view  of  its 
character,  and  not  the  earthly  and  political  view  of  the  Jewish 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  425 

doctors.  Another  designation  of  the  same  idea,  common  to 
him  with  the  other  evangeHsts,  is  "  the  kingdom  of  God," 
which  also  was  current  among  the  Rabbins.  This  "  kingdom 
of  heaven  "  and  "  kingdom  of  God  "  is  also  the  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah.     Chaps.  13  *:  41 ;  20  :  21. 

16.  But  precisely  because  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  promised 
Messiah,  his  mission  is  not  to  the  Jews  only,  but  to  all  mankind, 
in  accordance  with  the  original  promise  to  Abraham:  "In  thy 
seed  shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be  blessed."  Gen.  22  :  18. 
While  he  records  the  fact  that  our  Lord's  personal  ministry 
was  restricted  to  the  Jews  (chaps.  10 : 5,  6  ;  15 :  24),  he  also 
shows  from  our  Lord's  own  words  that  the  unbelieving 
"  children  of  the  kingdom  " — the  Jews  as  the  natural  heirs  to 
the  Messiah's  kingdom — shall  be  cast  out,  and  the  believing 
Gentiles  received  into  it  (chaps.  8  :  11,  12 ;  21 :  43) ;  and  he  brings 
his  gospel  to  a  close  with  the  great  commission :  "  Go  ye, 
therefore,  and  teach  all  nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of 
the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  teaching 
them  to  observe  all  things  whatsoever  I  have  commanded  j^ou, 
and  lo,  I  am  with  you  alway,  even  unto  the  end  of  the  world." 
Chap.  28:19,  20. 

17.  A  striking  characteristic  of  this  gospel  is  the  fulness 
and  orderly  manner  with  which  it  records  our  Lord's  discourses. 
Striking  examples  of  this  are  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (chaps. 
5-7),  his  awful  denunciation  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  (chap. 
23),  and  the  majestic  series  of  parables  (chap.  25).  Doubtless, 
Matthew  had  by  nature  a  peculiar  endowment  for  this  work, 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  used  to  preserve  for  the  church  much  of 
our  Lord's  teachings  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost. 
The  narrative  part  of  this  gospel,  on  the  other  hand,  has  not 
the  circumstantial  fulness  of  the  following  gospel.  As  already 
remarked,  the  field  covered  by  Matthew's  narrative  is  mainly 
that  of  our  Lord's  Galilean  ministry,  with  the  great  events 
connected  with  his  final  visit  to  Jerusalem,  though  he  gives 
indications  of  repeated  visits  to  that  city.     Chap.  23 :  37-39. 

18.  It  has  been  assumed  by  some  that  Matthew  follows,  as  a 


42G  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

general  rule,  the  order  of  time.  But  others  deny  this,  thinking 
that  his  arrangement  is  according  to  subject-matter  rather  than 
chronological  sequence,  especially  in  the  first  part  (Alexander's 
Kitto) ;  and  this  appears  to  be  the  correct  judgment.  He 
follows  the  exact  order  of  time  only  when  the  nature  of  the 
events  recorded  requires  him  to  do  so. 

19.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  Matthew  wrote  his  gospel 
in  Palestine.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  absence  of  explanatory 
clauses  relating  to  Jewish  usages,  such  as  are  not  unfrequent 
in  the  gospel  of  Mark.  As  to  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew 
words,  as  "  Immanuel "  (chap.  1 :  23) ;  and  the  words  on  the 
cross  (chap.  27:46),  that  belongs  to  the  Greek  form  of  the 
gospel.  The  date  of  this  gospel  is  doubtful.  According  to  the 
tradition  of  the  ancient  church  it  was  written  first  of  the  four 
gospels.  Assuming  that  it  originally  appeared  in  Hebrew,  we 
may  reasonably  suppose  that  a  period  of  some  years  elapsed 
before  it  was  put  into  its  present  Greek  form. 

20.  The  integrity  of  this  gospel  is  unquestionable.  In 
modern  times  the  genuineness  of  the  first  two  chapters  has 
been  called  in  question  by  various  writers,  but  the  insufficiency 
of  their  arguments  has  been  shown  by  many,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  Davidson,  Introduction  to  New  Testament, 
vol.  1,  pp.  111-127.  In  the  words  of  this  writer  the  chapters  in 
question  are  found  "  in  all  unmutilated  Greek  MSS.,  and  in  all 
ancient  versions;"  "the  earliest  fathers  had  them  in  their 
copies,  and  received  them  as  a  part  of  the  gospel;"  "the 
ancient  heretics  and  opponents  of  Christianitj^  were  act[uainted 
with  this  portion  of  the  first  gospel;"  "the  commencement  of 
the  first  chapter  is  closely  connected  with  something  prece- 
ding;" and  "the  diction  of  these  two  chapters  bears  the  samo 
impress  and  character  which  belong  to  the  remainder  of  the 
gospel,  proving  that  the  gospel,  as  we  now  have  it,  proceeded 
from  one  author." 

III.     MARK. 

21.  There  is  no  valid  ground  for  doubting  the  correctness  of 
the  ancient  tradition  which  identifies  the  author  of  the  second 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  427 

gospel  with  "  John  whose  surname  was  Mark  "  (Acts  12  :  12,  25 ; 
15  :  37),  who  is  called  simply  John  (Acts  13  : 5, 13),  and  Marcus 
or  Mark  (Acts  15:39;  Col.  4:10;  2  Tim.  4:11;  perhaps  also 
1  Peter  5 :  13).  He  was  cousin  to  Barnabas  (Col.  4 :  10,  not  sister's 
son,  as  in  our  version),  which  relationship  may  explain  Barnabas' 
earnest  defence  of  him  (Acts  15 :  37-39).  His  mother  Mary  resided 
in  Jerusalem,  and  it  was  to  her  house  that  Peter  resorted  immedi- 
ately upon  his  miraculous  deliverance  from  prison  (Acts  12  :  12). 
The  intimacy  of  Peter  with  Mary's  family  must  have  brought 
about  an  early  acquaintance  between  the  apostle  and  Mark. 
Ancient  tradition  uniformly  affirms  a  close  relation  between 
Peter  and  Mark,  representing  the  latter  to  have  been  the 
disciple  and  interpreter  of  the  former.     See  below. 

Papias  (in  Eiisebius'  Hist.  Eccl.  3.  39)  says,  upon  the  authority  of  John 
the  Presbyter,  "Mark  being  Peter's  interpreter,  wrote  down  accurately  as 
many  things  as  lie  remembered  ;  not,  indeed,  as  giving  in  order  the  things 
which  were  spoken  or  done  by  Christ.  For  he  was  neither  a  hearer  nor  a 
follower  of  the  Lord,  but,  as  I  said,  of  Peter,  who  gave  his  instructions  as 
occasion  required,  but  not  as  one  who  was  composing  an  orderly  account 
of  our  Lord's  words.  Mark,  therefore,  committed  no  error  when  he  thus 
wrote  down  certain  things  as  he  remembered  them.  For  he  was  careful  of 
one  thing,  to  omit  nothing  of  the  things  which  he  heard  and  to  make  no  false 
statements  concerning  them."  These  words  of  Pai)ias  are  somewhat  loose 
and  indefinite.  But,  when  fairly  interxDreted,  they  seem  to  mean  that  as 
Peter  taught  according  to  the  necessities  of  each  occasion,  not  aiming  to 
give  a  full  history  of  our  Lord  in  chronological  order,  so  Mark  wrote  not 
all  things  pertaining  to  our  Lord's  life  and  ministry,  but  certain  things, 
those  namely  that  he  had  learned  from  Peter's  discourses,  without  always 
observing  the  strict  order  of  time.  We  need  not  press  the  words  "in 
order"  and  "  certain  things,  "  as  if  Papias  meant  to  say  that  Mark's  gospel 
is  only  a  loose  collection  of  fragments.  It  is  a  connected  and  self-consist- 
ent whole  ;  but  it  does  not  profess  to  give  in  all  cases  the  exact  chronologi- 
cal order  of  events,  nor  to  be  an  exha,ustive  account  of  our  Saviour's  life 
and  teachings.  Eusebius  has  preserved  for  us  in  his  Ecclesiastical  History 
the  testimony  of  Irenseus  on  the  same  point  (Hist.  Eccl.,  5.  8)  ;  also  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (Hist.  Eccl.,  6.  14);  and  of  Origen  (Hist.  Eccl.,  6.  25). 
He  also  gives  his  own  (Hist.  Eccl.,  2.  5).  We  have  besides  these,  the 
statements  of  TertuUian  (Against  Marcion,  6.  25);  and  Jerome  (Epist.  ad 
Hedib.  Qusest.,  2),  All  these  witnesses,  though  not  consistent  among 
themselves  in  respect  to  several  minor  details,  yet  agree  in  respect  to  the 


428  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

two  great  facts,  (1)  that  Mark  was  the  comi^auion  of  Peter  and  had  a 
special  relation  to  him,  (2)  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  gospel  which  bears 
his  name.  We  add  from  Meyer  (Introduction  to  Commentary  on  Mark) 
the  following  exposition  of  the  word  interpreter  as  applied  to  Mark  in  his 
relation  to  Peter  :  "  No  valid  ground  of  doubt  can  be  alleged  against  it, 
provided  only  we  do  not  understand  the  idea  contained  in  the  word 
Interpreter  to  mean  that  Peter,  not  having  sufficient  mastery  of  the  Greek, 
delivered  his  discourses  in  Aramsean,  and  had  them  interpreted  by  Mark 
into  Greek  ;  but  rather  that  the  office  of  a  secretary!^  indicated,  who  wrote 
down  the  oral  communications  of  his  apostle  (whether  from  dictation,  or  in 
the  freer  exercise  of  his  own  activity)  and  so  became  in  the  ivay  of  'writing 
his  interx)reter  to  others." 

Mark's  connection  with  the  apostle  Paul,  though  interrupted 
by  the  incident  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (15:37-39), 
was  afterwards  renewed  and  he  restored  to  the  apostle's 
confidence,  as  is  manifest  from  the  way  in  which  he  notices 
him.  CoL4:10;  2  Tim.  4: 11.  If,  as  is  probable  (see  below, 
No.  22),  Mark  wrote  between  A.  D.  60  and  70,  his  long  intimacy 
with  Peter  and  Paul  qualified  him  in  a  special  manner  for  his 
work. 

22.  Ancient  tradition  favors  the  idea  that  Mark  wrote  his 
gospel  in  Rome.  Had  he  written  in  Egypt,  as  Chrysostom 
thinks,  we  can  hardly  suppose  that  Clement  of  Alexandria 
would  have  been  ignorant  of  the  fact,  as  his  testimony  shows 
that  he  was.  In  respect  to  date,  the  accounts  of  the  ancients 
differ  so  much  among  themselves  that  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at 
any  definite  conclusion.  We  may  probably  place  it  between 
A.  D.  64  and  70.  The  language  in  which  Mark  wrote  was  Greek. 
This  is  attested  by  the  united  voice  of  antiquity.  The  sub- 
scriptions annexed  to  some  manuscripts  of  the  Old  Sj^riac,  and 
that  in  the  Philoxenian  Sj^riac  version,  to  the  eflect  that  Mark 
wrote  in  Roman,  that  is,  in  Latin,  are  of  no  authority.  They 
are  the  conjectures  of  ignorant  men,  who  inferred  from  the  fact 
that  Mark  wrote  in  Eome  that  he  must  have  used  the  Latin 
tongue. 

The  story  of  the  pretended  Latin  autograph  of  Mark's  gospel  preserved 
in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark  at  A^enice  is  now  exploded.  The  manuscript 
to  which  this  high  honor  was  assigned  is  part  of  the  Codex  ForojuUensis, 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  429 

whicli  gives  tlie  text  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The  text  was  edited  by 
Blanchini  in  the  appendix  to  his  EvangeUarium  Quadruplex,  Fourfold 
Gospel.  The  gospel  of  Mark  ha^dng  been  cut  out  and  removed  to  Venice* 
was  exalted  to  be  the  autograph  of  Mark.  See  Tregelles  in  Home,  vol.  4, 
chap,  23.  The  fact  that  Mark  wrote  out  of  Palestine  and  for  Gentile 
readers  at  once  accounts  for  the  numerous  explanatory  clauses  by  whicli 
liis  gospel  is  distinguished  from  that  of  Matthew.  Examples  are  :  chaps. 
7:3,  4 ;  12:42  ;  13:3  ;  14  :12  ;  15:42  ;  and  the  frequent  interpretations  of 
Aramsean  words:  3:17;  5:41;  7:11,  34;  10:46;  14:36;  15:34. 

23.  The  opening  words  of  Matthew's  gospel  are:  "The  book 
of  the  generation  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  son  of  David,  the  son  of 
Abraham,"  by  which,  as  akeady  remarked,  he  indicates  liis 
purpose  to  show  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  long  promised 
Messiah  of  David's  line,  and  the  seed  of  Abraham,  in  whom  all 
nations  are  to  be  blessed.  Mark,  on  the  contrary,  passing  by 
our  Lord's  genealogy,  commences  thus  :  "  The  beginning  of  the 
gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God."  He  recognizes  him, 
indeed  as  the  son  of  David,  and  the  promised  Messiah  and  king 
of  Israel.  Chaps.  10 :  47, 48 ;  11 :  10 ;  15  :  32.  But,  writing  among 
Gentiles  and  for  Gentiles,  the  great  fact  which  he  is  intent  on 
setting  forth  is  the  person  and  character  of  Jesus  as  the  Son  of 
God.  Matthew  gives  special  attention  to  the  Saviour's  dis- 
courses. "With  these  considerably  more  than  a  third  of  his 
gospel  is  occupied.  Mark,  on  the  contrary,  devotes  himself 
mainly  to  the  narrative  of  our  Lord's  works.  With  this  is 
interwoven  a  multitude  of  his  sayings ;  since  it  was  the 
Saviour's  custom  to  teach  in  connection  with  surrounding 
incidents.  But  if  we  compare  the  set  discourses  of  our  Lord 
recorded  by  Mark  with  those  which  Matthew  gives,  they  will 
hardly  amount  to  a  fifth  part  in  quantity.  Between  the  narra- 
tive parts  of  Matthew  and  Mark,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  not  a 
very  great  disparity  in  respect  to  the  space  occupied  by  each. 

24.  Though  Mark  has  but  little  matter  that  is  absolutely 
new,  he  yet  handles  his  materials  in  an  original  and  independent 
way,  weaving  into  the  narratives  which  he  gives  in  common  with 
one  or  more  of  the  other  evangelists  numerous  little  incidents 
in  the,  most  natural  and  artless  way.     His  characteristics  as  a 


430  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

historian  are  graphic  vividness  of  description  and  circumstantiality 
of  detail.  If  we  except  some  striking  passages  of  John's  gospel, 
he  brings  us  nearer  to  our  Lord's  person  and  the  scenes 
described  than  either  of  the  other  evangehsts.  He  brings 
before  us,  as  in  a  picture,  not  only  our  Lord's  w6rds  and  works, 
but  his  very  looks  and  gestures.  It  is  he  that  records  as  has 
been  often  noticed,  how  the  Saviour  "looked  round  about" him 
with  anger  on  the  unbelieving  multitudes  and  on  Peter  (chap. 
3:5;  8:33);  with  complacency  on  his  disciples  (chap.  3:34; 
10 :  27);  and  with  the  piercing  look  of  inquiry  (chap.  5  :  32);  how 
he  looked  up  to  heaven  and  sighed  when  he  healed  one  who 
was  deaf  and  dumb  (chap.  7:34);  and  how  he  sighed  deeply  in 
spirit  at  the  perverseness  of  the  Pharisees  (chap.  8:12).  He 
sometimes  gives  us  the  very  words  of  the  Saviour  when  he 
performed  his  mighty  works — Talitha  cumi  (5:41),  Ephplia- 
iha  (7 :  34).  His  narratives  are  remarkable  for  bringing  in 
little  incidents  which  can  have  come  from  none  but  an  eye- 
witness, but  which  add  wonderfully  to  the  naturalness  as  well 
as  the  vividness  of  his  descrij^tions.  When  the  storm  arises  he 
is  asleep  on  a  j3i7?o?i;  (chap.  4  :38);  Jairus'  daughter  arises  and 
walks,  /or  she  ivas  of  the  age  of  ticelve  years  (chap.  5:42);  the 
multitudes  that  are  to  be  fed  sit  down  in  ranks  by  hundreds  and 
by  fifties  (chap.  6:40),  etc.  As  examples  of  vivid  description 
may  be  named  the  account  of  the  demoniac  (chap.  5  :2-20),  and 
the  lunatic.  Chap.  9 :  14-27.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume 
that  Mark  was  himself  a  disciple  of  our  Lord.  If,  as  ancient 
tradition  asserts,  he  was  the  disciple  and  interpreter  of  Peter 
he  could  receive  from  his  lips  those  circumstantial  details  with 
which  his  narrative  abounds. 

25.  The  closing  passage  of  this  gospel,  chap.  16 : 9-20,  is 
wanting  in  a  number  of  important  manuscripts,  among  which 
are  the  Vatican  and  Sinai  tic.  The  same  was  the  case  also  in 
the  days  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome.  But  it  was  known  to 
Irengeus,  and  quoted  by  him  and  many  others  after  him.  The 
reader  must  be  referred  to  the  critical  commentaries  and 
introductions  for  the  discussion  of  the  difficult  questions  con- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  rSl 

cerning  it.  Tregelles,  who,  in  his  account  of  the  printed  text 
has  given  a  full  statement  of  the  case,  thus  expresses  his 
judgment  (in  Home,  vol.  4,  p.  436):  "It  is  perfectly  certain 
that  from  the  second  century  and  onward,  these  verses  have 
been  known  as  part  of  tins  gospel  (whoever  was  their  author).'' 
He  thinks  that  "  the  hook  of  Mark  himself  extends  no  farther 
than  *  for  they  were  afraid,'  chap.  16  : 8;  but  that  the  remaining 
twelve  verses,  by  whomsoever  written,  have  a  full  claim  to  be 
received  as  an  authentic  part  of  the  second  gospel,  and  that 
the  full  reception  of  early  testimony  on  this  question  does 
not  in  the  least  involve  their  rejection  as  not  being  a  part  of 
canonical  Scripture." 

ly.     LUKE. 

26.  The  unanimous  voice  of  antiquity  ascribes  the  third 
gospel  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  Luke.  He  first  appears 
as  the  travelling  companion  of  Paul  when  he  leaves  Troas  for 
Macedonia  (Acts  16:10);  for  the  use  of  the  first  person  plural 
— '•  we  endeavored,"  "  the  Lord  had  called  us,"  "  we  came," 
etc.— which  occurs  from  that  point  of  Paul's  history  and 
onward,  with  certain  interruptions,  through  the  remainder  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  admits  of  no  other  natural  and 
reasonable  explanation.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
he  is  identical  with  "  Luke,  the  beloved  physician,"  who  wag 
with  Paul  when  a  prisoner  at  Rome.  Col.  4 :  14 ;  Philemon  24; 
2  Tim.  4:11.  Prom  the  first  of  these  passages  it  has  been 
inferred  that  he  was  not  a  Jew  by  birth,  since  he  is  apparently 
distinguished  from  those  "  who  are  of  the  circumcision,"  v.  11.. 

Tradition  represents  him  to  have  been  by  birth  a  Syrian  of  Antiocil 
(Eusebias,  Hist.  Eccl.,  3.  4;  Jerome,  Preface  to  Matt.,  and  elsewhere), 
and  a  Jewish  proselyte  (Jerome,  Quest,  on  Gen.,  chap.  46);  and  it  adds 
various  other  legends  which  are  not  worth  repeating, 

27.  The  evangelist  himself,  in  his  dedicatory  address  to 
Theophilas  (chap.  1 : 1-4),  gives  us  clear  and  definite  informa- 
tion respecting  the  sources  of  his  gospel.  He  does  not  profess  to 
have  been  himself  an  eye-witness,  but  has  drawn  his  informa- 
tion from  those  "  who  from  the  beginning  were  eye- witnesses 


432  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

and  ministers  of  the  word."  His  investigations  have  been 
accurate  and  thorough :  "  having  accurately  traced  out  all 
things  from  the  beginning"  (as  the  original  words  mean),  he 
writes  to  Theophilus  "  in  order ; "  that  is,  in  an  orderly  and 
connected  way.  He  proposes  to  give  not  some  loose  fragments, 
but  a  connected  narrative;  although,  as  we  have  seen  above 
(No.  10),  his  order  is  not  always  that  of  strict  chronological 
sequence.  From  the  long  and  intimate  connection  of  Luke 
with  Paul  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  latter  must  have 
exerted  an  influence  on  the  composition  of  this  gospel.  Luke, 
however,  did  not  draw  the  materials  of  his  narrative  from  Paul 
(at  least  not  principally),  but,  as  he  expressly  states,  from 
those  "  who  from  the  beginning  were  eye-witnesses  and 
ministers  of  the  word."  He  did  not  write  from  Paul's  dictation, 
but  in  a  free  and  independent  way ;  though  there  is  no 
reasonable  ground  for  doubting  that  it  was  with  Paul's 
knowledge  and  approbation. 

The  "eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of  the  word"  are  those  who  (1)  Avere 
from  the  beginning  eye-witnesses  of  onr  Lord's  public  ministry  ;  (2)  were 
intrusted  with  the  work  of  preaching  the  word ;  that  is,  the  apostles  and 
such  of  their  associates  as  had  companied  with  them  aU  the  time  that  the 
Lord  Jesus  went  in  and  out  among  them.  Acts  1 :  21.  The  Avords  of  Luke 
must  not  be  strained  ;  for  he  records  some  incidents  of  our  Lord's  history 
be/ore  his  public  apx)earance  which  could  have  been  learned  only  from 
Mary  and  her  circle. 

The  remarkable  agreement  between  Luke's  account  of  the  institution 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  (Luke  22:9,  20),  and  Paul's  (1  Cor.  11:23-25)  has 
often  been  noticed.  It  is  most  naturally  explained  by  the  supposition  that 
Luke  recorded  the  transaction  in  the  form  in  which  he  had  often  heard  it 
from  the  lips  of  Paul.  But  there  is  nothing  in  the  character  of  this  gospel 
which  can  warrant  the  supposition  that  the  apostle  exercised  a  formal 
supervision  over  its  comiDosition.  Such  a  procedure  would  be  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  the  apostolic  age.  The  apostle  himself  wrote  by  an  amanuen- 
sis. But  when  one  of  his  associates  in  the  ministry  wrote,  in  whom  he  had 
full  confidence,  he  left  him  to  the  free  exercise  of  his  judgment  under  the 
illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

28.  Li  respect  to  the  date  of  this  gospel,  if  we  assume  that 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  written  at  Rome  about  A.  D.  63- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  433 

65  (Cliap.  5,  No.  5),  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  gospel, 
which  is  dedicated  to  the  same  personage,  was  composed  not 
very  long  before,  perhaps  even  during  the  two  years  of  Paul's  im- 
prisonment at  Eome,  in  which  case  Rome  would  also  be  the  place 
of  its  composition.  Whether  Luke  wrote  before  or  after  Mark 
is  a  question  that  has  been  differently  answered,  and  cannot  be 
determined  with  certainty.  The  proof  that  all  three  of  the  first 
evangelists  wrote  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  has  been 
already  given.     Chap.  3,  No.  14. 

29.  Though  Luke  dedicates  his  gospel  to  Theophilus  (chap. 
1:1-4),  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  it  was  written  for  his  use 
alone.  He  had  a  more  general  end  in  view,  and  that  is  indicated 
by  the  form  of  our  Lord's  genealogy  as  given  by  him.  "While 
Matthew  traces  the  Saviour's  lineage  through  David  to 
Abraham,  in  conformity  witli  his  design  to  show  that  he  is  the 
promised  seed  of  Abraham  and  king  of  Israel,  Luke  traces  it 
back  through  David  and  Abraham  to  Adam  "  the  son  of  God." 
He  identifies  Jesus  of  Nazareth  not  with  the  Messiah  alone  of 
Abraham's  and  David's  line,  but  with  man  as  man.  He  is  tho 
second  Adam,  and  as  such  the  Saviour  of  the  race.  This 
universal  aspect  of  the  gospel,  as  a  gospel  not  for  one  nation 
but  for  all  mankind,  shines  forth  indeed  in  all  the  gospels,  but 
it  appears  with  wonderful  sweetness  and  power  in  some  of  the 
parables  which  are  peculiar  to  Luke,  as  those  of  the  good 
Samaritan  (chap.  10:30-37),  the  lost  sheep  (chap.  15:3-7),  the 
lost  pieces  of  silver  (chap.  15 : 8-10),  the  prodigal  son  (chap. 
15 :  11-32) ;  in  all  which  Jesus  is  set  forth  as  the  Saviour  of 
suffering  humanity. 

30.  As  it  respects  the  character  and  plan  of  Luke's  gospel,  the 
following  particulars  are  to  be  noticed.  In  the  distribution  of 
matter  between  the  narration  of  events  and  the  recital  of  our 
Lord's  discourses  it  holds  a  position  between  the  first  and 
the  second  gospel ;  being  less  full  in  the  latter  respect  than 
Matthew,  but  far  more  full  than  Mark.  In  the  narrative  part 
there  is  an  easy  and  graceful  style  which  charms  every  reader. 
In    the    introduction    of    minute   incidents    he   goes   beyond 

Conif .  to  Bible,  ]^Q 


434  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Matthew,  though  he  has  not  the  circumstantial  exactness  of 
Mark.  The  agreement  of  Luke's  gospel  with  the  two  prece- 
ding in  its  general  plan  is  recognized  at  once  by  every  reader. 
Like  them  it  is  mainly  occupied  with  our  Lord's  Galilean 
ministry.  In  regard  to  the  Saviour's  infancy  he  is  more  full 
than  Matthew,  the  matter  of  the  first  three  chapters  being  in  a 
great  measure  peculiar  to  him.  He  omits  a  long  series  of 
events  recorded  by  the  first  two  evangelists.  Matt.  14:22 — 
16:12;  Mark  6:45 — 8:26.  On  the  other  hand  he  introduces 
(chap.  9 :  43 — 18  :  30)  "  a  remarkable  series  of  acts  and  discourses 
which  are  grouped  together  in  connection  with  the  last  journey 
to  Jerusalem.  Some  of  the  incidents  occur  in  different  con- 
nections in  the  other  evangelists  ;  and  the  whole  section  proves, 
by  the  absence  of  historical  data  and  the  unity  of  its  general 
import,  that  a  moral  and  not  a  temporal  sequence  is  the  law  of 
the  gospels."  Westcott,  Introduct.  to  Gospel,  chap.  7.  Yery 
much  of  the  matter  in  this  remarkable  section  is  peculiar  to 
Luke,  and  contains  passages  of  wonderful  beauty  and  sweet- 
ness which  would  have  been*  lost  to  the  church  but  for  the 
record  of  this  gospel.  Among  these  are  the  mission  of  the 
seventy,  several  miracles,  some  striking  lessons  of  instruction 
from  passing  incidents,  and  no  less  than  twelve  parables :  the 
good  Samaritan,  the  unfortunate  friend,  the  unclean  spirit,  the 
rich  fool,  the  barren  fig-tree,  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost  pieces  of 
silver,  the  prodigal  son,  the  unfaithful  steward,  the  rich  man 
and  Lazarus,  the  unjust  judge,  the  Pharisee  and  publican. 
While  the  attentive  reader  perceives  the  very  near  relationship 
of  the  third  gospel  to  the  first  and  second,  he  notices  also  the 
fact  that  it  differs  from  both  of  them  more  than  they  do  from 
each  other. 

"  If  the  total  contents  of  the  several  gospels  be  represented  by  100,  tlie 
following  table  is  obtained: 

Peculiarities,  Concordances. 

St.  Mark, 7 93 

St.  Matthew, 42 58 

St.  Luke, 59 41 

St.  John, 92 8 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  435 

"From  this  it  ajjpears  that  the  several  gospels  bear  almost  exactly  an 
inverse  relation  to  one  another,  St.  Mark  and  St.  John  occuiDying  the 
extreme  positions,  the  proportion  of  original  passages  in  one  balancing  the 
coincident  passages  in  the  other.  If  again  the  extent  of  all  the  coincidences 
be  represented  by  100,  their  proportionate  distribution  will  be  : 

St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke, 53 

St.  Matthew,  St.  Luke, 11 

St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,     - 20 

St.  Mark,  St.  Luke, 6  " 

[Westcott,  after  Stroud  and  Norton.] 

Of  absolutely  new  matter  in  Mark  a  striking  example  is  the  beautiful 
parable,  chap.  4:26-29.  The  two  miracles  peculiar  to  him  (chap.  7:31-37  ; 
8:22-26)  are  both  of  a  very  striking  character,  and  related  with  circumstan- 
tial minuteness  of  detail.  Where  his  narratives  coincide  with  those  of 
the  other  evangelists,  they  are  characterized  by  the  addition  of  details, 
which,  as  already  remarked,  add  much  to  the  vivedness  and  graphic  power 
of  his  descriptions. 

31.  The  integrity  of  the  third  gospel  has  been  recently 
assailed  in  Germany  in  the  way  of  attempting  to  show  that  the 
gospel  of  Luke,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  corrupted  by  interpola- 
tions, and  that  Marcion  had  it  in  its  true  form.  See  Chap.  2, 
No.  12.  But  the  result  of  a  voluminous  discussion  is  that 
Marcion's  gospel  is  now  acknowledged  to  have  been  a  mutilated 
form  of  the  canonical  gospel,  in  accordance  with  the  testimony 
of  the  ancient  fathers. 

On  the  relation  to  each  other  of  the  two  genealogies  of  our  Lord  given 
by  Matthew  and  Luke  respectively,  and  the  different  modes  of  bringing 
them  into  harmony  with  each  other,  many  volumes  have  been  wrttten. 
Two  different  principles  of  interpretation  are  proposed.  According  to  the 
first,  the  genealogies  of  both  Matthew  and  Luke  are  those  of  Joseph,  the 
legal  father  of  Jesus,  and  the  only  one  that  could  be  known  in  this  relation 
in  the  public  registers.  The  second  view  is  that  Matthew  gives  the  gene- 
alogy of  Joseph,  and  Luke  that  of  Mary,  Joseph  being  called  the  son  of 
Heli,  in  the  sense  of  son-in-law  ;  and  being  perhaps  also  legal  heir  to  Heli 
through  Mary  in  the  absence  of  brothers.  The  reader  will  find  statements 
of  these  two  views,  the  former  in  Smith's  Bible  Diet. ,  the  latter  in  Alex- 
ander's Kitto,  Art.  Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ ;  also  in  the  commentaries 
generally.     We  only  add  that  though  we  may  not  be  able  to  determine 


436  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

with  certainty  wliat  is  the  true  sohition  of  the  difficulty,  no  one  can  show 
that  such  a  sohition  is  impossible.  The  reverent  behever  will  quietly  wait 
for  more  light,  if  it  shall  please  God  to  give  it ;  otherwise  he  will  be  con- 
tent to  remain  without  it. 

V.     JOHN. 

32.  Thougli  the  writer  of  the  fourth  gospel  everywhere 
refrains  from  mentioning  his  own  name,  he  clearly  indicates 
himself  as  the  "bosom  disciple."  When  he  speaks  of  two 
disciples  that  followed  Jesus,  afterwards  adding  that  "  one  of 
the  two"  "was  Andrew,  Simon  Peter's  brother"  (chap,  1:37, 
40) ;  of  "  one  of  his  disciples,  whom  Jesus  loved  "  (chap.  13  :  23 ; 
21:7.  20);  and  of  "another  disciple"  in  company  with  Simon 
Peter  (chap.  18:15,  16;  20:2-8),  the  only  natural  explanation 
of  these  circumlocutions  is  that  he  refers  to  himself.  Even  if 
we  suppose,  with  some,  that  the  two  closing  verses  of  chapter 
21  (the  former  of  which  ascribes  this  gospel  directly  to  John) 
are  a  subscription  by  another  hand,  their  authenticity  is  un- 
questionable, sustained  as  it  is  by  the  uniform  testimony  of 
antiquity,  and  by  the  internal  character  of  the  gospel. 

33.  The  Scriptural  notices  of  John  are  few  and  simple.  He 
was  the  son  of  Zebedee,  a  fisherman  of  Bethsaida  on  the 
Western  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  not  far  from  Capernaum. 
Matt.  4:21;  Mark  1:19,  20;  Luke  5:10,  11.  His  mother's 
name  was  Salome.  Matt.  27:56  compared  with  Mark  15:40. 
His  parents  seem  to  have  been  possessed  of  some  property, 
since  Zebedee  had  hired  servants  (Mark  1:20),  and  Salome  was 
one  of  the  women  who  followed  Jesus  in  Galilee,  and  ministered 
to  him.  Mark  15  :  40, 41.  From  the  order  in  which  he  and  his 
brother  James  are  mentioned — James  and  John,  except  Luke 
9:28 — he  is  thought  to  have  been  the  younger  of  the  two. 
Early  in  our  Lord's  ministry  he  was  called  to  be  one  of  his 
followers ;  was  one  of  the  three  who  were  admitted  to  special 
intimacy  with  him,  they  alone  being  permitted  to  witness  the 
raising  of  Jairus'  daughter,  the  transfiguration,  and  the  agony 
of  Gethsemane  (Matt.  17:1;  26:37;  Mark  5:37;  9:2;  14:33; 
Luke  8  :  51  ;  9 :  28) ;  and  of  the  three  was,  though  not  first  in 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  437 

place,  first  in  the  Lord's  love  and  confidence — "  the  disciple 
whom  Jesus  loved,"  and  to  whose  tender  care  he  committed  his 
mother  as  he  was  about  to  expire  on  the  cross.  By  his  natural 
endowments,  as  well  as  by  his  loving  and  confidential  inter- 
course with  the  Saviour,  he  was  prepared  to  receive,  and 
afterwards  to  publish  to  the  world,  those  deep  and  spiritual 
views  of  Christ's  person  and  ofiice  which  so  remarkably  char- 
acterize his  gospel. 

So  far  as  we  have  any  notices  of  John  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  and  epistles  of  Paul,  his  residence  after  our  Lord's 
ascension  was  at  Jerusalem.  But,  according  to  the  unanimous 
testimony  of  antiquity,  he  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in 
Ephesus,  where  he  died  at  a  very  advanced  age,  not  far  from 
the  close  of  the  first  century.  The  subject  of  his  banishmeut 
to  the  isle  of  Patmos  will  come  up  in  connection  with  the 
Apocalypse. 

There  is  a  mass  of  traditions  respecting  the  latter  years  of  this  apostle, 
which  are,  however,  of  a  very  uncertain  character.  Among  the  more 
striking  of  these  are:  his  being  taken  to  Rome  during  the  persecution 
under  Domitian,  and  there  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  whence  he 
escaped  unhurt  ;  his  refusal  to  remain  under  the  same  roof  with  the  heretic 
Cerinthus,  lest  it  should  fall  upon-  him  and  crush  him  ;  his  successful 
journey  on  horseback  into  the  midst  of  a  band  of  robbers  to  reclaim  a 
fallen  member  of  the  church  who  had  become  their  leader  ;  and  especially, 
that  during  the  last  days  of  his  life,  he  was  customarily  carried  into  the 
assembly  of  the  church,  where  he  simply  repeated  the  words  :  ' '  Little 
children,  love  one  another." 

34.  The  arguments  for  the  late  composition  of  this  gospel — 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem — have  already  been  given. 
Chap.  2,  No.  14.  If  we  say  between  A.  D.  70  and  100,  it  will  be 
as  near  an  approximation  to  the  time  as  we  can  make.  The 
-place,  according  to  Irenseus  (in  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  5.  8)  was 
Ephesus,  with  which  statement  all  that  we  know  of  his  later 
life  is  in  harmony. 

35.  From  the  beginning  of  our  Lord's  ministry  John  was,  as 
we  have  seen,  admitted  to  his  intimafee  companionship  and 
friendship.     He    was   not  therefore,  dependent   on    tradition. 


438  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

His  gospel  is  the  testimony  of  what  he  had  himself  seen  aj.d 
heard.  Yet  it  covers  only  a  part  of  the  Saviour's  ministry; 
and  the  question  remains  why,  with  the  exception  of  the  clos- 
ing scenes  of  our  Lord's  life  on  earth,  that  part  should  be  to 
so  remarkable  an  extent  precisely  ivliat  the  eaiiier  evangelists 
have  omitted.  In  answer  to  this  question  it  might  be  said  that 
those  actions  and  discourses  of  our  Lord  which  John  selected 
most  clearly  exhibit  his  person  and  office  as  the  son  of  God ; 
and  that  these  were  especially,  (1)  his  encounters  with  the 
Jewish  rulers  at  Jerusalem,  (2)  his  private  confidential  inter- 
course with  his  disciples.  Whatever  weight  we  may  allow  to 
this  consideration,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  full  explanation 
of  the  difference  between  John  and  the  other  evangelists  in 
the  selection  of  materials.  With  the  exception  of  the  miracle 
of  the  loaves  and  fishes  and  the  incidents  connected  with  it 
(chap.  6:1-21)  his  notices  of  our  Lord's  ministry  in  Galilee 
relate  almost  entirely  to  incidents  and  discourses  omitted  by 
the  other  evangelists.  It  is  altogether  probable  that,  although 
John  did  not  write  his  gospel  simply  as  supplementary  to  the 
earlier  gospels,  he  yet  had  reference  to  them  in  the  selection 
of  his  materials.  His  own  statement:  "Many  other  signs 
truly  did  Jesus  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples,  which  are  not 
written  in  this  book.  But  these  are  written,  that  ye  might 
believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  that 
believing  ye  might  have  life  through  his  name  "  (chap.  20 :  30, 
31),  is  not  inconsistent  with  such  a  supposition.  The  "many 
other  signs"  he  may  have  omitted,  in  part  at  least,  because 
he  judged  that  a  sufficient  account  of  them  had  been  given  by 
the  earlier  evangelists,  of  whose  writings,  when  we  consider 
the  time  that  in  all  probability  intervened  between  their  com- 
position and  that  of  his  gospel,  we  cannot  suppose  him  to 
have  been  ignorant.  Such  a  reference  to  these  writings  does 
not  in  any  way  exclude  the  general  design  which  he  had,  in 
common  with  the  earlier  evangelists,  to  show  "that  Jesus  is 
the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,"  through  faith  in  whose  name 
eternal  life  is  received. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  439 

Ancient  tradition  represents,  in  a  variety  of  forms,  that  John  intended 
to  complete  the  evangeHcal  history,  as  given  by  the  other  evangelists,  in 
the  way  of  furnishing  additional  events  and  discourses  omitted  by  them. 
The  citations  may  be  seen  in  Davidson's  Introduct.  to  New  Test.,  vol.  1, 
pp.  320-22.  Thougli  the  statements  of  the  fathers  on  this  point  cannot 
be  accepted  without  qualification,  there  is  no  valid  ground  for  denying  the 
general  reference  above  assumed. 

36.  In  writing  his  gospel  John  had  not  a  polemical,  but  a 
general  end  in  view.  It  was  not  his  immediate  aim  to  refute 
the  errors  and  heresies  of  his  day ;  but,  as  he  tells  us,  to  show 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  in  order  that  men, 
through  faith  in  his  name,  may  have  eternal  life.  Yet,  like 
every  wise  and  practical  writer,  he  must  have  had  regard  to 
the  state  of  the  churches  in  his  day  and  the  forms  of  error  by 
which  they  were  assailed.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  apostolic 
age  the  seeds  of  those  heresies  which  in  the  following  century 
yielded  such  a  rank  and  poisonous  harvest,  had  already  begun 
to  be  sown.  Like  all  the  heresies  which  have  troubled  the 
Christian  church  to  the  present  day,  they  consisted  essentially 
in  false  views  respecting  our  Saviour's  person  and  office.  The 
beloved  disciple  who  followed  Jesus  through  the  whole  of  his 
ministry  and  leaned  on  his  bosom  at  the  last  supper,  has  given 
us  an  authentic  record  of  the  Redeemer's  words  and  works,  in 
which,  as  in  a  bright  untarnished  mirror,  we  see  both  the 
divine  dignity  of  his  person  and  the  true  nature  of  his  office  as 
the  Redeemer  of  the  world.  Such  a  record  was  especially 
adapted  to  refute  the  errors  of  his  day,  as  it  is  those  of  the 
present  day.  It  is  preeminently  the  gospel  of  our  Lord's 
person.  It  opens  with  an  account  of  his  divine  nature  and 
eternal  coexistence  with  the  Father ;  his  general  office  as  the 
creator  of  all  things,  and  the  source  of  light  and  life  to  all  men  ; 
and  his  special  office  as  "  the  word  made  flesh,"  whom  the 
Father  sent  for  the  salvation  of  the  world,  and  by  whom  alone 
the  Father  is  revealed  to  men.  Equality  with  the  Father  in 
nature,  subordination  to  the  Father  in  office,  union  with  human 
nature  in  the  work  of  redeeming  and  judging  men,  and  in  all 


440  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

these  perfect  union  with  the  Father  in  counsel  and  will — such 
are  the  great  doctrines  that  run  through  our  Lord's  discussions 
with  the  unbelieving  Jews,  as  recorded  bj  this  evangelist.  In 
the  same  discussions,  but  more  especially  in  his  private  confi- 
dential intercourse  with  his  disciples,  he  adds  deep  views  of  his 
relation  to  the  world,  as  the  only  revealer  of  God's  truth,  the 
only  source  of  spiritual  life,  and  ihe  only  way  of  access  to  the 
Father ;  and  to  believers,  as  the  true  vine,  through  vital  union 
with  which  they  have  life,  nourishment,  and  fruitfulness.  He 
unfolds  also  more  fully  than  the  other  evangelists  the  ofiice  of 
the  Comforter,  whom  the  Father  shall  send  to  make  good  to 
the  church  the  loss  of  his  personal  presence.  Thus  the  gospel 
of  John  becomes  at  once  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  spirit- 
ual food  for  the  nourisliment  of  the  believer's  own  soul,  and  a 
divine  armory,  whence  he  may  draw  polished  shafts  in  his  war- 
fare against  error.  This  last  record  of  our  Lord's  life  and 
teachings  owes  its  present  form,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Hol}^  Spirit,  partly  to  the  peculiar  character  of  the  writer,  and 
partly  to  the  lateness  of  the  period  when  it  was  composed.  In 
both  these  respects  we  ought  devoutly  to  recognize  the  super- 
intending providence  of  him  who  sees  the  end  from  the  begin- 
ning. 

VI.     THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

37.  The  author  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  identical  with 
that  of  the  third  gospel,  as  w^e  learn  from  the  dedication  to  the 
same  Theophilus.  Chap.  1:1.  Both  are  ascribed  to  Luke  by 
the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  ancient  church.  The  genuine- 
ness of  this  book,  its  credibility,  and  the  time  of  its  composition 
— about  A.  D.  63-65 — have  been  already  shown.  Chap.  5,  Nos. 
2-5.  It  remains  to  consider  its  plan  and  its  office  in  the  system 
of  revelation. 

38.  In  respect  to  plan  this  book  naturally  falls  into  two 
main  divisions,  the  former  embracing  the  first  tw^elve  chapters, 
the  latter  the  remainder  of  the  work.  1l\iq  first  division  con- 
tains the  history  of  the  apostolic  labors  after  the  ascension,  in 
Jerusalem  and  from  Jerusalem  as  a  centre.     Here,  if  we  except 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  441 

the  events  connected  with  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  (chs.  6,  7), 
the  conversion  of  Saul  (chap.  9:1-31),  and  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch  (chap.  8 :  26-40),  Peter  everywhere  appears  as  the 
chief  speaker  and  actor,  being  first  among  the  twelve,  though 
possessing  no  official  authority  over  them.  It  is  he  that  pro- 
poses the  choice  of  one  to  supply  the  place  of  Judas,  and  that 
is  the  foremost  speaker  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  at  the  gate  of 
the  temple,  before  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  and  in  the  assembly 
of  the  church.  Chaps.  1:15-22;  2:14-40;  3:4-26;  4:8-12; 
5  : 3-11,  29-32.  Associated  with  him  we  often  find  the  apostle 
John.  Chaps.  3:1;  4 :13, 19 ;  8 :  14.  When  the  Samaritans  are 
to  receive  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Peter  and  John  are  sent 
to  them  from  Jerusalem.  Chap.  8 :  14-25.  "When  the  gospel  is 
to  be  carried  for  the  first  time  to  the  Gentiles,  Peter  is  sent  by 
the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  house  of  Cornelius  in  Cesarea  (chap.  10), 
for  which  mission  he  afterwards  vindicates  himself  before  the 
brethren  at  Jerusalem.  Chap.  11:1-18.  Further  notices  of 
Peter  we  have  in  chaps.  9 :  32-43 ;  12  : 3-19.  We  know  that  the 
other  apostles  must  have  been  actively  and  successfully  em- 
ployed in  prayer  and  the  ministry  of  the  word  (chap.  6: 4),  but 
it  does  not  come  within  the  plan  of  this  narrative  to  give  a 
particular  account  of  their  labors. 

The  second  division  is  occupied  with  the  history  of  PauVs 
missionary  labors  among  the  Gentiles,  from  AntiocJi  as  a  centre. 
He  had  already  been  sent  from  that  city  with  Barnabas  to 
carry  alms  to  the  brethren  in  Jerusalem  and  Judea  (chaps.* 
11:27-30;  12:25),  when  "the  Holy  Ghost  said.  Separate  me 
Barnabas  and  Saul  for  the  work  whereunto  I  have  called 
them ;"  and  they  were  sent,  with  fasting  and  prayer  and  the 
solemn  laying  on  of  hands,  on  their  great  mission  to  the 
Gentiles.  Chap.  13 : 1-3.  Thenceforward  the  narrative  is 
occupied  with  an  account  of  the  labors  of  Paul  among  the 
Gentiles.  The  fifteenth  chapter  is  no  exception ;  for  the  con- 
vocation of  the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  missionary  labors  of  Paul,  and  had  especial 
reference  to  them. 

19* 


U2  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Two  cities  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  which  have  the  name 
of  Antiochr—Antioclioi  Pisidia  so-called,  though  situated  in  the  southern 
part  of  Phrygia  near  the  border  of  Pisidia  (Acts  13  :  14  ;  14  :  19,  21  ;  2 
Tim.  3  :  11)  ;  and  Antioch  of  ^Syr/a,- situated  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Orontes  about  fifteen  miles  from  its  mouth.  Acts  11:19-27;  18:1; 
14  :  26  ;  15  :  22-35  ;  18  :  22  ;  Gal.  2  :  11.  The  latter  city  was  the  centre  of 
Gentile  Christianity.  It  was  the  metropolis  of  Syria,  the  residence  of  the 
Syrian  kings,  and  afterwards  the  capital  of  the  Koman  provinces  in  Asia. 
Here  the  first  Gentile  church  was  gathered,  and  the  disciples  first  received 
the  name  of  Christians.  Acts  11  :  19-26.  Hence  Barnabas  and  Saul  were 
sent  to  Jerusalem  to  bear  alms  (Acts  11:29,  30  ;  12  :25)  ;  and  afterwards  to 
consult  the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem  on  the  question  of  imposing 
the  Mosaic  law  on  the  Gentile  converts.  From  this  city  also  the  apostle 
started  on  his  three  missionary  journeys,  and  to  it  he  returned  from  his  first 
and  second  journey.  Acts  13  : 1-3  ;  14  :  26  ;  15  :  36,  40  :  18  :  22,  23.  From 
the  time  that  Barnabas  first  brought  the  apostle  to  Antioch  (Acts  11 :  26) 
to  that  of  his  seizure  at  Jerusalem  and  subsequent  imprisonment,  most  of 
his  time  not  occujDied  in  missionary  journeys  was  s^jent  at  Antioch.  Acts 
11 :  26  ;  12 :  25  ;  14  :  26-28  ;  15:  30,  35  ;  18 '.  22,  23.  As  Jerusalem  was  the 
centre  for  the  apostles  of  the  circumcision,  so  was  Antioch  in  Syria  for  the 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

39.  This  brief  survey  of  the  plan  of  this  book  gives  us  also 
an  insight  into  its  office.  First  of  all  it  gives  us  a  fresh  and 
vivid  portraiture  of  the  apostolic  labors  and  the  spirit  of  the 
apostolic  church,  as  pervaded  and  quickened  by  the  presence 
of  the  promised  Comforter.  On  the  side  of  the  apostles,  we  see 
a  boldness  and  ardor  that  no  persecution  can  check,  united  with 
simplicity  and  godly  sincerity.  On  the  side  of  the  brethren, 
we  see  a  whole-hearted  devotion  to  the  Saviour,  under  the 
mighty  impulse  of  faith  and  love,  which  opens  their  hearts  in 
liberality  and  causes  them  to  have  all  things  in  common.  On 
the  side  of  both  the  apostles  and  the  brethren,  we  see  untiring 
activity  and  patient  endurance  in  the  Master's  service,  such  as 
make  the  primitive  church  a  bright  illustration  of  the  promise  : 
"Thou  shalt  be  like  a  watered  garden,  and  like  a  spring  of 
water,  whose  waters  fail  not.  And  they  that  be  of  thee 
shall  build  the  old  waste  places."  Isa.  58 :  11, 12.  On  the  side 
of  the  unbelieving  Jews  and  Gentiles,  on  the  contrary,  we 
behold,  as  ever  since,  a  series  of  unsuccessful  efforts  to  hinder 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  443 

the  work  of  God  ;  the  very  ringleader  of  the  persecutors  being 
called,  in  the  midst  of  his  heat  and  fury  against  Christianity, 
to  be  the  "  ringleader  of  the  sect  of  the  Nazarenes."  Such  an 
authentic  record  of  apostolic  times  is  of  immense  value  to  the 
church  in  all  ages.  It  gives  the  true  standard  of  enlightened 
Christian  zeal  and  activity,  and  the  true  exhibition  of  what 
constitutes  the  real  strength  and  prosperity  of  the  Christian 
church. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  give  also  a  cursory  view  of  the 
inauguration  of  the  Christian  church,  by  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  his  plenary  influences  (chap.  2),  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  deacons  (chap.  6),  and  the  ordination  of  elders,  though 
these  last  are  only  mentioned  incidentally  (chaps.  14 :  23 : 
20 :  17),  the  office  being  understood  of  itself  from  the  usages  of 
the  Jewish  Synagogue.  The  scantiness  of  the  information  which 
we  have  on  this  matter  of  church  organization  is  a  part  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  is  full  of  instruction  to  the 
church  in  all  ages. 

Once  more,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  give  a  most  interesting 
and  instructive  account  of  the  way  in  which  "  the  middle  wall 
of  partition  "  between  Jews  and  Gentiles  was  gradually  broken 
down.  The  full  import  of  the  Saviour's  last  command :  "  Go 
ye  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature/' 
seems  to  have  been  at  first  but  dimly  apprehended  by  the 
apostles.  For  some  time  their  labors  were  restricted  to  their 
own  countrymen.  But  when,  upon  the  dispersion  of  the  dis- 
ciples in  the  persecution  that  arose  in  connection  with  Stephen's 
martyrdom,  the  gospel  had  been  preached  to  the  Samaritans, 
the  apostles  Peter  and  John  were  sent  to  them,  and  they  in 
common  with  the  Jews  received  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Chap.  8 : 5-25.  This  was  an  intermediate  step.  Afterwards 
Peter  was  sent  among  the  Gentiles  proper,  and  they  also 
received  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  the  astonishment  of  the  Jewish 
brethren  who  had  accompanied  Peter.  Chap.  10.  The  same 
thing  happened  also  at  Antioch  (chap.  11 :20),  where  the  true 
reading  is  Hellenas^   GreekSj  that  is,   Gentiles,  not    Hdhnistas, 


444  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Hellenists.  But  tlie  work  was  not  yet  finished.  It  remained 
that  the  believing  Gentiles  should  be,  by  the  solemn  and  formal 
judgment  of  the  assembled  apostles  and  elders,  released  from 
the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  law.  Of  this  we  have  an  account  in  the 
fifteenth  chapter.  Thus  was  the  demolition  of  the  middle  wall  of 
partition  completed.  Of  the  greatness  of  this  work  and  the 
formidable  difficulties  by  which  it  was  beset — difficulties  having 
their  ground  in  the  exclusive  spirit  of  Judaism  in  connection  with 
the  false  idea  that  the  Mosaic  law  was  to  remain  in  force  under 
the  Messiah's  reign — we  who  live  so  many  centuries  after  its 
accomplishment  can  form  but  a  feeble  conception. 

40.  Brief  and  imperfect  as  is  the  sketch  which  Luke  has 
given  us,  it  is  sufficient  for  the  instruction  of  the  churches 
in  subsequent  ages.  God  deals  with  them  not  as  with  children, 
to  whom  the  command,  "Touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not," 
must  continually  be  repeated ;  but  as  with  full-grown  men, 
who  need  general  principles  rather  than  specific  and  minute 
directions.  The  facts  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  tha  Apostles  are 
of  a  representative  character.  They  embody  the  spirit  of 
apostolic  times,  and  the  great  principles  upon  which  the  cause 
of  Christ  must  ever  De  conducted.  Fuller  information  in  respect 
to  details  might  gratify  our  curiosity,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
for  our  edification. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  445 


CHAPTEK  XXX. 

The   Epistles   of   Paui^. 

1.  The  apostolic  epistles  are  a  natural  sequence  of  the  office 
and  work  committed  by  the  Saviour  to  the  apostles.  They  were 
the  primitive  preachers  of  the  gospel,  and,  under  Christ,  the 
founders  of  the  Christian  church.  From  the  necessity  of  the  case 
they  had  a  general  supervision  of  all  the  local  churches,  and 
their  authority  in  them  was  supreme  in  matters  of  both  faith  and 
practice.  It  was  to  be  expected,  therefore,  that  they  should 
teach  by  writing,  as  well  as  by  oral  instruction.  It  does  not 
appear,  however,  that  epistolary  correspondence  entered 
originally  into  their  plan  of  labor.  Their  great  Master  taught 
by  word  of  mouth  onl^^,  and  they  followed  his  example.  "  We," 
said  the  twelve,  "  will  give  ourselves  continually  to  prayer,  and 
to  the  ministry  of  the  word."  Acts  6: 4.  It  was  only  when 
circumstances  made  it  necessary,  that  some  of  them  took  up  the 
pen  to  write  to  the  churches.  Passing  by  for  the  present  the 
disputed  question  of  the  time  when  the  epistle  of  James  was 
written,  and  assuming  that  the  conversion  of  Paul  took  place 
about  A.  D.  36,  we  have  an  interval  of  at  least  sixteen  years 
between  this  event  and  the  date  of  his  earliest  epistles,  those 
to  the  Thessalonians,  written  about  A.  D.  53.  The  apostles  did 
not  regard  themselves  as  letter-writers,  but  as  preachers  of  the 
word.  They  took  up  the  pen  only  when  some  special'  occasion 
made  it  necessary.  The  apostolic  epistles  are  incidental;  and 
for  this  very  reason  they  are  eminently  life-like  and  practical. 
In  respect  to  themes,  and  the  manner  of  handling  them,  they 
present  a  rich  variety.  All  the  great  questions  of  faith  and 
practice  that  have  agitated  the  Christian  church  since  the 
apostolic  age  come  up  for  discussion  in  these  letters,  not  indeed, 
in  their  ever-varying  outward  forms,  but  in  their  great  under- 


446  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

lying  principles.  Tims  the  providence  of  God  has  provided 
in  them  a  rich  storehouse  of  truths  for  the  instruction  and 
edification  of  believers  to  the  end  of  time. 

2.  Of  the  twenty-one  epistles  contained  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment fourteen  belong  to  Paul  (if  we  include  the  anonymous 
letter  to  the  Hebrews),  all  written  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
great  work  as  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  The  Saviour's 
personal  ministry  was  restricted  to  the  Jews,  and  so  was  that 
of  the  twelve  apostles  and  the  seventy  disciples  whom  he  sent 
forth  before  his  crucifixion.  Matt.  10:5,  6;  15:24;  Luke  10:1. 
But  his  last  command  was  :  "  Go  ye,  therefore,  and  teach  all 
nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  Matt.  28  :19.  In  carrying  into 
execution  this  command,  which  involved  such  an  immense 
change  in  the  outward  form  of  God's  visible  earthly  kingdom, 
it  was  necessary — 

(1)  That  the  apostles  should  insist  very  earnestly  and  fully 
on  the  great  fundamental  doctrine  of  the  gospel,  that  men  have 
justification  and  eternal  life,  not  through  the  law  of  Moses,  or 
any  other  possible  system  of  works,  but  through  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ;  a  doctrine  which  cuts  up  Pharisaism  by  the  roots. 

(2)  That,  since  faith  in  Christ  is  the  common  ground  of  jus- 
tification for  Jews  and  Gentiles,  both  tvere  to  he  admitted  upon 
equal  terms  to  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Christian 
church ;  the  ancient  prerogative  of  the  Jews  above  the  Gentiles 
being  done  awa}^  in  Christ. 

(3)  Still  further,  that  since  the  Gentiles  had  justification 
and  salvation  not  through  the  law  of  Moses,  but  through  faith 
alone,  the  Mosaic  law  was  not  to  he  imioosed  upon  them.  This  was 
virtually  announcing  its  abolition,  its  types  and  shadows  having 
been  fulfilled  in  Christ. 

(4)  That  this  removal  of  "  the  middle  wall  of  partition  "  be- 
tween the  Jews  and  Gentiles  was  in  accordance  ivith  Moses  and 
the  prophets — not  a  change  of  God's  original  plan,  but  only  the 
full  accomplishment  of  it.  Acts  15:15-18;  Kom.  3:21,31; 
4:6-25;  Gab  3:6-9. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  41:7 

"We  have  seen  liow  this  great  work  was  begun  by  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  in  connection  Avith  the  preaching  of  the  gospel, 
first  to  the  Samaritans  (Acts  8:5-17),  and  afterwards  to  the 
Gentiles  (Acts  10;  11:20-26,  etc.);  and  how  it  was  completed, 
so  far  as  concerns  the  'principles  involved  in  it,  by  the  solemn 
decree  of  the  apostles  and  the  elders  (Acts  15 : 1-29). 

3.  But  for  the  reali'dation  of  these  principles  in  the  actual 
preaching  of  the  gospel  to  the  Gentile  nations,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  Christian  churches  among  them  which  should  em- 
brace on  equal  terms  Jews  and  Gentiles,  a  man  of  very  peculiar 
qualifications  was  raised  up  in  the  providence  of  God.  Saul  of 
Tarsus  was  a  Jcav,  brought  up  in  Jerusalem  at  the  feet  of 
Gamaliel,  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  law  and  the  prophets,  and 
able  therefore  to  speak  with  authority  concerning  the  Old 
Testament  to  both  Jews  and  Gentiles.  His  indomitable  energy 
and  fiery  zeal,  united  with  rare  practical  wisdom,  had  made  him 
the  foremost  man  in  persecuting  the  Christians.  When  the 
proper  time  had  come  Jesus  met  him  on  the  road  to  Damascus 
with  converting  power,  and  all  his  superior  education  and 
endowments  were  thenceforth  consecrated  to  the  work  of 
preaching  the  faith  which  once  he  destroyed,  especially  to  the 
Gentile  world.  But  in  this  matter  he  felt  and*  acted  as  a  Jew. 
He  did  not  separate  himself  abruptly  from  his  countrymen. 
Cherishing  towards  them  the  tenderest  affection,  they  were 
everywhere  the  first  objects  of  his  Christian  effort.  Into  what- 
ever city  he  went,  he  first  sought  the  Jewish  synagogue,  and 
there  he  "reasoned  with  them  out  of  the  Scriptures."  Acts 
13:14;  14:1;  17:2,  10;  18:4;  19:8.  It  was  only  when  they 
persisted  in  opposing  and  blaspheming,  that  he  desisted  from 
further  effort  among  them  and  turned  to  the  Gentiles.  Acts 
13:45-47;  18:6;  19:9.  Wlaerever  he  went  he  encountered 
the  bitterest  persecution  on  the  part  of  his  own  countrymen,  be- 
cause of  the  prominence  which  he  gave  to  the  great  evangelical 
principles  above  considered — that  men  have  justification  not 
wholly  or  in  part  through  the  Mosaic  law,  but  simply  through 
faith  in  Christ,  and  that  in  him  the  distinction  between  Jews 


448  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

and  Gentiles  is  abolished.  Even  tlie  believing  Jews  found  it 
hard  to  apprehend  these  truths  in  their  fullness.  In  the  nar- 
rowness of  their  Jewish  prejudices  they  were  anxious  to  impose 
on  the  Gentile  converts  the  yoke  of  the  Mosaic  law.  This,  Paul 
steadfastly  resisted,  and  it  is  to  his  defence  of  Gentile  liberty 
that  we  owe,  in  great  measure,  those  masterly  discussions  on 
the  ground  of  justification,  and  the  unity  of  Jews  and  Gentiles 
in  Christ,  which  are  so  prominent  in  his  epistles.  Yet  with  his 
uncompromising  firmness  of  principle  he  united  remarkable 
flexibility  in  regard  to  the  means  of  success.  To  those  who 
would  impose  circumcision  on  the  Gentiles  he  "  gave  place  by 
subjection,  no,  not  for  an  hour."  Gal.  2 : 5.  But  where  no 
great  principle  was  concerned,  he  was  willing  to  circumcise 
Timothy,  out  of  regard  to  the  feelings  of  the  Jews ;  thus  becom- 
ing, in  his  own  words,  "  all  things  to  all  men."     1  Cor.  9:22. 

4.  The  peculiar  character  of  the  apostle's  style  is  obvious 
to  every  reader.  It  is  in  an  eminent  degree  argumentative. 
He  "  reasoned  with  them,"  says  Luke,  "  out  of  the  Scriptures." 
These  words  describe  accurately  the  character  of  both  his 
epistles  and  his  addresses  to  the  Jews  as  recorded  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  In  addressing  a  Gentile  audience  at  Athens, 
he  still  "  reasoned  with  them  ;"  but  it  was  now  from  the  inscrip- 
tion on  one  of  their  altars,  from  certain  of  their  own  poets,  and 
from  the  manifestations  in  nature  of  God's  power  and  God- 
head. His  reasoning  takes  occasionally  the  form  of  an  argu- 
ment within  an  argument.  He  pauses  by  the  way  to  expand 
some  thought,  and  does  not  return  again  to  complete  in  gram- 
matical form  the  sentence  which  he  had  begun;  so  that  his 
style  sometimes  becomes  complex  and  obscure.  The  versatil- 
ity of  the  apostle's  mind,  which  made  him  equally  at  home  in 
discussing  subjects  the  most  varied,  appears  in  his  style  also. 
It  naturally  takes  the  complexion  of  his  themes.  To  under- 
stand this  one  has  only  to  compare  the  epistle  to  the  Romans 
with  those  to  the  Corinthians ;  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians  with 
that  to  the  Ephesians;  and  all  these  with  the  epistles  to  the 
Philippi-ans  and  Thessalonians.     His  style  may  be  compared 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  •  449 

to  a  clear  window,  which  shows  with  fidelity  the  e^er  varying 
forms  and  scenes  that  pass  before  it. 

5.  The  commentaries  that  have  been  written  on  the  epistles 
of  Paul  would  themselves  constitute  a  large  library.  Our  own 
century  has  been  very  fruitful  in  them,  and  some  of  them  are 
accessible  to  every  reader.  For  this  reason  our  notice  of  the 
separate  epistles  may  well  be  brief.  Our  aim  will  be  to  give 
the  occasion  of  each,  its  chronological  order  in  the  series, 
its  connection  with  the  apostle's  missionary  labors,  its  scope, 
and  the  office  which  it  accomplishes  in  the  plan  of  revelation. 

Ill  connection  with  Paul's  epistles  the  reader  should  carefully  study  the 
history  of  his  life  and  labors,  as  given  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  From 
Acts  9 :  23-26  compared  with  Gal.  1 :  16-18,  we  learn  that  the  first  three 
years  after  Paul's  conversion  were  spent  at  Damascus  and  in  Arabia.  Then 
he  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  but  after  a  short  sojourn  there  was  driven  away 
by  the  persecution  of  the  Jews,  and  retired  to  his  native  city,  Tarsus  in 
Cilicia.  Acts  9 :  29,  30.  After  an  interval  of  some  time,  which  he  spent 
"in  the  regions  of  Syria  and  Cilicia"  (Gal.  1 !  21),  "Barnabas  departed  to 
Tarsus,  for  to  seek  Saul.  And  when  he  had  found  him,  he  brought  him 
unto  Antioch."  Acts  11'.  25,  26.  This  is  supposed  to  have  been  about 
A.  D.  43,  seven  or  eight  years  after  his  conversion. 

Here  begins  his  recorded  public  ministry  in  Antioch  and  from  Antioch 
as  a  centre.  See  above,  Chap.  29,  No.  88.  It  embraces  three  great  mission- 
ary tours  (Acts  13:1,  etc.;  15:36,  etc.;  18:23,  etc.),  and /o^^r  visits  to 
Jerusalem  besides  that  already  noticed.  Acts  11  :  27-30  compared  with 
12  :  25  ;  15  :2  ;  18  :  22  ;  21 :  15.  The  last  of  these  ended  in  his  captivity 
and  imprisonment,  first  at  Cesarea  and  afterwards  at  Eome,  with  an  inter- 
vening perilous  voyage  and  shipwreck.  Acts  chap.  21-28.  See  the  incidents  of 
Paul's  life  chronologically  arranged  in  Davidson's  Introduct.  to  New  Test., 
vol.  2,  pp.  110-112,  with  the  annexed  table  ;  in  Home's  Introduct.,  vol.  4, 
pp.  490-49^  ;  in  Conybeare  and  Howson,  vol.  2,  Appendix  2 ;  and  in  the 
commentaries  of  Hackett,  Alford,  Wordsworth,  etc. 

6.  As  the  epistles  of  Paul  stand  in  the  New  Testament, 
they  are  not  arranged  in  chronological  order.  The  principle 
of  arrangement  seems  to  have  been,  first,  those  to  churches, 
then,  those  to  individuals  ;  the  further  order  being  that  of  rela- 
tive size,  with  this  modification  ;  that  two  epistles  addressed  to 
the  same  church  should  stand  together,  and  that  the  last  of 


450  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

tliem,  wliicli  is  always  the  shorter,  shoiihl  determine  their  phice 
in  the  series.  "Where  the  epistles  are  about  equal  in  size,  it 
seems  to  have  been  the  design  to  arrange  them  chronologi- 
cal. The  catholic  epistles  are  arranged  upon  the  same  plan. 
The  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  as  being  anonymous,  now  stands 
after  those  which  bear  the  name  of  Paul.  But  in  many  Greek 
manuscripts  it  is  placed  after  2  Thessalonians,  consequently 
between  the  epistles  addressed  to  churches  and  those  to  indi- 
viduals. 

The  student  of  these  epistles  should  carefully  note  the  chronological 
order,  because,  as  Wordsworth  remarks  (Preface  to  Commentary  on  the 
Epistles),  the  mutual  illustration  which  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the 
apostolic  epistles  receive  from  each  other  "is  much  impaired  if  the  apostolic 
epistles  are  not  studied  in  connection  wdth  and  in  the  order  of  the  apostolic 
history."  The  following  is  the  chronological  order  of  the  epistles,  as  far 
as  it  can  be  ascertained,  though  (as  will  hereafter  appear)  some  uncertainty 
exists  in  respect  to  several  of  them  : 

1  Thessalonians  .  .  .  about  A.  d.  53    Colossians about  a.  d.  62 

2  Thessalonians  ...         "  53    Philemon "  62 

Galatians "    56  or  57    Philippians "  63 

1  Corinthians    ....  "  57    Hebrews uncertain. 

2  Corinthians    ....  "  57    1  Timothy about  a.  d.  65 

Komans "  58    Titus "               65 

Ephesians "  62    2  Timothy "               66 

Arranged  according  to  the  order  of  time  the  thirteen  epistles  which 
bear  the  name  of  Paul  naturally  fall  into  four  groups:  (1)  the  two  ej)istles 
to  the  Thessalonians,  written  during  tl^e  apostle's  seconc/ missionary  journey 
recorded  Acts  15  :  36—18  :  22  ;  (2)  the  epistles  to  the  Galatians,  Corinthians, 
and  Romans,  written  during  his  third  missionary  journey,  Acts  18  :  23— 
21  :  15  ;  (3)  the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians,  Philemon,  and  Phil- 
ippians, written  during  Paul's  imprisonment  in  Eome,  Acts  28:16-31 
(some  suppose  the  first  three  to  have  been  written  during  his  imprisonment 
at  Cesarea,  Acts  23:35 — 26  :32)  ;  (4)  the  pastoral  e^^istles,  the  first  and  third 
probably  written  after  his  recorded  imprisonment  in  Rome,  and  the  second 
during  a  second  imprisonment  after  the  publication  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  w^hich  ended  in  his  martyrdom  a.  d.  67  or  68. 

The  epistles  of  Paul  will  now  be  considered  in  the  usual  or- 
der, except  that  the  three  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians.  and 
Philemon,  which  are  contemporaneous,  will  be  taken  together. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  451 

I.     EPISTLE  TO   THE  EOMANS. 

7.  The  date  of  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  as  well  as  the 
place  where  it  was  written,  can  be  gathered  with  much  cer- 
tainty from  the  epistle  itself,  taken  in  connection  with  other  no- 
tices respecting  Paul  found  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  lie 
was  about  to  bear  alms  to  his  brethren  in  Judea  from  Macedo- 
nia and  Achaia.  Chap.  15:25,  26.  He  had  previously  ex- 
horted the  church  of  Corinth  in  Achaia  to  make  this  very  col- 
lection, which  he  was  to  receive  of  them  when  he  came  to  them 
through  Macedonia.  1  Cor.  16 : 1-6.  That  he  was  also  to 
bring  with  him  a  collection  from  the  Macedonian  churches  is 
manifest  from  2  Cor.  8  :l-4  ;  9:1-4.  He  wrote,  moreover,  from 
Corinth ;  for  among  the  greetings  at  the  close  of  the  epistle  is 
one  from  "  Gains  mine  host "  (chap.  16 :  23),  a  Corinthian  whom 
he  had  baptized  (1  Cor.  1 :  14) ;  he  commends  to  them  Phebe, 
a  deaconess  of  the  church  at  Cenchrea,  the  eastern  port  of 
Corinth,  chap.  16:1;  and  he  speaks  of  "  the  city  "  where  he  is 
as  well  known  (chap.  16:23),  which  can  be  no  other  than 
Coriiith.  Now  by  comparing  Acts  19  :21;  20:1-3;  24:17,  we 
find  that  he  was  then  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem  through  Mace- 
donia and  Greece,  for  the  last  time  recorded  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  epistle  to  the  Romans,  then,  was  written  from 
Corinth  daring  the  apostle's  third  missionary  tour  and  second 
abode  in  that  city,  about  A.  D.  58.  It  is  the  sixth  of  his  epis- 
tles in  the  order  of  time,  and  stands  in  near  connection  with 
those  to  the  Galatians  and  Corinthians,  which  were  apparently 
written  during  the  previous  year. 

8.  Concerning  the  founding  of  the  church  at  Rome  we  have 
no  information.  At  the  date  of  this  epistle  Paul  had  not  vis- 
ited it.  Chaps.  1:10-15;  15:23,  24.  Of  its  composition,  how- 
ever, we  have  more  certain  knowledge.  Founded  in  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  Roman  empire,  where,  as  we  know  from  many 
notices  of  ancient  writers,  many  Jews  resided,  it  must  have 
been  of  a  mixed  character,  embracing  both  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
with  this  agree  the  contents  of  the  present  epistle..    That  the 


452  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Gentile  element  largely  jDredominated  in  the  clmrcli  at  Kome 
appears  from  the  general  tenor  of  the  epistle.  Chaps.  1:13; 
11:13-25,  30,  31;  15:16.  That  it  had  also  a  Jewish  element 
is  plain  from  the  whole  of  chap.  2,  and  the  precepts  in  chap.  14. 
9.  The  occasion  of  writing  seems  to  have  been  of  a  general 
character.  The  apostle  had  often  purposed  to  visit  Eome,  but 
had  been  as  often  hindered.  Chap.  1:13.  To  compensate  in 
part  for  this  failure,  he  wrote  the  present  epistle,  having,  as  it 
appears,  an  opportunity  to  send  it  by  Phebe,  a  deaconess  of 
the  church  at  Cenchrea.  Chap.  16:1.  The  apostle's  design, 
like  the  occasion  of  his  writing,  was  general.  It  was  natural 
that,  in  addressing  a  church  which  he  had  long  desired  to  visit, 
he  should  la}^  himself  out  to  unfold  the  gospel  of  Christ  in  its 
deep  foundation  principles,  as  a  plan  of  salvation  provided  for 
the  whole  world,  and  designed  to  unite  Jews  and  Gentiles  in 
one  harmonious  body,  on  the  common  platform  of  faith  in 
Christ.  He  first  shows  that  the  Gentiles  are  under  the  domin- 
ion of  sin  (chap.  1:18-32),  and  the  Jews  also  (chap.  2),  so  that 
both  alike  are  shut  up  to  salvation  by  grace.  Chap.  3.  He 
connects  the  gospel  plan  of  salvation  immediately  with  the  Old 
Testament  by  showing  that  Abraham,  the  father  of  the  Israel- 
itish  people,  was  justified  by  faith,  not  by  the  works  of  the  law 
or  any  outward  rite;  so  that  he  is  the  father  of  all  who  walk  in 
the  steps  of  his  faith,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles.  Chap.  4.  Ho 
then  sets  forth  the  love  of  God  in  Christ,  who  is  the  second 
Adam,  sent  to  restore  the  race  from  the  ruin  into  which  it  was 
brought  by  the  sin  of  the  first  Adam  (chap.  5) ;  and  shows  that 
to  fallen  sinful  men  the  law  cannot  give  deliverance  from  either 
its  condemnatory  sentence  or  the  reigning  power  of  sin,  so  that 
its  only  eflPect  is  to  work  wrath,  while  the  righteousness  which 
God  gives  through  faith  in  Christ  sets  men  free  from  both  the 
curse  of  the  law  and  the  inward  power  of  sin,  thus  bringing 
them  into  a  blessed  state  of  justification,  sanctifieation,  and 
holy  communion  with  God  here,  with  the  hope  of  eternal  glory 
hereafter.  Chaps.  6-8.  Since  the  doctrine  of  the  admission  of 
the  Gentiles  to  equal  privileges  with  the  Jews,  and  the  rejection 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  453 

of  the  unbelieving  part  of  the  Jewish  nation,  was  exceedingly 
offensive  to  his  countrymen,  the  apostle  devotes  three  entire 
chapters  to  the  discussion  of  this  momentous  theme.  Chaps. 
9-11.  He  then  proceeds  to  draw  from  the  whole  subject,  as  he 
has  unfolded  it,  such  practical  exhortations  in  respect  to  daily 
life  and  conduct  as  were  adapted  to  the  particular  wants  of  the 
Roman  Christians — entire  consecration  of  soul  and  body  to 
God  in  each  believer's  particular  sphere  (chap.  12) ;  obedience 
to  magistrates  (chap.  13  : 1-7) ;  love  and  purity  (chap.  13  :8-14) ; 
mutual  respect  and  forbearance  (chaps.  14:1 — 15  :7).  He  then 
returns  to  the  great  theme  with  which  he  began,  that  Christ  is 
the  common  Saviour  of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  in  connection  with 
Avhich  he  refers  to  his  office  and  labors  as  "  the  minister  of 
Jeses  Christ  to  the  Gentiles"  (chap.  15:8-21),  and  closes  with 
miscellaneous  notices  and  salutations  (chaps.  15  :  22 — 16 :  27). 

10.  From  the  above  brief  survey  the  special  C)ffice  of  the 
epistle  to  the  Romans  is  manifest.  In  no  book  of  the  New 
Testament  is  the  great  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  so  fully 
unfolded.  The  apostle  sets  it  in  vivid  contrast  with  the  Phar- 
isaical idea  of  justification  by  the  Mosaic  law,  and,  by  parity  of 
reason,  of  justification  by  every  other  system  of  legalism  ;  show- 
ing that  it  is  only  by  grace  through  Christ  that  men  can  be 
delivered  from  either  the  guilt  of  sin  or  its  reigning  power  in 
the  soul,  while  the  effect  of  the  law  is  only  to  excite  and  irritate 
men's  corrupt  passions  without  the  power  to  subdue  them. 
The  place,  therefore,  which  this  epistle  holds  in  the  under- 
standings and  affections  of  believers  must  be  a  good  measure  of 
their  progress  in  the  Christian  life. 

II.     EPISTLES  TO  THE  COKINTHIANS. 

11.  The  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was  written/Vom 
EjjJiesics,  not  far  from  the  time  of  Pentecost  (chap.  16:8);  not 
from  Philippi,  according  to  the  subscription  appended  to  it.  It 
was  during  Paul's  second  and  last  visit  to  that  city,  as  we  learn 
from  his  directions  concerning  a  collection  for  the  saints  at 
Jerusalem,  and  his  promise  to  come  to  the  Corinthians  through 


451  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

Macedonia  (chap.  16 : 1-5) ;  for  when  Paul  left  Epliesus  after 
his  second  sojourn  there  he  went  by  Macedonia  and  Acliaia  (of 
which  province  Corinth  was  the  capital)  to  Jerusalem  to  bear 
alms.  Acts  19:21;  20:1-3;  24:17.  Paul's  second  stay  in 
Ephesus,  during  which  time  some  think  that  he  made  a  short 
visit  to  Corinth  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
which  would  be  the  second  in  order,  that  promised  in  this  and 
the  second  epistle  being  the  third  (2  Cor.  12:14;  13:1),  ex- 
tended over  the  space  of  about  three  years.  Acts  19:1-10; 
20:31.  From  his  words  (chap.  16  : 3-8),  we  gather  that  the 
epistle  was  written  not  long  before  the  close  of  this  period. 
Chronologists  generally  place  it  about  A.  D.  57. 

12.  The  occasion  of  his  writing  was  more  specific  than  when 
he  penned  his  epistle  to  the  Eomans.  Corinth,  the  renowned 
capital  of  the  Roman  province  Achaia,  situated  on  the  isthmus 
that  connects  the  southern  peninsula  of  Greece — the  ancient 
Peleponnesus  and  the  modern  Morea,  and  enjoying  the  advan- 
tage of  two  ports  was  alike  distinguished  for  its  wealth  and 
progress  in  the  arts,  and  for  its  luxury  and  dissoluteness  of 
morals.  Here  the  apostle  had  labored  a  year  and  six  months, 
and  gathered  a  flourishing  church  embracing  some  Jews,  but 
consisting  mostly  of  Gentiles.  Acts  18:1-11;  1  Cor.  12:2. 
These  Gentile  converts,  having  just  emerged  from  the  darkness 
and  corruption  of  heathenism  (chap.  6  : 9-11),  and  living  in  the 
midst  of  a  dissolute  community  (chap.  5  : 9,  10),  did  not  wholly 
escape  the  contamination  of  heathenish  associations  and  heath- 
enish vices.  Chaps.  5,  6,  8,  10.  Taking  a  low  and  worldly 
view  of  the  Christian  church  and  the  spiritual  endowments  of 
its  several  members,  they  were  led  into  party  strifes  andrivalries. 
Chaps.  1 :  11-13 ;  3  : 3-7.  Certain  vain-glorious  teachers,  more- 
over, had  come  in  among  them  with  a  great  show  of  worldly 
wisdom,  who  disparaged  Paul's  apostolical  standing,  taught 
the  people  to  despise  the  simplicity  of  his  teachings,  and  sought 
to  supplant  him  in  the  confidence  and  affections  of  the  Corin- 
thian church.  Chaps.  4,  9 ;  2  Cor.  10-13.  In  addition  to  this, 
certain  disorders  and  abuses  had  crept  into  their  public  assem- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  455 

blies  (chaps.  11,  12,  14),  and  some  among  them  denied  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection.  Chap.  15.  According  to  the  most 
probable  interpretation  of  chap.  5:9,  the  apostle  had  already 
written  them  a  letter  on  some  of  these  points  which  has  not 
come  down  to  us,  and  the  Corinthians  themselves  had  written 
to  the  apostle,  asking  his  advice  on  some  points  of  a  practical 
character,  particularly  in  respect  to  the  marriage  relation  in 
their  present  state  of  trial.  Chap.  7  : 1.  The  occasion,  then,  of 
writing  this  epistle,  which  gives  also  its  scope  and  office,  was  to 
correct  the  above  named  errors  and  abuses,  of  which  he  had 
received  accurate  information,  and  also  to  answer  the  inquiries 
of  the  Corinthians  in  their  letter.  In  this  work  the  apostle 
employs  now  sharp  rebuke,  now  tender  expostulation,  and  now 
earnest  and  impassioned  argument.  The  party  strifes  among 
the  Corinthians  he  meets  by  showing  that  Christ  himself  is  the 
only  head  of  the  church,  that  all  gifts  are  from  him,  and  are  to 
be  used  to  his  glory  in  the  edification  of  believers.  Chaps. 
1 :  13,  14,  30,  31 ;  3  : 5-23.  The  vain-glorious  boasting  of  their 
leaders  he  exposes  by  showing  the  emptiness  and  impotence  of 
their  pretended  wisdom  in  comparison  with  the  doctrine  of 
Christ  crucified,  who  is  the  power  of  God  and  the  wisdom  of 
God  for  the  salvation  of  all  that  believe,  without  regard  to  the 
distinctions  of  worldly  rank.  Chaps.  1 :  18-2  :  16 ;  3  :  18-20. 
The  abuses  and  disorders  that  had  crept  into  the  church  he 
rebukes  with  apostolical  severity ;  and  in  correcting  them,  as 
well  as  in  answering  the  questions  of  the  Corinthians,  he  makes 
an  application  of  the  general  principles  of  the  gospel  to  the 
several  cases  before  him  which  is  full  of  practical  wisdofii — the 
incestuous  person  (chap.  5:8),  companionship  with  the  vicious 
(chap.  5 : 9-13),  litigation  among  brethren  (chap.  6 : 1-8), 
fleshly  indulgence  (chap.  6 : 9-20),  the  inquiries  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  respect  to  marriage  (chap.  7),  meats  offered  to  idols 
and  sundry  questions  connected  with  them  (chaps.  8,  10), 
disorders  in  the  public  assemblies  (chap.  11),  spiritual  gifts 
with  a  beautiful  eulogy  on  love  (chaps.  12-14),  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection  (chap.  15).     He  also  defends  his  apostolical 


4:56  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

character  and  standing  against  his  opposers,  though  by  no 
means  so  earnestly  and  fully  as  in  the  following  epistle.  Chaps. 
4,  9.  Thus  it  comes  to  pass  that  the  present  epistle  contains  a 
remarkable  variety  of  topics,  and  gives  us  a  fuller  and  clearer 
insight  into  the  practical  working  of  Christianity  in  the  primi- 
tive apostolic  churches  than  that  furnished  by  any  other  of 
Paul's  epistles,  or,  indeed,  any  other  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  great  principles,  moreover,  which  he  lays  down  in 
meeting  the  particular  wants  of  the  Corinthian  church  remain 
valid  for  all  time ;  shedding  from  age  to  age  a  clear  and  steady 
light,  by  which  every  tempest-tossed  church  may,  God  helping 
it  by  his  grace,  steer  its  way  into  the  haven  of  peace  and  pros- 
perity. 

13.  The  reader  cannot  fail  to  notice  the  remarkable  contrast 
between  the  tone  of  this  epistle  and  that  to  the  Galatians, 
which  belongs  in  the  order  of  time  to  the  same  group.  See 
above.  No.  6.  The  errors  of  the  Corinthians  were  not  funda- 
mental, like  those  of  the  Galatians.  They  built  upon  the  true 
foundation,  Jesus  Christ ;  but  marred  the  building  by  the  in- 
troduction of  base  materials — the  "  wood,  hay,  stubble  "  of 
human  wisdom,  instead  of  the  "  gold,  silver,  precious  stones  " 
of  the  truth  as  Paul  had  taught  it.  The  false  teachers  among 
the  Galatians,  on  the  contrary,  sought  to  subvert  the  very 
foundations  of  Christianity  by  bringing  in  a  system  of  legal  jus- 
tification. In  writing  to  the  Galatians,  therefore,  Paul  con- 
tends, with  apostolic  severity,  for  the  very  substance  of  the  gos- 
pel, but  in  addressing  the  Corinthians,  he  seeks  only  to  purify 
the  gcfepel  from  the  admixture  of  human  additions. 

14.  The  second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was  written 
not  many  months  after  the  first,  /ro??z  Macedonia,  where  the 
apostle  was  occupied  in  completing  a  collection  for  the  poor 
saints  at  Jerusalem,  with  the  purpose  of  afterwards  proceeding 
to  Corinth  that  he  might  receive  the  contribution  of  the  Cor- 
inthian church  also.  Chaps.  8 : 1-4 ;  9 : 1-5.  Whether  he 
wrote  from  Philippi,  according  to  the  subscription  of  the  epistle, 
or  from  some  other  place  in  Macedonia,  cannot  be  determined. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  457 

15.  The  occasion  of  writing  was  manifestly  the  report  which 
he  had  received  from  Titus  (and  as  is  generally  inferred  from 
1  Cor.  4: 17;  16:10,  from  Timothy  also).  He  had  sent  Titus 
to  Corinth  with  the  expectation  that  he  would  bring  tidings 
thence  to  Troas,  where  he  hoped  to  find  him  on  his  way  from 
Ephesus  to  Macedonia.  But  in  this  he  was  disappointed.  He 
therefore  hastened  from  Troas  to  Macedonia,  where  he  met 
Titus  and  learned  from  him  the  effect  of  his  first  epistle.  Chaps. 
2 :  12,  13  ;  7 :  6 ;  12 :  18.  So  far  as  the  main  body  of  the  Corin- 
thian  Christians  was  concerned,  this  was  highly  favorable,  and 
for  it  the  apostle  devoutly  thanks  God  (chap.  7:6,7);  com- 
mends their  prompt  obedience  (chap.  7 :  11) ;  directs  them  to 
restore  the  excommunicated  person  (chap.  2 :  5-10) ;  and  dis- 
cusses very  fully  the  matter  of  the  collection  for  the  poor  Chris- 
tians at  Jerusalem  (chaps.  8,  9).  But  the  very  success  of  his 
first  epistle  with  the  better  part  of  the  church  had  embittered 
his  enemies,  and  made  them  more  determined  in  their  opposition 
to  him.  They  accused  him  of  levity  in  changing  his  original 
plan  of  visiting  the  Corinthian  church  on  his  way  to  Macedonia 
(chap.  1 :  15-17)  ;  of  uttering  threats  which  he  would  not  dare 
to  execute  when  present  among  them  (chap.  10:9-11)  ;  of  ma- 
king a  gain  of  them  by  indirect  means  (chap.  12 :  16-18)  ;  and 
sought  in  various  w^ays  to  disparage  his  apostolical  character 
and  standing.  This  led  him  to  dwell  with  great  earnestness 
on  the  fullness  of  his  apostolic  credentials,  the  purity  of  his 
apostolic  life,  and  the  abundance  of  his  labors  and  sufferings 
in  behalf  of  Christ's  cause,  always  with  reference  more  or  less 
direct  to  his  enemies.  With  these  personal  notices  of  himself 
are  interwoven  exalted  views  of  the  dignity  of  the  ministerial 
office,  and  the  true  spirit  and  manner  in  which  its  weighty  duties 
are  to  be  performed.  See  chaps.  2 :  14 — 7 :  16  ;  chaps.  10-13. 
The  prominence  which  the  apostle  is  thus  forced  to  give  to  his 
own  person  and  labor  constitutes  the  most  remarkable  feature 
of  the  present  epistle.  To  the  same  cause  are  due  the  peculi- 
arities of  its  diction,  and  its  rapid  transitions  from  one  theme 
and   tone   to   another.     "  Consolation  and  rebuke,  gentleness 

Coni').  to  HiWr..  OQ 


458  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

find  severity,  earnestness  and  irony,  succeed  one  another  at; 
very  short  intervals  and  without  notice."  Alford,  Introduction 
to  this  Epistle.  All  this  came  about  by  the  wisdom  of  God, 
who  placed  his  servant  in  such  circumstances  that  fidelity  to 
the  cause  of  truth  compelled  him  unwillingly  to  set  forth  in 
himself  the  character  of  a  true  minister  of  the  gospel  in  bright 
contrast  with  that  of  those  vain-glorious  and  selfish  men,  who 
under  a  show  of  great  worldly  wisdom,  seek  to  create  parties 
in  the  church  of  Christ  for  their  own  private  honor  and  emolu- 
ment. The  particular  occasion  which  called  forth  this  epistle 
soon  passed  away  ;  but  the  epistle  itself  remains  a  rich  treasure 
for  all  believers,  especially  for  all  Christian  teachers. 

III.    EPISTLE   TO  THE  GALATIANS. 

16.  Galatia  is  the  Greek  word  answering  to  the  Eoman 
Gallia,  that  is,  Gaul.  It  was  one  of  the  central  provinces  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  received  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
being  inhabited  by  a  people  of  Gallic  origin  whp  came  by  the 
way  of  Byzantium  and  the  Hellespont  in  the  third,  century  be- 
fore Christ.  Two  visits  of  the  apostle  to  Galatia  are  recorded 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ;  the  first,  during  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey  (Acts  16:6)  ;  and  the  second,  at  the  beginning 
of  his  third  journey  (Acts  18:23).  After  which  of  these  visits 
the  present  epistle  was  written  is  a  question  that  has-  been 
much  discussed,  and  answered  in  different  ways.  The  most 
natural  interpretation,  however,  of  chapter  4 :  13-16  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  was  after  his  second  visit.  The  course  of  the 
events  seems  to  have  been  as  follows  :  He  was  suffering  from 
an  infirmity  of  the  flesh  when  he  preached  the  gospel  to  the 
Galatians  "  at  the  first,''  that  is,  upon  the  first  visit  (verse  13). 
Then  they  received  him  "as  an  angel  of  God,  even  as  Jesus 
Christ,"  and  were  filled  with  holy  joy  through  simple  faith  in 
Christ's  name  (verses  14,  15).  Upon  his  second  visit  he  found  it 
necessary  to  warn  them  in  ver}^  plain  terms  against  the  seduc- 
tions of  false  teachers,  who  were  seeking  to  draw  them  away 
from  the  simplicity  of  the  gospel  to  faith  in  a  system  of  works. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  459 

But  after  his  departure  these  false  teachers  had  great  success  ; 
and  the  result  was  that  the  affections  of  the  Galatians  were 
alienated  from  Paul,  who  was  their  spiritual  father.  In  view 
of  this  fact  he  asks  (as  we  maj  render  v.  16,  after  Ellicott,  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  idiom  of  the  Greek)  :  "  So  then,  am 
I  become  your  enemy,  by  speaking  to  you  the  truth?  "  that  is 
because  in  my  recent  visit  I  told  you  the  truth.  According  to 
this  view  the  epistle  belongs  to  the  second  group,  and  w^as 
written  about  A.  D.  56  or  57.  Farther  than  this  we  cannot  go 
in  determining  the  time.  The  flace  is  uncertain.  It  may  have 
been  Ephesus,  or  Corinth,  which  cities  Paul  visited  in  his  third 
and  last  missionary  journey,  but  it  cannot  have  been  Eome,  as- 
the  subscription  erroneously  gives  it. 

The  subscriptions  are  of  no  authority.  That  to  the  present  epistle 
probably  had  its  ground  mainly  in  chapter  6  :  17,  where  the  writer  was 
erroneously  supposed  to  allude  to  the  bodily  sufferings  that  he  endured  in 
connection  with  his  last  recorded  imprisonment. 

17.  The  occasion  of  this  epistle,  which  gives  also  its  desigiij 
was  very  specific.  The  Galatian  churches  had  begun  well 
(chap.  5:7);  but  soon  after  Paul's  departure  Judaizing  teachers 
had  drawn  them  away  to  the  very  form  of  error  noticed  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (chap.  15 : 1) ;  "  Except  ye  be  circumcised 
after  the  manner  of  Moses  ye  cannot  be  saved."  They  sought 
to  impose  on  all  the  Gentile  converts  circumcision  as  essential 
to  salvation.  Thus  they  placed  justification  on  a  legal  ground, 
and  made  faith  in  Christ  a  subordinate  matter.  This  error 
Avas  fundamental.  Paul  therefore  attacks  it  with  unsparing 
severity,  with  which,  however,  he  mingles  a  wonderful  tender- 
ness of  spirit.  His  argument  is  for  substance  the  same  as 
that  in  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  only  that  it  takes  from  ne- 
cessity a  more  controversial  form,  and  is  carried  out  with  more 
warmth  and  vehemence  of  expression.  It  is  a  divine  model  of 
the  way  in  which  fundamental  error  should  be  dealt  with. 

18.  The  epistle  naturally  falls  into  three  divisions.  The 
first  is  mainly  historic.  Chaps.  1,  2.  The  false  teachers  had 
disparaged   PauFs  apostolical  standing,  on  the  ground,  appa- 


460  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

rently,  tliat  he  was  not  one  of  the  original  twelve,  and  had  not 
been  called  immediately  by  Christ  to  the  apostleship,  but  had 
received  his  gospel  from  men.  It  would  seem  also  that  they 
labored  to  make  it  appear  that  Paul's  doctrine  respecting  cir- 
cumcision and  the  Mosaic  law  was  contrary  to  that  of  Peter 
and  the  other  apostles  of  the  circumcision.  Paul  accordingly 
devotes  these  two  introductory  chapters  to  a  vindication  of  his 
full  apostolic  standing.  He  shows  that  his  apostleship  is  "  not 
of  man  neither  by  man,  but  by  Jesus  Christ  and  God  the  Fa- 
ther "  (chap.  1:1);  that  the  gospel  which  he  preaches  he  neither 
received  of  man,  nor  was  taught  by  man  but  by  the  revelation 
of  Jesus  Christ  (verses  11, 12) ;  that,  accordingly,  upon  his  call  to 
the  apostleship,  he  went  not  up  to  Jerusalem  to  receive  instruc- 
tion from  those  who  were  apostles  before  him,  but  into  Arabia, 
whence  he  returned  to  Damascus  (verses  15-17) ;  that  after 
three  years  he  made  a  brief  visit  of  fifteen  days  to  Peter,  where 
he  also  saw  James,  but  had  no  personal  acquaintance  with  the 
churches  in  Judea  (verses  20-24);  that  fourteen  years  after- 
wards he  went  up  to  Jerusalem  by  revelation,  not  to  be  instructed 
by  the  apostles  there,  but  to  confer  with  them  respecting  "  the 
gospel  of  the  uncircumcision  "  which  was  committed  to  him, 
and  that  he  obtained  the  full  recognition  of  "  James,  Cephas, 
and  John,  who  were  reckoned  as  pillars  "  (chap.  2 : 1-10) ;  and 
that  afterwards,  when  Peter  was  come  to  Antioch  he  withstood 
him  to  the  face  on  this  very  question  of  circumcision,  because, 
through  fear  of  his  Jewish  brethren,  he  had  dissembled  and 
drawn  others  into  dissimulation,  adding  also  the  substance  of 
the  rebuke  administered  by  him  to  Peter,  which  contains  an 
argument  (drawn  in  part  from  Peter's  own  practice)  against 
compelling  the  Gentiles  to  live  as  do  the  Jews  (verses  11-21). 

Having  thus  vindicated  his  apostolic  authority  against  the 
false  teachers  in  Galatia,  he  proceeds,  in  the  second  part  of  the 
epistle,  to  unfold  the  great  argument  for  justification  by  faith  in 
Christ.  The  Galatians  have  received  the  Holy  Spirit,  Avith  the 
accompanying  miraculous  gifts,  not  by  the  works  of  the  law,  but 
b}'  faith  in  Christ  (chap.  3 : 1-5) ;  Abraham  was  justified  by 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  461 

faith,  as  an  example  for  all  future  ages  (verses  6-9, 18) ;  the  law 
cannot  bring  justification  to  sinners,  but  only  condemnation 
(verses  10-12) ;  from  this  condemnation  Christ  delivers  us,  and 
makes  us  through  faith  the  children  of  Abraham,  and  heirs  to 
all  the  promises  which  God  made  to  him  (verses  13,  14) ;  the 
Abrahamic  covenant,  conditioned  on  faith  alone,  is  older  than 
the  Mosaic  law  and  cannot  be  disannulled  by  it  (verses  15-17) ; 
the  true  office  of  the  law  was  to  prepare  men  for  the  coming  of 
Christ,  in  whom  all  distinction  between  Jew  and  Gentile  is 
abolished  (verses  19-29) ;  before  Christ  the  people  of  God  were 
like  a  child  that  has  not  yet  received  the  inheritance,  but  is 
kept  under  tutors  and  governors,  but  through  Christ  they  are 
like  the  same  child  arrived  at  full  age,  and  put  in  possession  of 
the  inheritance  (chap.  4:1-7).  The  apostle  adds  (chaps. 
4 : 8 — 5 :  12)  various  arguments  and  illustrations,  with  pointed 
allusions  to  the  false  teachers  who  were  subverting  the  simpli- 
city of  their  faith  in  Christ ;  and  he  solemnly  warns  the  Galatian 
Christians  that  by  receiving  circumcision  they  bind  themselves 
to  do  the  whole  law — the  whole  law  as  the  ground  of  their 
justification.  They  have  left  Christ,  and  thus  fallen  away  from 
grace — forsaken  a  system  of  grace  for  one  of  works,  so  that 
"  Christ  is  become  of  no  effect "  to  them.     Chap.  5 : 3,  4. 

The  tldrd  part  (chaps.  5:13 — 6:18)  is  of  a  practical  oh^iV- 
acter.  The  apostle  affectionately  exhorts  the  Galatians  to  use 
their  Christian  liberty  in  a  worthy  manner,  mortifying  fleshly 
lusts,  restoring  fallen  brethren  in  meekness,  bearing  one  an- 
other's burdens,  and  being  diligent  in  every  good  work.  In 
bringing  the  epistle  to  a  close  he  contrasts  the  vain-glory  and 
hypocrisy  of  these  Judaizing  false  teachers  with  his  stead- 
fast purpose  to  glory  only  in  the  cross  of  Christ,  in  whom 
"neither  circumcision  availeth  any  thing,  nor  uncircumcision, 
but  a  new  creature." 

IV.     EPISTLES  TO  THE  COLOSSIANS,  EPHESIANS, 
AND  PHILEMON. 
19.  These  three  epistles  are  contemporaneous,  in  the  sense 
that  they  were  written  on  the  same  general  occasion,  and  for- 


462  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

warded  at  the  same  time,  thongli  some  days  may  have  inter- 
vened between  the  composition  of  the  first  and  the  last  of  them. 
They  were  all  written  when  Paul  was  a  prisoner  (Eph.  3:1; 
4:1;  6:20;  Col.  4:10;  Philemon  1,  9,  10,  23),  and  all  sent  vir- 
tually by  Tychicus;  for  Onesimus,  a  servant  whom  Paul  sent 
back  to  his  master,  Philemon  of  Colosse,  with  a  commendatory 
letter,  went  in  company  with  Tychicus.  Eph.  6:21,  22;  Col. 
4:7-9.  The  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  contains  no  salutations; 
but  those  of  the  other  two,  are,  with  a  single  exception,  sent 
from  the  same  persons — Aristarchus,  Marcus,  Epaphras,  Luke, 
and  Demas.  If  any  further  argument  for  their  contempora- 
neousness were  needed,  it  could  be  found  in  the  remarkable 
agreement  between  the  contents  of  the  epistles  to  the  Ephe- 
sians and  Colossians,  extending  not  only  to  the  thoughts  but 
to  the  phraseology  also. 

20.  It  is  agreed  that  these  three  epistles  were  written  during 
the  apostle's  imprisonment  in  either  Cesarea  or  Borne  ;  but  from 
which  of  these  two  places  is  a  question  on  which  biblical  scholars 
differ,  and  which  cannot  be  answered  with  certainty,  though 
the  common  opinion  has  been  that  the  apostle  wrote  from 
Eome.  It  is  not  necessary  to  review  the  arguments  advanced 
on  the  two  sides.  The  reader  who  v/ishes  to  investigate  the 
matter-  will  find  them  in  commentaries  and  bible  dictionaries. 

21.  Another  question  is :  In  what  ordei'  were  the  epistles  to 
the  Ephesians  and  Colossians  written  ?  Here  we  have  only  in- 
direct indications,  and  these  not  decisive.  It  is  manifest,  how- 
ever, from  a  comparison  of  the  two  epistles,  that  the  apostle 
had  a  more  specific  occasion  for  writing  to  the  Colossians  than 
to  the  Ephesians.  It  is  natural,  therefore,  to  suppose  that  he 
first  penned  his  letter  to  the  former  church,  and  very  soon  after- 
wards, while  his  heart  was  yet  warm  with  the  great  theme  of 
that  letter — the  personal  glory  and  dignity  of  Christ,  and  the 
union  through  him  of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  in  one  holy  fam- 
ily— he  wrote  to  the  Ephesians  among  whom  he  had  so  long 
labored,  going  over  the  same  general  course  of  thought,  but 
v/ith  more  fulness  and  in  a  less  argumentative  tone.     However 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  4G3 

this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  the  most  convenient  order  of 
studjdng  these  two  closely  related  epistles  is  to  begin  with  that 
to  the  Colossians  and  thence  proceed  to  the  other.  We  pro- 
pose to  consider  them  in  this  order. 

22.  Epistle  to  the  Colossians.  Cclosse  was  a  city  lying  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  Phrygia,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Laodicea  and  Hierapolis.  Chap.  4:13,  16,  Re- 
specting the  founding  of  the  church  there  we  have  no  informa- 
tion. According  to  the  most  natural  interpretation  of  chap. 
2 : 1,  Paul  had  not  visited  Colosse  in  person  when  he  wrote  the 
l^resent  epistle.  The  occasion  of  his  writing  seems  to  have  been 
information  received  by  him  that  false  teachers  were  troubling 
the  Colossian  church.  That  these  men  were  Jews  is  plain  from 
chap.  2 :  16,  20,  21 ;  where  the  reference  is  to  Jewish  ordinances. 
But  their  doctrine  was  not  simple  Phariseeism,  like  that  of  the 
false  teachers  among  the  Galatians.  They  did  not  seek  directly 
to  substitute  circumcision  and  the  Mosaic  law  for  faith  in  Christ, 
as  the  ground  of  justification.  They  seem  rather  to  have  been 
Christian  Jews  of  an  ascetic  turn  of  mind,  and  imbued  with 
the  semi-oriental  philosophy  of  that  day,  which  contained 
in  itself  the  seeds  of  the  later  Gnostic  systems.  Having  no 
clear  apprdhension  of  the  glory  of  Christ's  person  and  the  ful- 
ness of  the  salvation  which  his  gospel  offers  to  luen,  they  sought 
to  supplement  the  Christian  system  by  their  ascetic  practices 
and  their  speculations  concerning  the  orders  of  angels, 
whom  they  seem  to  have  regarded  as  mediators  between  God 
and  men.  To  all  this  human  philosophy  the  apostle  opposes 
directly  the  divine  dignity  and  glory  of  Christ's  person,  and 
the  completeness  of  the  redemption  which  he  has  provided  for 
men. 

The  Jewish  character  of  these  false  teachers  appears  in  their  insisting  on 
meats  and  drinks,  holy-days,  new  moons,  and  Sabbaths  (chap.  2  :  16,  20, 
21)  ;  their  ascetic  character,  in  their  doctrine  concerning  the  mortification 
of  the  body  (chap.  2  :  23)  ;  their  speculations  conceryiing  angels,  in  the  fact 
that  they  are  described  as  "delighting  in  humility  and  the  worship  of  an- 
gels" (chap.  2  :18,  23).  The  apostle  apparently  refers  to  a  false  humility 
>^'hich,  under  the  pretence  that  God  is  too  great  to  be  approached  except 


464  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

through  the  mediation  of  angels,  made  them  instead  of  Christ  the  way  of 
access  to  him,  thus  disparaging  the  Kedeemer's  person  and  ofl&ce. 

23.  In  respect  to  plan,  the  epistle  naturally  falls  into  two 
parts  of  about  equal  length.  ^h.Q  first  is  argumentative.  Chaps. 
1,  2.  After  an  introduction,  in  which  the  apostle  thanks  God 
that  the  Colossians  have  been  made  partakers  of  the  gospel, 
commends  them  for  the  fruitfulness  of  their  faith,  and  assures 
them  of  his  incessant  prayers  in  their  behalf  (chap.  1 : 1-12),  and 
passes  to  his  great  theme,  which  is  to  set  forth  the  divine  dig- 
nity and  glory  of  Christ's  ];^rson.  He  is  the  image  of  the  invis- 
ible God,  existing  before  all  things,  and  the  creator  and  up- 
holder of  all  things,  those  angelic  orders  included  whom  the 
false  teachers  regarded  as  objects  of  w^orship  (verses  15-17). 
He  is  also  the  head  of  the  church,  and  as  such  unites  under 
himself  all  holy  beings  in  heaven  and  earth  in  one  happy  fam- 
ily (verses  18-22).  In  him  all  fulness  dwells,  and  all  believers 
are  complete  in  him ;  receiving  through  him  a  spiritual  circum- 
cision which  brings  to  them  holiness  of  heart,  forgiveness  of 
sins,  and  life  from  the  dead  (verses  11-13).  Christ  has  abolished 
by  his  death  on  the  cross  "  the  handwriting  of  ordinances  " — • 
the  Mosaic  ordinances  under  the  figure  of  a  bond  which  was 
before  of  binding  force,  but  which  he  has  annulled — so  that  the 
former  ground  of  separation  between  Jews  and  Gentiles  is 
done  away  (2 :  14).  By  the  same  death  on  the  cross  he  has 
"  spoiled  principalities  and  powers  " — the  powers  of  darkness, 
of  which  Satan  is  the  head — openly  triumphing  over  them 
(verse  15).  The  Colossians,  then,  have  all  that  they  need  in 
Christ,  and  the  apostle  affectionately  warns  them  against  being 
spoiled  through  the  philosophy  of  these  false  teachers,  which 
is  a  compound  of  ignorance,  self-conceit,  and  will-worship,  void 
alike  of  reality  and  power. 

The  second  part  is  practical.  Chaps.  3,  4.  The  duties  on 
which  the  apostle  insists  come  mainly  under  two  general  heads. 
The  first  is  that  of  a  heavenly  temper  of  miiid  growing  out  of 
their  resurrection  with  Christ  who  sits  at  the  right  hand  of  God, 
and  who  shall  appear  again  to  receive  his  disciples  to  himself, 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  465 

that  they  also  may  appear  with  him  in  glory.  In  yievf  of  this 
animating  hope  he  exhorts  the  Colossians  to  put  away  all  the 
sins  belonging  to  their  former  state  of  heathenism.  Chap. 
3 : 1-8.  The  second  is  that  of  mutual  love  and  harmony  arising 
from  their  union  with  each  other  in  Christ,  whereby  they  have 
been  made  one  holy  body,  in  which  outward  distinctions  are 
nothing  "  but  Christ  is  all  and  in  all."  On  this  ground  they 
are  urged  to  cultivate  all  the  graces  of  the  Spirit,  the  chief  of 
which  is  love,  and  faithfully  to  discharge,  each  one  in  his  sta- 
tion, the  mutual  duty  which  thej  owe  as  husbands  and  wives, 
as  par(;nts  and  children,  as  masters  and  servants.  Chaps. 
3  : 9 — 4 . 1.  They  are  admonished,  moreover,  to  let  the  word  of 
Christ  dwell  in  them  richly  for  their  mutual  edification  (chap. 
3  :16) ;  to  be  single-hearted  in  their  aim  to  please  Christ  (verse 
17);  to  be  prayerful  and  vigilant  (chap.  4:2-4);  and  wise  in 
their  intercourse  with  unbelievers  (verses  5,  6).  The  epistle 
closes  with  notices  of  a  personal  character  intermingled  with 
salutations  (verses  7-18). 

In  chap.  4 :  16  the  apostle  dhects  that  this  epistle  be  read  also  in  the 
church  of  the  Laodiceans,  and  that  the  Colossians  like^vise  read  the  epistle 
from  Laodicea.  What  was  this  epistle  from  Laodicea  ?  (1)  Some  think  it 
was  a  letter  written  by  the  church  of  Laodicea  to  Paul,  and  forwarded  by 
him  to  the  Colossians.  (2)  Others  understand  it  of  an  epistle  of  Paul  to 
the  Laodiceans  (perhaps  forwarded  along  with  the  three  ei)istles  now  under 
consideration)  and  which  the  Colossians  were  to  obtain  from  Laodicea. 
This  is  the  most  probable  supposition.  On  the  attempt  to  identify  this 
epistle  with  our  canonical  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  see  below. 

24.  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. — Ephesus,  the  metropolis  of 
Proconsular  Asia,  which  comprehended  the  western  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor,  lay  on  the  coast  of  the  iEgean  sea  between 
Smyrna  on  the  north  and  Miletus  on  the  south.  In  the  apos- 
tolic age  it  was  a  flourishing  city,  and  renowned  for  the  temple 
of  the  heathen  goddess  Diana.  Two  visits  of  the  apostle  to 
Ephesus  are  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  latter  of 
which  was  prolonged  through  most  of  three  years.  Acts 
18  :  19-21 ;  chaps.  19 ;  20  :  31.  The  occasion  of  writing  this  epistle 

20* 


466  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

seems  to  have  been  of  a  very  general  nature.  The  apostle  was 
sending  a  letter  by  Tychicus  to  the  Colossians,  and  embraced 
the  opportunity  to  write  to  the  Ephesians  also.  In  entire  ac- 
cordance with  this  supposition  is  the  general  charade}'  of  the 
epistle.  The  apostle  has  no  particular  error  to  combat,  as  he 
had  in  the  case  of  the  Colossians.  He  proceeds,  therefore,  in  a 
placid  and  contemplative  frame  of  mind  to  unfold  the  great 
work  of  Christ's  redemption ;  and  then  makes  a  practical  appli- 
cation of  it,  as  in  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians,  but  with  more 
fulness,  and  with  some  important  additions. 

It  has  seemed  surprising  to  many  tliat  the  apostle  should  have  written 
in  so  general  a  strain  to  a  cliurcli  on  wliicli  he  had  bestowed  so  much  labor, 
and  where  he  had  so  many  personal  friends ;  particularly  that  he  should 
have  omitted  at  the  close  all  salutations.  To  account  for  this  various  hy- 
potheses have  been  proposed.  The  words  "tw  Epliesus  "  are  omitted  in 
the  Sinai  and  Vatican  manuscripts,  and  there  is  reason  for  believing  that 
they  were  wanting  in  some  other  ancient  manuscrijDts  not  now  extant.  See 
the  quotations  from  Basil  the  Great,  and  other  fathers  in  Alford,  Ellicott, 
Meyer,  and  other  critical  commentators.  On  this  gTound  some  have  sup- 
posed that  the  present  epistle  was  intended  to  be  encyclical — an  epistle  for 
general  circulation  among  the  churches  ;  others,  that  it  is  the  Loadicenn 
epistle  referred  to  in  Col.  4  :  16.  But  in  favor  of  the  words  "  in  Ephesus  " 
there  is  an  overwhelming  weight  of  evidence.  They  are  sustained  by  all 
the  versions  and  all  the  manuscripts  except  the  above.  Besides,  as  every 
Greek  scholar  knows,  if  these  words  are  omitted,  it  compels  the  omission 
from  the  original  of  the  two  preceding  words  which  are  found  in  every 
manuscript  and  version — unless,  indeed,  we  adopt  the  far-fetched  hypoth- 
esis that  the  apostle  furnished  Tychicus  with  two  or  more  copies  of  the 
epistle  for  different  churches,  leaving  a  blank  space  to  be  filled  as  occasion 
should  require  ;  and  then  it  becomes  impossible  to  explain  how  the  read- 
ing "in  Ephesus"  should  have  been  so  universal  in  the  manuscripts  and 
versions.  There  is  no  occasion  for  any  of  this  ingenuity.  The  omission  of 
these  words  from  single  manuscripts  is  not  wonderful.  It  finds  a  parallel, 
as  Alford  remarks,  in  the  omission  of  the  words  in  Rome  (Rom.  1  : 7)  from 
one  manuscript,  whether  from  oversight  or  for  the  purpose  of  generali- 
zing the  reference  of  its  contents.  Nor  can  any  valid  objection  be  drawn 
from  the  general  character  of  the  epistle.  That  depended  much  on  the 
occasion  which  called  it  forth,  which  we  have  seen  to  have  been  general, 
and  the  frame  of  mind  in  which  the  apostle  wrote.  As  to  the  omission  of 
salutations,  we  shall  find  upon  examination  that  the  measure  of  Paul's  per- 
sonal acquaintance  with  the  churches  was  not  that  of  his  personal  greet- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  -  467 

ings.  These  abound  most  of  all  in  the  epistle  to  the  Eomans  whom  he  had 
never  visited,  Eom.  16.  They  are  found  also  in  the  epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians  to  whom  Paul  was  personally  a  stranger.  Col.  4  :  10-14.  On  the  con- 
trary they  are  wanting,  except  in  a  general  form,  in  the  epistles  to  the  Cor- 
inthians, Galatians,  Philippians,  Thessalonians  (in  2  Thessalonians  wholly 
wanting  as  in  this  epistle),  Titus,  and  the  first  to  Timothy.  The  other  objec- 
tions are  founded  on  misinterpretation,  as  when  it  is  inferred  from  chap. 
1  :  15  that  the  author  had  never  seen  those  to  whom  he  ^vrote  ;  and  from  chap. 
3  :  2  that  they  had  no  personal  acquaintance  with  him.  But  in  the  fonner 
passage  the  apostle  speaks  simply  of  the  good  report  which  had  come  to 
him  from  the  Ephesian  church  since  he  left  it ;  and,  in  the  latter,  the 
words  :  "if  ye  have  heard"  imply  no  doubt  (compare  1  Peter 2:3),  and 
cannot  be  fairly  adduced  to  prove  that  the  writer  was  personally  unknown 
to  his  readers. 

25.  This  epistle,  like  that  to  the  Colossians,  naturally  falls 
into  two  divisions  of  about  equal  size ;  the  first  argumentative,  the 
second  practical. 

The  argumentative  part  occupies  the  first  two  chapters.  Full 
of  the  great  theme  with  which  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians  is 
occupied — the  personal  dignity  and  glory  of  Christ,  the  great- 
ness of  his  salvation,  and  especially  the  union  through  him  of 
all  holy  beings  in  heaven  and  earth  in  one  family  of  God — the 
apostle  begins,  immediately  after  the  apostolic  greeting,  by 
pouring  out  his  heart  in  thanksgiving  to  God  for  his  rich  mercy, 
w^hich  has  made  him  and  his  beloved  Ephesian s  partakers  of 
Christ's  redemption,  the  greatness  and  glory  of  which  he  de- 
scribes in  glowing  terms,  bringing  in,  as  he  proceeds,  the  thought 
with  which  his  mind  is  filled,  that  it  is  God's  purpose  to  "  gather 
together  in  one  all  things  in  Christ,  both  wdiich  are  in  heaven, 
and  which  are  on  earth."  Chap.  1 :10.  He  then  adds  a  fervent 
prayer  for  the  growth  of  the  Ephesians  in  the  knowledge  of 
Christ,  whom  God  has  raised  above  all  principality  and  power 
and  made  head  over  all  things  to  his  body  the  church.  Re- 
turning in  the  second  chapter  to  the  theme  with  which  he  be- 
gan, he  contrasts  wdth  the  former  wretched  condition  of  the 
Ephesians,  when  they  had  no  hope  and  were  without  God  in  the 
world,  their  present  blessed  state,  as  fellow-citizens  with  the 
saints  and  of   the   household  of  faith;   God  having  through 


468  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Christ  broken  clown  the  middle  wall  of  partition  between  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  and  built  them  all  into  a  holy  temple  upon  one 
common  foundation,  of  which  Jesus  Christ  is  the  chief  corner 
stone.  In  the  third  chapter  he  dwells  upon  the  grace  of  God 
which  had  committed  to  him,  in  a  special  sense,  the  office 
of  preaching  among  the  Gentiles  the  unsearchable  riches  of 
Christ;  and  adds  a  rapturous  prayer  for  the  strengthening  of 
the  Ephesians  through  the  Spirit  in  the  inner  man,  for  their  es- 
tablishment in  faith  and  love,  and  their  illumination  in  the  love 
of  Christ  which  passes  knowledge,  that  they  may  "  be  filled 
with  all  the  fulness  of  God."  Then  follows  a  doxology  in  which 
the  apostle  labors  to  find  words  wherewith  to  express  his  con- 
ception of  the  greatness  of  God's  power  and  grace  through 
Jesus  Christ. 

With  the  fourth  chapter  begins  the pnidicalipsiYt  of  the  epistle. 
He  begins  with  an  exhortation  to  unity,  the  argument  for  which 
cannot  be  abridged  :  "  There  is  one  body,  and  one  Spirit,  even 
as  ye  are  called  in  one  hope  of  your  calling :  one  Lord,  one 
faith,  one  baptism,  one  God  and  Father  of  all,  who  is  above  all, 
and  through  all,  and  in  you  all."  Chap.  4:4-6.  He  next 
speaks  of  the  diversity  of  gifts  among  believers,  all  of  which 
Wme  from  Christ,  and  have  for  their  end  the  unity  of  the  church 
in  faith  and  knowledge,  and  thus  her  stability'  (verses  7-16). 
Then  follow  earnest  admonitions  to  shun  the  vices  of  their  for- 
mer state  of  heathenism,  and  cultivate  all  the  graces  of  the 
Spirit.  The  mutual  relations  of  life  are  then  taken  up,  as  in 
the  epistle  to  the  Colossians.  Here  occurs  that  grand  digres- 
sion in  which  the  love  of  Christ  towards  his  church  is  compared 
with  that  of  the  husband  towards  his  wife.  Chap.  5 :  23-32. 
The  closing  exhortation,  in  which  the  Christian  is  compared  to 
a  warrior  wrestling  not  with  flesh  and  blood  but  with  the  pow- 
ers of  darkness,  and  his  heavenly  panoply  is  described  at  length, 
is  (with  the  exception  of  the  brief  figure,  1  Thess.  5 : 8)  peculiar 
to  this  epistle  and  is  very  striking. 

26.  Epistle  to  Philemon.— This  short  epistle  is  essentially 
of  a  private  character.     It  was  sent  to  Colosse  by  Onesimus  at 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  4:C)b 

tlie  same  time  with  the  epistle  to  tlie  Colossians,  of  which  Tj- 
chicus  was  the  bearer.  CoL  4 : 7-9.  The  epistle  itself  plainly 
indicates  its  object.  It  is  a  plea  for  Onesimus,  the  servant  of 
Philemon,  who*  had  left  his  master  and  apparently  defrauded 
him  (verse  18),  but  now  returns  to  him  a  Christian.  As  a 
model  of  Christian  delicacy  and  courtesy  it  has  been  the  admi- 
ration of  all  ages. 

V.     EPISTLE  TO  THE  PHILIPPIANS. 

27.  The  ancient  name  of  Philippi  was  Crenirles  (Fountains)  ; 
but  Philip  of  Macedon  fortified  the  place  and  called  it  after  his 
own  name.  It  lay  along  the  bank  of  a  river  on  a  plain  in  the 
eastern  border  of  Proconsular  Macedonia,  and  was  made  a  col- 
ony by  Augustus  in  memory  of  his  victory  gained  there  over 
Brutus  and  Cassius.  Compare  Acts  16 :  12.  Its  port  was  Ne- 
apolis  on  the  iEgean  sea  about  twelve  Roman  miles  to  the 
southeast  of  it.  Philippi  was  the  first  place  in  Europe  where 
the  gospel  was  preached  by  Paul,  who  had  been  summoned 
across  the  sea  to  Macedonia  by  a  vision.  Acts  16 : 9.  This  was 
during  his  second  missionary  journey,  about  A.  D.  53.  A  record 
of  his  labors  and  sufferings  on  that  occasion  is  given  in  Acts 
16 :  12-40.  In  his  third  missionary  journey  he  twice  visited 
Macedonia,  sailing  the  second  time  from  Philippi,  that  is,  from 
its  port  Neapolis.     Acts  20  : 1,  3-6. 

18.  The  occasion  of  this  epistle  seems  to  have  been  the  con- 
tribution made  by  the  Philippians  to  supply  the  apostle's  ne- 
cessities while  a  prisoner  in  Rome.  Chap.  4:10-18.  That  he 
was  a  prisoner  is  plain  from  chap.  1 :  13, 14, 16.  That  the  place 
of  imprisonment  was  Rome  is  inferred  from  the  general  tone  of 
the  epistle,  which  shows  that  the  apostle  was  awaiting  a  decision 
of  his  case,  in  accordance  with  his  appeal  to  Caesar,  with  the 
confident  expectation  of  a  favorable  result  (chaps.  1 :  19-25  ; 
2:23,  24),  and  especially  from  the  mention  of  Caesar's  house- 
hold (chap.  4:22).  From  chap.  2:23,  24  we  infer,  moreover, 
that  the  time  for  a  decision  of  his  case  was  at  hand.  The  date 
of  this  epistle,  then,  was  about  A.  D.  63. 


470  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  apostle  speaks  very  confidently  of  a  speedy  release  and  restoration 
to  the  work  of  his  apostolic  office.  Chaps.  1 :  19,  25,  26  ;  2  :24.  This  lan- 
guage is  important  in  connection  with  the  two  closely  related  questions, 
that  of  a  second  imprisonment  at  Rome  and  that  of  the  date  of  the  pastoral 
epistles.     See  below,  No.  35. 

29.  Tlie  character  of  tliis  epistle  answers  well  to  its  occasion. 
It  is  a  free  outpouring  of  the  apostle's  heart  towards  his  be- 
loved Philippians,  who  had  remembered  him  in  his  bonds  and 
sent  Epaphroditus  to  supply  his  wants.  He  bestows  upon  them 
no  censure,  unless  the  suggestion  to  Euodias  and  Syntyche  be 
regarded  as  such,  but  commends  them  for  their  liberality,  ex- 
horts them  to  steadfastness  in  the  endurance  of  persecution, 
and  admonishes  them  to  maintain  a  deportment  which  shall  be 
in  all  things  such  as  becomes  the  gospel,  the  several  parts  of 
which  he  specifies  in  the  course  of  the  epistle,  but  not  in  any 
very  exact  order.  It  is  in  connection  with  these  admonitions 
that  the  apostle,  while  insisting  on  the  duty  of  humility  and 
self-sacrificing  love,  brings  in  that  sublime  description  of  the 
Saviour's  original  glory,  and  equality  with  God,  which  he  laid 
aside  for  our  redemption,  taking  upon  himself  the  form  of  a 
servant  and  submitting  to  the  death  of  the  cross  ;  for  which  act 
of  self-abasement  he  is  now  exalted  to  be  Lord  of  heaven  and 
earth.  Chap.  2 : 5-11.  Intermingled  with  the  above  named 
commendations,  exhortations,  and  counsels,  are  frequent  notices 
respecting  himself,  introduced  in  the  most  natural  and  artless 
manner,  and  unfolding  for  our  edification  some  of  the  deepest 
principles  of  Christian  character. 

His  faith  in  Christ  and  love  for  His  cause  raise  him  above 
the  sphere  of  human  jealousies.  He  rejoices  that  Christ  is 
preached,  whether  of  good-will  or  of  envy,  knowing  that  this 
shall  turn  to  his  salvation  through  the  prayers  of  the  Philip- 
pians and  the  supply  of  Christ's  Spirit.     Chap.  2  :  15-19. 

He  knows  that  for  himself  personally  it  is  better  to  depart 
and  be  with  Christ :  but  to  continue  in  the  flesh  is  more  needful 
for  the  Philippians.  He  cannot,  therefore,  choose  between  life 
and  death.     Chap.  1 :  21-25.     How  different  this  from  the  spirit 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  471 

of  some,  who  think  of  death  only  in  connection  with  their  own 
personal  comfort,  and  how  much  higher  the  type  of  religion 
which  it  reveals  ! 

So  far  as  outward  advantages  are  concerned,  ho  man  can 
have  more  occasion  than  he  to  glory  in  the  flesh.  But  all  these 
he  has  renounced  and  counted  loss  for  Christ.  His  one  ambi- 
tion is  to  know  Christ,  and  be  united  with  him  in  his  death  and 
resurrection.  His  present  attainments  he  forgets  in  his  single 
purpose  of  pressing  towards  the  goal  for  the  prize  of  God's 
heavenly  calling  in  Christ  Jesus.     Chap.  3 : 4-14. 

He  warmly  commends  the  Philippians  for  their  liberality, 
but  wishes  them  to  understand  that  he  does  not  speak  in  re- 
spect to  personal  want ;  for  every  where  and  in  all  things  he  has 
been  taught  the  lesson  of  contentment  with  present  circum- 
stances.    Chap.  4 :  10-14. 

VI.     EPISTLES  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 

30.  The  original  name  of  Thessalonica  was  Tlierme,  whence 
the  gulf  at  the  head  of  which  it  is  situated,  was  called  the  Ther- 
maic  gulf  The  modern  name  of  the  city  is  Saloniki,  and  of 
the  gulf,  the  gulf  of  Saloniki.  In  the  apostolic  age  it  was  a 
large  and  wealthy  city,  and  the  metropolis  of  the  second  district 
of  Macedonia.  At  the  present  day  it  is  second  only  to  Con- 
stantinople in  European  Turkey.  Then  as  now  a  large  number 
of  Jews  resided  in  it.  In  his  second  missionary  tour  the  apos- 
tle, when  driven  from  Philippi,  went  through  Amphipolis  and 
Apollonia  to  Thessalonica.  After  his  usual  manner  he  first 
resorted  to  the  Jewish  synagogue  "  and  three  Sabbath  days 
reasoned  with  them  out  of  the  Scriptures."  After  this  a  tumult 
was  raised  at  the  instigation  of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  and  the 
apostle  was  sent  away  by  night  to  Berea.  Acts  17 : 1-10.  We 
cannot  affirm  that  his  stay  at  Thessalonica  was  limited  to  three 
weeks ;  yet  it  was  very  brief,  and  for  this  reason  he  was  anx- 
ious to  return  again  that  he  might  impart  further  instruction 
and  consolation  to  the  converts  there,  who  were  undergoing  a 
severe   ordeal   of    temptation    through    persecution.     Chaps. 


472  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

2:17 3:5.     His  labors  at  Tbessalonica  were  not  confined  to 

the  Sabbatn-day  and  the  Jewish  synagogue.  He  preached  the 
gospel  to  the  Gentiles  also,  and  his  chief  success  seems  to  have 
been  among  them.     1  Thess.  1:9;  2  :  14,  16. 

31.  The  first  epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  was  written 
during  the  apostle's  second  missionary  journey,  the  same  journey 
in  which  he  first  visited  Tbessalonica.  This  we  gather  from 
the  fact  that  Silvanus  (Silas)  was  with  him  (chap.  1:1),  for  Silas 
was  Paul's  travelling  companion  only  during  that  journey  (Acts 
15:40;  16:19,25,29^  17:4,10,14,15;  18:5);  also  from  the 
notice  of  his  being  at  Athens  (chap.  3:1  compared  with  Acts 
17:15,  16).  He  did  not,  however,  write  from  Athens,  as  the 
subscription  erroneously  states,  but  from  Corinth ;  for  it  was  at 
this  place  that  Silas  and  Timotheus  rejoined  him,  bringing 
good  tidings  from  Macedonia  respecting  the  church  in  Tbessa- 
lonica. Chap.  3:1-6  compared  with  Acts  18:1-5.  This  is, 
then,  the  earliest  of  PcmVs  epistles,  having  been  written  about 
A.  D.  53. 

32.  The  epistle  clearly  indicates  its  occasion.  In  considera- 
tion of  the  brief  time  which  the  apostle  had  been  able  to  spend 
at  Tbessalonica,  and  of  the  severe  persecution  to  which  the 
converts  in  that  city  were  exposed,  he  was  very  desirous  to 
make  them  a  second  visit.  But  having  been  twice  frustrated 
in  this  purpose,  he  sent  Timothy  and  Silas  to  learn  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Thessalonian  church  and  bring  him  word  concerning 
it,  which  they  did  while  he  was  at  Corinth.  Chaps.  2  :  17 — 3 : 6. 
The  letter  is  an  affectionate  outpouring  of  his  heart  in  view  of 
the  good  tidings  received  through  these  brethren,  into  which 
are  interwoven  encouragements,  instructions,  and  admonitions 
adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  brethren  at  Tbessalonica, 
with  abundant  references  to  the  apostle's  own  labors  there.  In 
the  first  chapter  he  commends,  with  devout  thanksgiving  to  God, 
the  faith  and  love  and  patience  of  the  Thessalonian  Christians. 
The  second  and  third  chapters  are  mainly  occupied  with  a  no- 
tice of  his  own  labors  and  those  of  his  colleagues  at  Tbessalo- 
nica, of  his  strong  desire  to  revisit  them  which  he  had  thus  far 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  473 

been  hindered  from  carrying  into  execution,  and  of  his  joy  at 
the  good  tidings  brought  by  Timothy,  the  whole  closed  with  a 
fervent  prayer  in  their  behalf.  The  two  remaining  chapters 
contain  miscellaneous  instructions  suited  to  the  condition  of  a 
church  that  had  been  recently  gathered  in  great  part  from  the 
ranks  of  heathenism.  In  the  course  of  these  he  corrects  an  er- 
ror into  which  the  Thessaloiiian  believers  had  fallen  from  the 
idea  that  they  who  should  die  before  Christ's  second  coming 
might  fail  of  their  share  in  its  glory  and  blessedness.  Chap. 
4:13-18.  In  both  of  the  epistles  he  admonishes  the  Thes- 
salonians  against  the  neglect  of  their  proper  worldly  business, 
a  fault  that  was  apparently  connected  with  visionary  ideas 
respecting  the  speedy  second  coming  of  our  Lord,  and  wdiich 
he  rebukes  in  severe  terms.  1  Thess.  4:11 ;  2  Thess.  3  :  10-12. 
33.  The  second  epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  like  the  first, 
is  written  in  the  name  of  "  Paul,  and  Silvanus,  and  Timotheus," 
and  seems  to  have  been  sent  from  Corinth  not  many  months  af- 
ter the  first.  The  apostle's  main  design  was  to  correct  a  per- 
nicious error  respecting  the  time  of  our  Lord's  second  advent, 
which  some  at  Thessalonica  seem  to  have  been  strenuously 
engaged  in  propagating,  and  to  give  them  further  instruction 
respecting  this  great  doctrine  and  their  duty  in  relation  to  it. 
After  the  apostolic  salutation  he  expresses  his  gratitude  to  God 
for  the  growth  of  their  Christian  faith  and  love,  and  comforts 
them  under  the  pressure  of  the  persecution  to  which  they  were 
subjected  with  the  assurance  of  our  Lord's  second  coming  in 
glory  to  destroy  his  and  their  enemies  and  give  rest  to  his  suf- 
fering servants ;  but  proceeds  in  the  second  chapter  to  show 
that  this  day  is  not  yet  at  hand,  and  cannot  come  till  there  has 
first  been  a  great  apostacy,  the  characteristic  features  of  which 
he  proceeds  to  give  (verses  3-12).  The  remainder  of  the  epistle 
is  occupied  with  commendations  and  encouragements  to  perse- 
verence;  mingled  with  admonitions.  The  latter  have  special 
reference  to  certain  idle  and  disorderly  members  of  the  church, 
whom  the  apostle  describes  as  "  some  which  walk  among  you 
disorderly,  working  not  at  all,  but  are  busy  bodies  "  (ohap.  3  :  11), 


474  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

and  who  also  set  tliemselves  in  opposition  to  his  apostolic  au- 
thority (verse  14).  These  disorderly  persons  seem  to  have  been 
the  same  as  those  who  were  engaged  in  propagating  erroneous 
notions  respecting  the  time  of  our  Lord's  second  advent. 
Their  visionary  views  on  this  subject  made  them  self-conceited, 
talkative,  and  self- willed,  and  led  them  to  neglect  the  sober  du- 
ties of  daily  life. 

Tlie  apostle  beseeches  the  Thessalonians  not  to  be  soon  shaken  in  mind, 
or  troubled,  "neither  by  spirit,  nor  by  word,  nor  by  letter  as  from  us,  as 
that  the  day  of  Christ  is  at  hand. "  And  he  adds  :  ' '  Let  no  man  deceive  you 
in  any  way  " — in  any  of  the  ways  specified  or  any  other  way.  Chap.  2  : 2,  3. 
There  were  then  persons  at  Thessalonica  busily  occupied  in  misleading  the 
Thessalonians  :  (1)  "  by  spirit,"  that  is,  by  prophesies  which  they  professed 
to  have  received  from  the  Holy  Spirit ;  (2)  "by  word,"  by  oral  teaching  ; 
(3)  "by  letter  as  from  us,"  that  is,  purporting  to  come  from  the  apostle. 
Or,  perhaps,  we  should  render  :  "  nor  by  word  nor  by  letter  as  from  us  : " 
that  is,  neither  by  oral  teaching  nor  by  written  communication  alleged  to 
have  come  from  me.  We  can  well  understand  how  the  unwritten  words  of 
the  apostle  should  have  been  perverted  by  these  false  teachers.  The  ques- 
tion remains  :  Did  they  pervert  the  meaning  of  his  language  in  the  first 
epistle,  or  did  they  emj)loy  an  ejDistle  forged  in  his  name  ?  The  latter  has 
been  from  ancient  times  a  common  interpretation  of  this  clause,  and  it  is 
favored  by  the  words  :  "  The  salutation  of  Paul  with  mine  own  hand,  which 
is  the  token  in  every  epistle  :  so  I  write."  Chap.  3  :17.  Yet  the  supi^osi- 
tion  of  such  a  forged  epistle  is  something  so  improbable  that  many  are  in- 
clined to  adopt  the  former  supposition. 

The  question  respecting  "the  man  of  sin  "  belongs  to  the  commentator. 
In  a  brief  introduction  like  the  present,  we  cannot  enter  upon  it  farther 
than  to  say  that,  though  we  are  not  warranted  in  affirming  that  it  has  its 
exhaustive  fulfilment  in  the  Papacy,  yet  its  chief  embodiment  thus  far  has 
been  in  that  corrupt  and  persecuting  power  whose  character  answers  so  re- 
markably to  the  apostle's  description. 

34.  The  epistles  to  the  churches  of  Philippi  and  Thessa- 
lonica, both  lying  within  the  bounds  of  ancient  Macedonia, 
have  a  remarkable  agreement  in  their  general  tone  and  manner. 
In  both  cases  we  have  the  same  affectionate  outpouring  of  the 
apostle's  heart  towards  the  brethren  to  whom  he  writes,  and  the 
same  abundant  personal  notices  respecting  himself  and  his  min- 
istry.    Yet  they  differ  precisely  as  we  might  suppose  they  would 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  475 

in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  two  to  the  Thessalouians  are  the  ear- 
liest of  Paul's  writings,  and  are  separated  from  that  to  the 
Pliili]5pians  by  an  interval  of  ten  eventful  years.  In  writing  to 
the  Thessalouians  he  gives  peculiar  prominence  to  the  doctrine 
of  our  Lord's  second  coming,  perhaps  because,  in  the  persecu- 
tions which  they  were  undergoing,  they  especially  needed  its 
strengthening  and  consolatory  influence;  perhaps  also  because 
in  the  continual  maltreatment  which  he  had  encountered  ever 
since  he  entered  Macedonia — at  Philippi  (Acts  16:19-40;  1 
Thess.  2:2),  at  Thessalonica  (Acts  17:5-10),  at  Berea  (Acts 
17:13,  14),  at  Corinth  (Acts  18:6-17) — he  was  staying  his  own 
soul  on  the  same  glorious  hope.  On  the  contrary,  we  find  in 
these  earlier  epistles  no  mention  of  Judaizing  Christians,  nor 
any  contrast  between  the  two  opposite  systems  of  justification 
by  faith  and  by  the  works  of  the  Mosaic  law,  such  as  appears 
in  his  later  epistles,  that  to  the  Philippians  included.  PhiL 
3 : 4-9.  His  opponents  at  Thessalonica  are  not  Judaizing 
Christians,  but  unconverted  Jews,  wdiose  mahgnant  opposition 
he  describes  in  strong  terms.  1  Thess.  2 :15,  16.  To  the  Thes- 
salouians the  apostle  speaks  of  himself ;  but  it  is  of  his  ministry, 
and  the  manner  in  which  he  has  discharged  its  duties  among 
them.  To  the  Philippians  he  also  speaks  of  himself;  but  then 
it  is  from  a  prison,  with  a  trial  for  life  or  death  before  him,  and 
the  retrospect  of  a  long  ministry  behind  him.  He  unfolds, 
therefore,  as  is  natural,  his  deep  experiences  as  a  Christian  and 
an  apostle  of  Christ.  See  above,  No.  29.  In  this  contrast  be- 
tween the  earlier  and  the  later  epistles  we  have  an  evidence  of 
their  genuineness  which  is  all  the  stronger  because  of  its  indirect- 
ness. It  is  such  a  mark  of  truth  as  no  falsifier  has  power  to 
imitate. 

VII.     THE  PASTOEAL  EPISTLES. 

35.  The  attempt  to  find  for  the  pastoral  epistles  a  place  in 
Paul's  ministry  as  far  as  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
is  beset  with  difliculties  which  amount  to  impossibilities. 

Among  these  difficulties  are  the  following  : 

(1.)  AVhoever  carefully  studies  these  three  epistles  in  tlieii-  connection 


476  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

witli  each  other,  and  in  contrast  with  the  other  Pauline  epistles,  muht  be 
profoundly  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  they  all  belong,  as  it  re- 
spects style  and  tone  of  thought,  to  the  same  period  of  the  apostle'^  life ; 
and,  as  it  respects  subject-matter,  to  the  same  era  when  the  churches  were 
troubled  by  the  same  forms  of  error.  But  if  we  assume  that  they  were 
Avritten  during  that  i^ai't  of  Paul's  ministry  of  which  Luke  has  left  us  the 
record,  the  second  to  Timothy  must  be  widely  separated  from  the  other 
two.  That  was  certainly  written  during  Paul's  last  im^Drisonment  near  the 
close  of  his  life.  But  when  he  wrote  the  first  to  Timothy  and  that  to  Titus 
he  was  at  liberty  and  prosecuting  his  missionary  labors  in  Asia  Minor  and 
the  vicinity.  It  must  have  been  then,  upon  this  assumption,  during  his 
third  missionary  tour  (when  Apollos  appears  for  the  first  time,  Acts  18  :  24 
compared  with  Titus  3  :  13),  and  before  his  last  recorded  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem, his  arrest  there,  his  two  years'  imprisonment  at  Cesarea,  his  voyage 
to  Rome,  and  his  imprisonment  there  for  the  space  of  at  least  two  more 
years. 

(2.)  There  is  no  part  of  Paul's  history  "  between  his  first  visit  to  Ephe- 
sus  and  his  Roman  imprisonment,  which  satisfies  the  historical  conditions 
implied  in  the  statements  of  any  one  of  these  epistles,"  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  vol.  2,  Appendix  1.  The  student  may  see  the  arguments  on  one 
side  in  Davidson's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament ;  and  on  the  other 
in  Alford,  and  other  critical  commentators.  Reference  may  also  be  made 
to  the  biblical  dictionaries. 

(3.)  Upon  the  assumption  that  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy,  whom  Paul 
had  left  in  charge  of  the  Ephesian  church,  was  written  be/ore  his  recorded 
imprisonments  at  Cesarea  and  Rome,  it  must  be  earlier  than  his  farewell 
address  to  the  elders  of  Ephesus,  and  also  his  epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 
But  the  contents  of  the  epistle  manifestly  point  to  a  later  period,  when  the 
errors  in  doctrine  and  practice  which  he  had  predicted  (Acts  20  :29,  30), 
but  of  which  he  takes  no  notice  in  his  (  nistle  to  the  Ephesians,  had  abeady 
begun  to  manifest  themselves.  The  more  one  compares  with  each  other 
these  two  epistles,  the  deejoer  must  his  conviction  be  that  the  first  to  Tim- 
othy is  not  the  earlier  but  the  later  of  the  two. 

(4. )  The  peculiar  tone  and  diction  of  the  pastoral  epistles  and  the  pecu- 
liar character  of  the  errors  combated  in  them  aU  indicate  a  later  period  in 
the  apostle's  life,  and  a  later  stage  in  the  history  of  the  churches.  To 
place  the  first  and  third  of  these  among  those  to  the  Galatians,  Corin- 
thians, and  Romans,  and  the  second,  among  those  to  Philemon,  the  Colos- 
sians,  Exohesians,  and  Philij)pians,  imist  apjoear  forced  and  unnatural.  It 
is  much  easier  to  assume  the  lapse  of  some  years.  Even  then  the  contrast 
between  these  and  the  other  epistles  of  Paul  in  respect  to  tone  and  diction 
is  very  striking.  But  it  may  be  explained  partly  from  the  pecuUar  them6 
of  the  pastoral  epistles,  partly  from  the  change  which  the  lapse  of  time 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  477 

with  its  manifold  experiences  liad  brought  to  the  apostle's  stj»lo  and 
diction. 

We  assume,  therefore,  that  the  apostle  was  released  from  the  Eoman 
imprisonment  recorded  by  Luke  ;  and  that,  not  very  long  before  his  sec- 
ond imprisonment  which  was  terminated  by  his  martyrdom  at  Eome,  he 
wrote  the  three  epistles  now  under  consideration.  It  is  well  known  that 
this  is  in  accordance  with  ancient  tradition.  See  the  testimonies  in  Cony- 
beare  and  How^son,  chap.  27  ;  in  Alford,  and  in  other  commentators. 

Against  this  view  is  urged  the  apostle's  declaration  to  the  elders  of 
Ephesus  that  they  should  see  his  face  no  more  ;  whereas,  according  to  the 
present  supposition,  he  visited  Ephesus  again  after  his  first  imjirisonment. 
As  a  fair  offset  to  this  may  be  urged  on  the  other  ^ide  his  equally  strong 
declaration  to  the  Philippians  that  his  present  imprisonment  should  have 
a  favorable  issue  (Phil.  1  :  25)  ;  which  was  not  the  case  upon  the  hypothe- 
sis of  a  single  imprisonment  at  Home.  Such  declarations,  where  no  doc- 
trine or  fact  of  Christianity  is  concerned,  are  not  to  be  taken  as  revelations 
of  the  Spirit.  We  know,  for  example,  from  Paul's  own  words,  that  he 
changed  his  declared  purpose  respecting  a  visit  to  Corinth,  for  which  his 
enemies  accused  him  of  using  lightness.     2  Cor.  1  :  15-18. 

It  is  urged  again  that  when  Paul  wrote  the  pastoral  ejDistles  Timothy 
was  a  young  man.  1  Tim.  4  :  12  ;  2  Tim.  2  :  22.  But  according  to  ancient 
ideas  one  might  be  called  a  young  man  at  any  age  under  thkty-five  or  even 
forty  years.  Paul  found  Timothy  in  his  second  missionary  journey,  about 
A.  D.  52.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that  he  was  then  more  than  twenty 
years  old.  At  the  time  of  Paul's  martyrdom,  then,  about  a.  d.  67  or  68,  he 
may  have  been,  for  anything  that  appears  to  the  contrary,  a  young  man  in 
the  ancient  sense  of  the  w^ord. 

36.  The  false  teachers  with  whom  the  apostle  deals  in  these 
epistles  are  corrupt  in  'practice  as  well  as  in  doctrine.  1  Tim. 
1:6;  6:5;  2  Tim.  2:16,  17;  3:6,  8;  Titus  1:15,  16.  They 
were  chiefly  Jews  (1  Tim.  1:7;  Titus  1 :10,  14;  3;9) ;  but  not 
Jews  who  held  to  simple  Pliariseeism,  like  the  false  teachers 
among  the  Galatians.  They  more  nearly  resembled  those  who 
troubled  the  Colossians — Jews  of  a  speculative  turn  of  mind, 
who  sought  to  bring  into  Judaism  the  semi-oriental  philosophy 
of  that  day.  They  were  not  Gnostics ;  for  Gnosticism  was  es- 
sentially anti-Judaistic,  separating  the  God  of  the  Jews  from 
the  God  of  Christianity,  and  placing  the  two  in  antagonism  to 
each  other.  The  speculations  of  these  false  teachers  took  a 
direction  which  was  in  some  respects  akin  to  the  Gnosticism  of 


478  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  second  century ;  but  the  allegation  that  they  were  themselves 
Gnostics  rests  upon  the  misinterpretation  of  certain  passages 
in  these  epistles,  or  unwarrantable  inferences  from  them. 

37.  The  genuineness  of  these  epistles  is  sustained  by  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  the  ancient  church.  Only  in  modern 
times  has  it  been  called  in  question  by  certain  writers,  who  rest 
their  arguments  wholly  on  alleged  internal  evidence. 

So  far  as  their  objections  are  founded  on  the  assumed  early  date  of  the 
pastoral  epistles — before  the  close  of  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome  recorded 
by  Luke,  on  their  pecyliar  tone  and  diction,  or  on  the  supposed  references 
in  them  to  the  Gnosticism  of  the  second  century,  they  have  already  been 
considered.     But  it  is  further  alleged  : 

(1.)  That  they  reveal  a  liter arclilcal  spirit  foreign  to  the  character  of  the 
apostle  Paul.  The  answer  is  that  no  trace  of  such  a  spirit  is  discernible  in 
them.  The  churches  had  from  the  first  their  officers — bishops  or  elders  and 
deacons  ;  and  the  apostle  simply  gives  the  necessary  directions  for  the  se- 
lection of  these,  with  a  few  brief  hints  respecting  the  line  of  conduct  to  be  ob- 
served towards  them.     1  Tim.  5  : 1,  17,  19,  22. 

(2.)  That  the  institution  of  widows  (1  Tim.  5:9-16)  belongs  to  a  later 
age.  Respecting  the  exact  position  of  those  who  were  enrolled  in  the  class 
of  widows  there  have  been  different  opinions.  One  is  that  this  class  con- 
sisted of  those  who  were  to  receive  rehef  from  the  funds  of  the  church  ; 
another,  that  they  were  matrons  set  apart  for  special  service  in  the  church, 
Ijerforming  for  their  own  sex  duties  analogous  to  those  which  the  presby- 
ters performed  for  the  church  generally.  The  latter  opinion  is  the  more 
probable  of  the  two,  as  it  explains  the  conditions  insisted  on  by  the  apostle. 
But  according  to  either  view  there  is  no  difficulty  in  admitting  the  existence 
in  apostolic  times  of  such  an  arrangement. 

38.  In  these  pastoral  epistles  we  have  the  affectionate  coun- 
sels of  the  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  when  he  was  now  ripe 
in  years  and  Christian  experience  and  about  to  close  his  earthly 
ministry,  addressed  to  two  young  men  whom  the  Holy  Ghost 
had  made  overseers  of  the  churches.  They  are  a  rich  store- 
house of  instruction  for  all  to  whom  God  has  committed  the 
ministry  of  reconciliation.  Let  them,  as  they  hope  at  last  to 
render  up  an  account  of  their  stewardship  with  joy  and  not  with 
grief,  prayerfully  study  and  reduce  to  daily  practice  these  pre- 
cepts of  heavenly  wisdom  given  by  the  Holy  Spirit  through  tiio 
pen  of  "  Paul  the  aged." 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  479 

39.  The  first  epistle  to  Timothy. — The  iime  of  this  ej)istle 
lies,  as  we  have  seen,  beyond  the  recorded  history  of  the  apos- 
tle, and  before  his  second  and  final  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
perhaps  about  a.  D.  65  or  QQ.  It  was  addressed  to  Timothy  at 
Ephesus  not  long  after  the  apostle  had  left  that  city  to  go  into 
Macedonia  (chap.  1:3),  but  whether  from  Macedonia  or  some 
other  province  of  the  Roman  empire  cannot  be  determined. 
The  occasion  we  learn  from  the  ej)istle.  Paul  had  left  Timotliy 
in  charge  of  the  Ephesian  church,  and,  being  apprehensive  of  a 
protracted  absence,  he  sends  him  these  written  instructions  re- 
lating partly  to  his  own  personal  demeanor  as  a  Christian  min- 
ister, but  chiefly  to  his  office  as  the  overseer  of  the  Ephesian 
church.  In  the  discharge  of  this  office  he  is  (1)  to  withstand 
and  keep  down  the  growing  heresies  of  the  day;  (2)  to  superin- 
tend the  government  of  the  church  in  various  particulars  which 
the  apostle  specifies. 

The  contents  of  the  epistle  though  not  arranged  in  systematic 
order,  are  in  harmony  with  its  occasion  and  design.  Into  the 
first  chapter,  which  is  of  an  introductory  character,  the  apostle, 
in  the  free  intercourse  of  confiding  affection,  inserts  a  personal 
notice  of  himself,  which  breathes  the  spirit  of  devout  gratitude 
and  deep  humility.  He  then  proceeds  to  give  directions  per- 
taining to  the  public  worship  of  God — prayer,  the  costume  of 
women,  and  their  place  in  the  public  assembly  (chap.  2) ;  and 
to  the  choice  of  bishops  and  deacons  (chap.  3).  After  a  digres- 
sion in  the  fourth  chapter  respecting  the  character  of  the  com- 
ing apostacy  foretold  by  the  Spirit,  which  is  followed  by  admo- 
nitions to  Timothy  of  a  personal  character,  he  proceeds  in  the 
fifth  chapter  to  give  directions-  respecting  the  ajjpointment  and 
treatment  of  elders,  of  the  elder  and  younger  women,  and  es- 
pecially of  widows,  with  personal  counsel  to  Timothy.  Then 
follows  an  admonition  to  servants,  a  notice  of  the  false  teachers, 
a  warning  to  the  rich  with  further  counsels  to  Timothy,  and  an 
animating  glance  at  the  second  coming  of  our  Lord. 

Eunice,  the  mother  of  Timothy,  was  a  Jewess  distinguished  for  her 
piety,  as  was  also  his  grandmother  Lois.     Acts  IG  :  1 ;  2  Tim.  1:5.     By 


480  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE, 

them  lie  was  carefully  trained  in  the  knowledge  of  the  holy  Scriptures  (2 
Tim.  3:15),  and  had  a  good  reputation  among  the  brethren  when  Paul 
found  him  at  Derbe  and  Lystra  (Acts  16  :1,  2).  His  father  being  a  Greek, 
he  had  never  been  subjected  to  the  rite  of  circumcision.  But  in  consider- 
ation of  his  mixed  descent  Paul,  to  allay  the  prejudices  of  his  countrymen, 
'*  took  and  circumcised  him,"  while  he  would  not  allow  this  rite  to  be  im- 
posed on  Titus,  who  was  of  unmixed  Gentile  origin.  Timothy  was  one  of 
the  most  trusty  and  beloved  of  Paul's  fellow-laborers,  as  we  learn  from  these 
and  his  other  epistles,  and  he  naturally  desired  the  comfort  and  help  of  his 
presence  in  his  final  imprisonment  at  Kome.  2  Tim.  4  : 9,  21.  His  health 
was  feeble  (1  Tim.  5  :23),  and  there  are  in  Paul's  epistles  some  indications 
that  he  was  naturally  timid  and  diffident  (1  Cor.  16  :  10,  11 ;  2  Tim.  1 .:  7,  8  ; 
2:3).     But  grace  made  him  faithful  to  the  end. 

40.  The  epistle  to  Titus  which  comes  next  in  chronological 
order,  has  a  remarkable  agreement  with  the  first  to  Timothy  in 
both  subject-matter  and  style.  With  the  exception  of  what  re- 
lates to  widows  and  the  demeanor  of  w^omen  in  the  public  as- 
semblies, it  contains  the  same  general  precepts,  with  additional 
exhortations  that  young  men  be  sober-minded,  and  that  the 
Cretan  Christians  obey  magistrates  and  be  meek  and  gentle  in 
their  deportment.  With  these  counsels  the  apostle  interweaves, 
as  in  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy,  exhortations  to  Titus  of  a 
personal  character,  and  animating  notices  of  God's  grace  in  the 
gospel  and  of  the  second  coming  of  our  Lord. 

Kespecting  the  founding  of  the  Cretan  churches  we  have  no  information 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  only  time  mentioned  by  Luke  when  Paul 
touched  at  Crete  was  on  his  voyage  to  Eome  as  a  prisoner  (Acts  27  : 8) ;  and 
then  he  had  neither  time  nor  liberty  for  the  work  of  preaching  the  gospel 
in  that  island.  Crete  contained  many  Jews,  some  of  whom  were  present  at 
Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2  :  11).  The  apostle's  visit  to  Crete 
referred  to  in  this  epistle  we  assume  to  have  taken  jilace  between  his  first 
and  second  imprisonment  at  Borne.  Whether  the  churches  of  the  island 
were  then  founded  for  the  first  time  or  had  previously  existed,  it  is  certain 
that  Paul  left  them  in  an  -imperfect  state  of  organization.  For  this  reason 
he  requested. Titus  to  remain,  that  he  might  set  in  order  the  things  that  were 
wanting,  and  ordain  elders  in  every  city.     Chap.  1  :  5. 

It  is  remarkable  that  we  have  no  notice  of  Titus  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles. From  the  epistles  of  Paul  we  learn  that  he  was  his  companion  in 
travel,  and  intrusted  by  him  at  different  times  with  missions  to  the  churches. 
He  accompanied  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  the  so-called  Council  of  the  Apos- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  481 

t'es  and  Elders  at  Jerusalem,  where,  being  a  Greek,  lie  was  exempted  from 
the  necessity  of  circumcision.  Gal.  2:1,  3.  For  other  notices  of  him  see 
2  Cor.  2  :  13 ;  7  : 6,  13,  14 ;  8  : 6,  16,  23  ;  12  :  18.  His  stay  in  Crete  was  not 
to  be  permanent ;  for  the  apostle  directs  that  upon  the  arrival  from  him  of 
Artemas  or  Tychicus  he  should  rejoin  him  at  Nicopolis — probably  Nicopo- 
lis  in  Epirus.     Chap.  3  :  12. 

41.  Second  epistle  to  Timothy. — The  first  epistle  to  Timo- 
thy and  that  to  Titus  are  in  a  certain  sense  official ;  that  is, 
they  are  largely  occupied  with  apostolic  counsels  and  directions 
to  these  two  men  respecting  the  administration  of  the  churches 
which  Paul  had  committed  to  their  care.  The  present  epistle 
is  of  a  more  private  and  personal  character.  It  was  written 
from  Rome  when  Paul  was  a  prisoner  there  (chaps.  1 :8, 16,  17  ; 
2  :9),  and  expecting  soon  to  seal  his  testimony  with  his  blood 
(chap.  4:6).  In  his  extremity,  when  fidelity  to  him  could  be 
shown  only  at  the  hazard  of  life,  many  of  his  friends  had  for- 
saken him.  Chaps.  1 :  15  ;  4  :  10.  He  needed  the  presence  and 
help  of  Timothy,  and  wrote  urging  him  to  come  speedily,  and 
to  bring  certain  articles  which  he  had  left  at  Troas.  Feeling  that 
his  end  was  near,  he  improved  the  occasion  to  give  Timothy  his 
affectionate  apostolic  counsel  and  encouragement.  Hence  the 
present  epistle  differs  strikingly  in  its  preceptive  part  from  the 
other  two.  They  contain  specific  directions  for  ordaining 
officers  and  managing  the  affairs  of  the  churches ;  for  in  them 
the  apostle  writes  to  men  in  charge  of  specific  fields  of  labor. 
In  the  second  epistle  to  Timothy,  on  the  contrary,  the  apostle's 
exhortations  are  general,  for  he  is  summoning  him  away  from 
his  particular  field  to  give  attendance  upon  himself  at  Rome. 
But  all  three  of  the  pastoral  epistles  agree  remarkably,  as  well 
in  their  general  style  and  diction  as  in  their  description  of  exist- 
ing errors  and  false  teachers.  It  is  generally  thought  that 
Timothy  was  at  Ephesus;  and  with  this  opinion  agrees  the 
salutation  to  "the  household  of  Onesiphorus,"  who  was  at 
Ephesus.  Chap.  4:19  compared  with  1:18.  The  words  of 
chap.  4:12,  however,  "Tychicus  have  I  sent  to  Ephesus,"  do 
not  favor  this  supposition.      Hence  some  have  thought  that 

Cnmp.  to  Bllle.  21 


482  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Timothy  was  not  in  that  city,  but  only  in  its  vicinity.  The 
present  is  undoubtedly  the  last  of  Paul's  epistles  in  the  order 
of  time.  As  such  we  cannot  but  peruse  it  with  solemnity,  as 
the  closing  testimony  of  one  who  has  fought  the  good  fight, 
finished  the  appointed  course,  and  kept  the  faith ;  and  who  here 
instructs  all,  especially  all  preachers  of  the  gospel,  how  they 
may  do  the  same.  "  And  thus  we  possess  an  epistle  calculated 
for  all  ages  of  the  church ;  and  in  which  while  the  maxims  cited 
and  encouragements  given  apply  to  all  Christians,  and  especially 
ministers  of  Christ,  in  their  duties  and  difiiculties — the  affecting 
circumstances  in  which  the  writer  himself  is  placed  carry  home 
to  every  heart  his  earnest  and  impassioned  eloquence."  Alford, 
Introduction  to  2  Timothy. 

YIII.     EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBKEWS. 

42.  In  regard  to  the  authorsMp  of  this  epistle  biblical  schol- 
ars are  not  agreed.  Each  of  the  thirteen  preceding  epistles 
bears  the  name  of  Paul.  But  the  present  epistle  is  without 
either  name  or  address,  and  it  omits  also  at  the  beginning  the 
apostolic  salutation.  Thus  it  commences  in  the  form  of  an  es- 
say, though  it  closes  in  that  of  an  epistle.  These  circumstances, 
in  connection  with  its  peculiar  style  and  diction  and  the  pecu- 
liar range  of  the  topics  discussed  in  it,  have  produced  a  diver- 
sity of  opinion  on  the  question  whether  Paul  was  its  author,  at 
least  its  author  in  the  immediate  sense  in  which  he  was  the 
author  of  the  preceding  epistles.  For  the  full  discussion  of 
the  arguments  on  both  sides  the  reader  must  be  referred  to 
the  commentaries,  some  of  which  are  accessible  to  all.  Our 
limits  will  only  permit  us  to  indicate  certain  facts  and  princi- 
ples which  have  a  bearing  on  the  authorship  of  the  epistle  and 
its  canonical  authority. 

The  unanimous  belief  of  the  Eastern  church,  \diere  we  must 
suppose  that  it  was  first  received  and  whence  the  knowledge  of 
it  was  spread  abroad,  ascribed  it  to  Paul  as  its  author  either 
immediately  or  virtually ;  for  some,  as  Origen  (in  Eusebius* 
Hist,  EccL,  6.  14)  accounted  for  its  peculiar  diction  by  the  sup- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  4S3 

position  that  Paul  furnislied  the  tlionglits,  while  they  were  re- 
duced to  form  by  the  pen  of  some  other  person.  "  Another 
opinion  was  that  Paul  wrote  in  Hebrew,%and  that  our  present 
canonical  epistle  is  a  translation  into  Greek  (Eusebius'  Hist.. 
EccL,  3.  38 ;  Clement  of  Alexandria  in  Eusebius'  Hist.  EccL, 
6.  14),  In  the  Western  church  Clement  of  Eome  did  indeed 
refer  to  the  epistle  as  authoritative,  but  without  naming  the 
author.  Yet  its  Pauline  authorship  was  not  generally  admitted,' 
nor  was  it  received  as  a  part  of  the  sacred  canon  till  the  fourth 
century,  when  here  too  the  opinion  of  the  Eastern  church  was 
adopted.  The  Muratorian  canon,  which  represents  the  belief 
of  the  Western  church  before  the  fourth  century,  omits  this 
epistle.  The  Syriac  Peshito,  on  the  other  hand,  inserts  it 
in  accordance  with  its  uniform  reception  by  the  Eastern 
church.  This  uniformity  of  belief  in  the  Eastern  church  must 
have  had  for  its  starting  point  the  Hebrews  to  whom  the  epis- 
tle was  sent ;  and  it  is  a  strong  argument  for  the  supposition 
that  it  did  originally  come  to  them  under  the  sanction  of  Paul's 
name  and  authority;  whether  dictated  to  an  amanuensis,  as 
were  most  of  his  epistles,  or  written  with  his  knowledge  and 
approbation  by  some  insj^ired  man  among  his  attendants  and 
fellow-laborers  who  was  thoroughly  conversant  with  his  views 
on  the  subjects  treated  of  in  the  epistle.  This  is  as  far  as  we 
have  any  occasion  to  go,  since  Ave  know  that  the  gift  of  inspi- 
ration was  not  confined  to  the  circle  of  the  apostles. 

As  we  cannol  affirm  that  all  who  were  associated  with  the  ajpostles  in  the 
work  of  the  ministiy  had  the  gifts  needful  for  the  composition  of  writings 
that  should  be  given  to  the  churches  as  the  authoritative  word  of  God,  so 
neither  can  we  deny  to  some  the  possession  of  these  gifts,  as  is  plain  from 
the  examples  of  Mark  and  Luke.  When  men  who  stood  in  the  second  grade 
of  relation  to  Christ — apostolic  men,  as  we  may  conveniently  call  them — com- 
posed their  works,  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that  they  wrote  under  a 
formal  apostolic  supervision.  The  "discerning  of  spirits"  is  a  gift  which 
we  must  concede  to  all  of  the  apostles.  If,  then,  an  associate  of  one  of  the 
apostles  had  such  relations  to  him  and  wrote  in  such  circumstances  that  we 
cannot  suppose  it  to  have  been  done  without  his  knowledge  and  approba- 
tion formal  or  implied,  we  have  for  his  work  all  needful  authority.     What. 


484  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

further  connection  the  apostle  may  have  had  with  :t  in  the  way  of  sugges- 
tion or  supervision  is  a  question  which  we  may  well  leave  undetermined. 
In  judging  of  this  matter  we  consider  first  of  all  the  testimony  of  the  early 
churches,  since  they  enjoyed  the  best  means  of  ascertaining  the  origin  of  a 
writing  ;  and  then  the  character  of  the  writing  itself.  Proceeding  in  this 
way  we  come  to  the  full  conviction  of  the  canonical  authority  of  the  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  whether  we  believe,  with  many,  that  Paul  was  its  immediate  au- 
thor, or,  with  Origen,  that  "the  ancients  not  without  reason  have  handed 
it  down  as  Paul's ;  but  on  the  question  who  wrote  the  epistle  God  only 
knows  the  truth." 

43.  That  the  apostle  wrote  for  the  instruction  of  Jewish 
Christians  is  manifest.  The  uniform  tenor  of  the  epistle  indi- 
cates, moreover,  that  they  were  Jeivish  Christians  without  any 
admixture  of  a  Gentile  element.  The  salutations  at  the  end 
further  imply  that  the  epistle  addresses  not  Hebrew  Christians 
in  general,  but  some  particular  community  of  them,  which  is 
most  naturally  to  be  sought  in  Palestine,  perhaps  in  Jerusalem. 
As  to  the  time  of  the  epistle,  the  manner  in  which  it  refers  to 
the  temple  and  its  services  makes  it  certain  that  the  author 
wrote  before  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem,  that  is,  before  A.  D.  70. 
The  arguments  adduced  to  show  that  Paul  was  its  author,  either 
immediately  or  virtuall}^,  carry  it  back  beyond  A.  D.  67  or  68, 
when,  according  to  ancient  tradition,  the  apostle  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom. It  was  probably  written  not  many  years  before  that 
event ;  but  a  more  exact  determination  of  the  time  is  impossible. 
According  to  the  most  probable  interpretation  of  chap.  13 :  24, 
the  epistle  was  written  from  Italy.  But  that  Timothy  was  not 
the  bearer  of  it,  as  the  subscription  states,  is  pkiin  from  the 
preceding  verse,  in  which  he  conditionally  promises  to  come 
with  Timothy  at  a  future  time. 

The  references  in  the  epistle  to  the  Levitical  priesthood  and  the  temple 
services  connected  with  it  are  in  the ^resew^ or  perfect  teiises — "  is  ordained," 
"is  encompassed,"  "he  ought,"  "  taketh  this  honor, "  "  have  a  command- 
ment to  take  tithes "  "  receive  tithes "  "Jiath given  atteiidance  at  the  altar" 
(chap.  7  :  13),  "  have  become"  (chap.  7  :21,  23),  "maketh  men  high  priests," 
"who  serve,"  "hath  made  the  first  old"  (the  references  in  chap.  9  : 1-5 are 
to  the  ancient  tabernacle),  "enter  always  into  the  first  tabernacle"  (chap. 
9:6),  "  which  he  offers  "  (verse  7),  "  the  Holy  Ghost  this  signifying  that  the 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  485 

"way  into  tlie  holiest  places  Jias  not  yet  been  made  ma7iifest,  while  the  first  taber- 
nacle is  as  yet  standing  "  (verse  8),  "  gifts  and  sacrifices  are  offered  "  (verse  9), 
"sanctifieth,"  '*  are  by  thelaw  purged,"  "  can  never,"  "standeth."  Itisto 
be  regretted  that  our  version  has  not  in  all  cases  observed  this  distinction 
of  tenses. 

44.  The  central  theme  of  this  book  is  the  superiority  of  the 
Christian  over  the  Mosaic  dispensation  considered  on  the  side 
of  its  divine  Mediator  and  High-priest.  In  unfolding  this  great 
theme  the  writer  dwells  on  the  glory  and  dignity  of  Christ's 
person  in  contrast  with  the  ancient  prophets,  with  the  angels, 
and  with  Moses,  all  of  whom  were  connected  with  the  first 
economy.  He  then  proceeds  to  exhibit  the  divine  eflScacy  of 
Christ's  priesthood.  This  is  the  substance,  of  which  the  Levit- 
ical  priesthood,  with  its  altar,  its  offerings  and  all  the  temple- 
services  connected  with  it,  was  only  the  shadow.  In  no  book 
of  the  New  Testament  is  our  Lord's  priestly  office  set  forth 
with  such  fullness  and  rich  variety  of  illustrations,  always  with 
reference  to  its  divinely  appointed  type,  the  Levitical  priest- 
hood. This  was  especially  needful  to  fortify  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians, who  had  been  educated  and  lived  under  the  constant  im- 
pression of  the  splendid  Mosaic  ritual  with  its  magnificent 
temple,  against  the  danger  of  being  turned  from  the  simplicity 
of  the  gospel  to  reliance  on  the  "carnal  ordinances  "  of  "Judaism, 
which  would  have  been  virtual  apostacy  from  Christ.  This 
magnificent  epistle  constitutes  in  some  sense  a  solemn  requiem 
to  the  old  temple  service  with  its  altar  and  priesthood,  where 
the  blood  of  bulls  and  goats  that  can  never  take  away  sin  had 
flowed  for  so  many  centuries.  This  service  had  accomplished 
its  end  in  prefiguring  Christ  the  true  "Lamb  of  God  which 
taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world,"  and  it  was  destined  soon  to 
pass  away  forever  "with  tumult,  with  shouting,  with  the  sound 
of  the  trumpet" — to  pass  away  forever,  that  men  might  give 
their  undivided  faith  to  Christ,  our  great  High-priest,  who 
ministers  for  us  in  the  heavenly  tabernacle,  presenting  there 
before  his  Father's  throne  his  own  blood  shed  on  Calvary  to 
make  propitiation  for  the  sins  of  the  world 


486  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

To  the  argumentative  part  of  tliis  epistle  are  appended  ex- 
hortations (partly,  indeed,  anticipated  in  the  preceding  part)  to 
constancy  in  the  Christian  profession,  drawn  from  the  awful 
doom  that  awaits  apostates,  from  the  examples  of  faith  fur- 
nished by  ancient  worthies,  and  especially  from  the  example 
of  Christ  himself  and  the  glorious  fellowship  to  which  his  gos- 
pel introduces  us.  To  these  are  added  some  admonitions  of  a 
more  special  character.  Thus  the  present  epistle  performs  an 
office  in  the  general  system  of  revelation  which  is  supplied  by  no 
other  book  of  the  Old  or  New  Testament.  To  the  book  of  Le- 
yitious  it  may  be  said  to  hold  the  relation  of  substance  to 
shadow,  and  it  is  its  divinely  appointed  expositor. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  487 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

The    Catholic    Epistles. 

1.  Seven  epistles,  that  of  James  and  the  six  that  follow,  are 
called  Catholic,  that  is,  general  ov  universal,  as  not  being  directed 
to  any  particular  church.  They  were  not  all,  however,  ad- 
dressed originally  to  believers  generally,  but  some  of  them  to 
particular  classes  of  believers,  or  even  to  individuals,  as  the  in- 
troductory words  show. 

I.     EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 

2.  The  question  respecting  the  loerson  of  James  who  wrote 
this  epistle  is  one  of  great  difficulty.  That  "James  the  Lord's 
brother,"  whom  Paul  names  as  one  of  the  apostles  (Gal.  1:19), 
is  identical  with  the  James  mentioned  by  Luke  in  Acts  12:17 ; 
15:13;  21:18,  and  is  the  author  of  the  present  epistle,  is  ad- 
mitted by  most  writers,  though  not  by  all.  That  this  James  of 
Gal.  1 :  19  was  the  James  who  is  named  with  Joses,  Simon,  and 
Judas,  as  one  of  our  Lord's  brethren  (Matt.  13  :  55;  Mark  6 : 3), 
must  be  received  as  certain.  But  whether  he  was  identical 
with  "  James  the  son  of  Alpheus,"  who  was  one  of  the  twelve 
(Matt.  10  : 3  ;  Mark  3:18;  Luke  6:15;  Acts  1 :  13),  is  a  question 
which  has  been  much  discussed  and  on  which  eminent  biblical 
scholars  are  found  arrayed  on  opposite  sides.  The  question 
turns  very  much  on  the  interpretation  of  the  words  "brother," 
and  "brethren"  and  "sisters,"  in  the  passages  above  referred 
to.  If  we  take  them  in  their  literal  sense,  as  some  do,  then 
James  the  son  of  Alpheus  and  James  the  Lord's  brother  are 
different  persons.  But  others  understand  them  in  the  general 
sense  of  kindred  or  cousins,  believing  that  our  Saviour  was 
the  only  child  of  Mary.     A  statement  at  length  of  the  argu- 


133  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

nients  and  objections  that  are  urged  on  both  sides  does  not 
come  within  the  compass  of  the  present  work.  Nor  is  it  neces- 
sary. The  author  of  the  present  epistle  is  beyond  all  reasonable 
doubt  the  James  who  gave  the  final  opinion  in  the  assembly  of 
the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  15:13-21),  whom 
Paul  names  with  Cephas  and  John  as  one  of  the  "pillars"  there 
(Gal.  2  :9),  and  who  elsewhere  appears  as  a  man  of  commanding 
influence  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  21:18;  Gal.  2:12). 
If  any  one  doubts  his  identity  Avith  James  the  son  6i  Alpheus, 
who  was  one  of  the  twelve,  this  cannot  affect  the  canonical 
authority  of  the  epistle.  The  position  of  this  James  in  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  and  his  relation  to  the  ajDOstolic  college  is 
such  that,  even  upon  the  supposition  that  he  did  not  belong  to 
the  number  of  the  twelve,  his  writings  must  have  to  us  the  full 
weight  of  apostolic  authority.     See  above  chap.  30,  No.  42. 

3.  The  place  where  this  epistle  was  written  was  manifestly 
Jerusalem,  where  James  always  resided;  and  the  2^ersons  ad- 
dressed are  "the  twelve  tribes  who  are  in  the  dispersion"  (chap. 
1:1);  that  is,  as  the  nature  of  the  case  and  the  tenor  of  the 
epistle  make  manifest,  that  part  of  them  who  had  embraced 
Christianity.  There  is  no  allusion  in  the  epistle  to  Gentile 
believers. 

The  dispersion  is  a  technical  term  for  the  Jews  living  out  of  Palestine 
among  the  Gentiles.  We  need  not  hesitate  to  understand  it  here  literally. 
The  apostle  wrote  to  his  Jewish  brethren  of  the  dispersion  because  he 
could  not  visit  them  and  suj)erintend  their  affairs  as  he  could  those  of  the 
Jewish  Christians  in  and  around  Jerusalem.  Some  take  the  term  in  a 
wider  sense  of  the  Jewish  Christians  scattered  abroad  in  and  out  of  Pales- 
tine, but  this  is  not  necessary. 

4.  "With  regard  to  the  date  of  this  epistle  also  different  opin- 
ions are  held.  Some  place  it  early  in  the  history  of  the  church 
— earlier,  in  fact,  than  any  other  of  the  apostolic  epistles — hefore 
the  origin  of  the  controversy  respecting  circumcision  and  the 
Mosaic  law  recorded  in  Acts,  chap.  15 ;  others  quite  late,  not 
long  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Eomans.  The 
latter  view  best  agrees  with  the  contents  of  the  epistle.     The 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  489 

doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  for  which  Paul  had  contended, 
would  naturally  be  abused  precisely  in  the  way  here  indicated, 
by  the  substitution  of  a  barren  speculative  faith  for  the  true 
faith  that  works  by  love  and  purifies  the  heart  and  life  from 
sin.  The  age  preceding  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  was  one 
of  abounding  wickedness,  especially  in  the  form  of  strife  and 
faction.  It  had  been  predicted  by  our  Lord  that  the  effect  of 
this  would  be  to  chill  the  love  of  many  of  his  visible  followers 
and  withdraw  them  from  his  service.  In  truth  the  descriptions 
of  these  unworthy  members  of  the  Jewish  Christian  community 
which  we  find  in  this  epistle,  in  the  second  of  Peter,  and  in  that 
of  Jude,  are  but  the  realization,  in  most  particulars,  of  the  state  of 
things  foretold  in  the  following  remarkable  words  of  the  Saviour  : 
"  And  then  shall  many  be  offended,  and  shall  betray  one  another, 
and  shall  hate  one  another.  And  many  false  prophets  shall 
arise  and  shall  deceive  many.  And  because  iniquity  shall 
abound  the  love  of  many  shall  wax  cold.  But  he  that  shall  en- 
dure unto  the  end,  the  same  shall  be  saved."  Matt.  24  :  10-13. 
5.  For  the  gemdneness  and  canonical  authority  of  the  present 
epistle  we  have  a  very  important  testimony  in  the  Old  Syriac  ver- 
sion (Peshito),  which  represents  the  judgment  of  the  Eastern 
churches  where  the  epistle  was  originally  circulated.  The  re- 
maining testimonies  prior  to  the  fourth  century  are  scanty  and 
some  of  them  not  very  decisive.  They  may  be  all  seen  in  Da- 
vidson's Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  and  in  the  crit- 
ical commentaries  generally. 

It  cannot  be  reasonably  doubted  that  the  words  of  Irenaeus,  "Abraham 
himself,  without  circumcision  and  without  the  observance  of  Sabbaths,  be- 
lieved in  God,  and  it  was  counted  to  him  for  righteousness,  and  he  was 
called  the  friend  of  God"  (Against  Heresies,  4  30),  refer  to  James  2;  23. 
Origen  quotes  the  epistle  as  "  current  under  the  name  of  James, "and  inti- 
mates that  some  did  not  acknowledge  its  apostolic  authority.  But  he  else- 
where cites  it  as  that  of  "James  the  Lord's  brother, "  "the  apostle  James," 
"the  apostle,"  and  simply  "James."  See  in  Kirchhofer  Quellene^mlung, 
pp.  263,  264  Eusebius  reckons  the  epistle  among  the  books  that  were 
"disputed,  but  known  nevertheless  to  many."  Hist.  Eccl.,  3,  25.  Else- 
where he  says  :  "It  is  regarded  as  spurious  ;  at  least  not  many  of  the  an- 

21* 


490  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

cients  liave  made  mention  of  it."  Hist.  Eccl. ,  2.  23.  But  these  words  can- 
not be  regarded  as  expressing  Eusebius'  own  opinion;  for  he  himself 
quotes  him  as  "  the  holy  apostle,"  and  his  words  as  "  Scripture."  See  in 
Davidson's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  3,  p.  336  ;  Kirchhofer 
Quellensamlung,  p.  264. 

In  the  course  of  the  fourth  centur}^  the  canonical  authority 
of  this  epistle  was  gradually  more  and  more  acknowledged,  and 
in  the  fifth  its  reception  in  the  churches  of  both  the  East  and 
the  West  became  universal. 

"  This  is  just  what  we  might  expect :  a  writing  little  known  at  first,  ob- 
tians  a  more  general  circulation,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  writing  and  its 
reception  go  almost  together.  The  contents  entirely  befit  the  antiquity 
which  the  writing  claims ;  no  evidence  could  be  given  for  rejecting  it ;  it 
differs  in  its  whole  nature  from  the  foolish  and  spurious  writings  put  forth 
in  the  name  of  this  James  ;  and  thus  its  gradual  reception  is  to  be  accounted 
for  from  its  having,  from  early  times,  been  known  by  some  to  be  genuine 
(as  shown  by  the  Syraic  version),  and  this  knowledge  being  afterwards 
spread  more  widely,"  Tregelles  in  Home,  vol.  4,  chap.  25.  Davidson  sug- 
gests that  differences  of  opinion  and  jDerplexities  resi)ecting  the  number  of 
the  persons  called  James  in  the  apostolic  period,  and  the  relation  they 
bore  to  one  another,  and  also  the  fact  that  the  epistle  was  addressed  solely 
to  Jewish  Christians,  may  have  made  its  early  circulation  comparatively  lim- 
ited. Perhaps  we  may  also  add,  as  he  does,  its  apparent  contrariety  to  the 
Pauhne  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  but  this  is  by  no  means  certain. 

6.  This  epistle  is  eminently  practical.  If  any  part  of  it  can 
be  called  argumentative,  it  is  that  in  which  the  apostle  shows 
that  "  faith  without  works  is  dead."  Chap.  2  :  14-26.  The  sins 
which  he  rebukes  with  such  graphic  vividness  and  power  were 
all  preeminently  the  sins  of  his  countrymen  at  that  age — hearing 
God's  word  without  doing  it,  resting  in  an  empty  faith  that 
does  not  influence  the  hfe,  inordinate  love  of  worldly  posses- 
sions and  a  self-confident  spirit  in  the  pursuit  of  them,  w^anton 
revelling  in  worldly  pleasures,  partiality  towards  the  rich  and 
contempt  of  the  poor,  defrauding  the  poor  of  their  wages,  am- 
bition to  assume  the  office  of  teaching,  censoriousness,  a  law- 
less and  slanderous  tongue,  bitter  envying  and  strife,  mutual 
grudging  and  murmuring,  Avars  and  fightings;  all  these  with  an 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  491 

uiibelieving  and  complaining  spirit  towards  God.  But  these 
are  not  merely  Jewish  vices.  They  are  deeply  rooted  in  man's 
fallen  nature,  and  many  a  nominal  Christian  community  of  our 
day  may  see  its  own  image  by  looking  into  the  mirror  of  this 
epistle. 

The  alleged  disagreement  between  Paul  and  James  is  un- 
founded. Paul's  object  is  to  show  that  the  ground  of  men's 
justification  is  faith  in  Christ,  and  not  the  merit  of  their  good 
works.  The  object  of  James  is  to  show  that  faith  without  good 
works,  like  the  body  without  the  spirit,  is  dead.  Paul  argues 
against  dead  works  ;  James  against  dead  faith.  Here  we  have 
no  contradiction,  but  only  two  different  views  of  truth  that  are 
in  entire  harmony  Avith  each  other,  and  both  of  which  are  es- 
sential to  true  godliness. 

II.     EPISTLES  OF  PETER. 

7.  The  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  Peter  was  unanimously  received  by 
the  primitive  church  as  the  genuine  work  of  the  man  whose 
name  it  bears.  Polycarp,  in  his  epistle  to  the  Philippians, 
made  numerous  citations  from  it.  It  was  also  referred  to  by 
Papias,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Eusebius.  Hist.  Eccl. 
3.  39.  Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Origen,  etc. 
all  quote  it  expressly.  It  is  found  in  the  Syriac  Peshito  version 
Avhich  contains  but  three  of  the  catholic  epistles.  It  is  wanting 
in  the  Muratorian  canon,  but  to  this  circumstance  much  weight 
cannot  be  attached  when  we  consider  how  dark  and  confused  is 
the  passage  referring  to  the  catholic  epistles. 

8.  The  readers  addressed  in  the  epistle  are  "  the  elect  so- 
journers of  the  dispersion,  of  Pontus,  Galatia,  Capj^adocia, 
Asia,  and  Bithynia,"  all  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  The  words 
"sojourners" — or  "strangers"  as  rendered  in  our  English  ver- 
sion— and  "  dispersion  "  are  both  the  appropriate  terms  for  the 

.Jews  living  in  dispersion.  That  the  apostle,  in  an  introduction 
of  this  kind,  should  have  used  the  word  "  sojourners  "  in  a  sim- 
ply figurative  sense,  to  describe  Christians  as  "pilgrims  and 
strangers  on  the  earth,"  is  very  improbable,  especially  in  imme- 


492  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

diate  connection  with  the  word  ''  dispersion,"  which  must  be 
understood  hterally.  We  must  rather  understand  the  apostle 
as  recof>-nizing  in  the  Christian  churches  scattered  throughout 
the  world  the  true  "Israel  of  God,"  having  for  its  framework 
the  believing  portion  of  the  covenant  people,  into  which  the 
Gentile  Christians  had  been  introduced  through  faith,  and  thus 
made  the  children  of  Abraham.  Compare  Kom.  4 :  12-17 ;  Gal. 
3:7-9;  and  especially  Eom.  11:17-24.  Hence  it  comes  to 
pass  that  while  Peter  addresses  them  as  the  ancient  people  of 
God,  he  yet  includes  Gentile  Christians  in  his  exhortations,  as 
is  manifest  from  various  passages,  especially  from  chap.  4:3. 

9.  According  to  chap.  5  :  13  the  jjlace  from  which  this  epistle 
was  written  was  Babylon.  No  valid  reason  exists  why  we 
should  not  understand  here  the  literal  Babylon.  The  old  opin- 
ion that  the  apostle  used  the  word  enigmatically  to  signify 
Eome  is  nothing  more  than  a  conjecture  in  itself  improbable. 
It  has  been  urged  not  without  reason  that  Peter  names  the 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor  in  the  order  which  would  be  natural  to 
one  writing  from  Babylon ;  naming  Pontus  first,  which  lay 
nearest  to  Babylon,  and  Asia  and  Bithynia,  which  were  the 
most  remote,  last.  The  question  of  the  daie  of  this  epistle  is  con- 
nected with  that  of  its  occasion.  This  seems  to  have  been  a  "  fiery 
trial"  of  persecution  that  had  already  begun  to  come  upon  the 
Christians  of  the  provinces  named  in  the  introductory  address. 
Chaps.  1:6,  7;  2:12,  19,  20;  3:14,  16,17;  4:1,  12-19;  5:9, 
10.  The  exact  date  and  character  of  this  persecution  cannot 
be  determined.  The  majority  of  commentators  assign  it  to  the 
latter  years  of  Nero's  reign,  which  ended  A.  D.  68.  The  second 
epistle  of  Peter  was  written  not  long  before  the  apostle's  death, 
a-nd  after  the  epistles  of  Paul  had  become  generally  known  in 
Asia  Minor.  As  we  cannot  reasonably  separate  the  two  epis- 
tles by  a  great  space  of  time  (see  below,  No.  11),  we  hifer  that 
the  first  was  written  after  Paul's  first  imprisonment  in  Eome,. 
say  somewhere  between  A.  d.  63  and  67. 

10.  The  general  tone  of  the  first  epistle  is  in  harmony  with 
its  occasion.     The  apostle  seeks  to  animate  and  strengthen  his 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  493 

brethren  in  view  of  the  "  ^erj  trial "  of  persecution  that  had 
already  begun  to  come  upon  them.  To  this  end  he  sets  before 
them  in  glowing  language  the  greatness  and  glory  of  the  heav- 
enly inheritance  in  reserve  for  them,  which  was  purchased  by 
the  precious  blood  of  Christ,  and  the  dignity  and  blessedness 
of  suffering  for  Christ's  sake,  with  the  assurance  of  God's  faith- 
ful presence  and  protection.  With  these  encouragements  he 
intermingles  admonitions  suited  to  their  circumstances.  He 
exhorts  them  as  strangers  and  pilgrims  to  abstain  from  fleshly 
lusts  and  all  the  other  vices  of  their  former  life  in  ignorance; 
to  commend  their  religion  by  a  holy  deportment  which  shall 
put  to  shame  the  calumnies  of  their  adversaries;  to  perform 
faithfully  all  the  duties  of  their  several  stations  in  life;  to  be 
humble,  sober,  vigilant,  and  read}^  always  to  give  a  reason  of 
their  Christian  hope  ;  and  above  all  things  to  have  fervent 
charity  among  themselves.  The  fervent  spirit  of  the  great 
apostle  of  the  circumcision,  chastened  and  mellowed  by  age, 
shines  forth  conspicuously  in  this  epistle.  The  closing  chapter, 
where  he  addresses  first  the  elders,  then  the  younger,  then  the 
whole  body  of  believers,  charms  the  reader  b}^  the  holy  tran- 
quillity which  pervades  it  throughout — a  tranquillity  deeply 
grounded  in  that  faith  which  is  "the  substance  of  things  hoped 
for,  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen." 

11.  The  second  epistle  of  Peter.  The  address  of  this 
epistle  is  general  (chap.  1:1);  yet  the  reference  which  it  con- 
tains to  the  first  (chap.  3 : 1)  shows  that  the  apostle  had  in  mind 
primarily  the  same  circle  of  churches.  The  character  of  this 
reference — "  This  second  epistle,  beloved,  I  now  write  unto 
you,  in  which  [two  epistles]  I  stir  up  your  pure  minds  by  way 
of  reminding  [you]  " — indicates  that  the  second  was  not  sepa- 
rated from  the  first  by  a  very  great  space  of  time,  certainly  not 
many  years.  The  apostle  wrote  with  the  conviction  that  his 
decease  was  near  at  hand  (chap.  1:13-15).  There  is  a  tradi- 
tion, the  correctness  of  which,  however,  is  doubted  by  manj^, 
that  he  suffered  martydrom  at  Home  under  the  persecution 
raised  by  Nero  against  the  Christians.     This  would  be  about 


494  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

A.  D.  67.     As  to  the  place  from  which  the  epistle  was  written  we 
have  no  information. 

12.  The  present  epistle  is  one  of  the  disputed  books.  Chap. 
5,  No.  7,  and  Chap.  6.  The  question  respecting  its  genuine- 
Dess  may  be  conveniently  considered  under  the  two  heads  of 
external  and  internal  evidence. 

The  external  testimony  to  the  present  epistle  is  scanty.  Passing  by 
some  doubtful  references  we  come  first  to  Origen  who  says  (in  Eusebius, 
Hist.  EccL,  6.  25)  :  "But  Peter,  upon  whom  is  built  the  church  of  Christ, 
against  which  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail,  has  left  one  acknowledged 
epistle  ;  a  second  also,  if  you  will,  for  it  is  doubted  of."  In  those  of  his 
works  which  are  extant  only  in  the  Latin  version  of  Eufinus,  Origen  in  a 
number  of  passages  quotes  the  present  epistle  as  Scripture.  It  has  been 
susxDBcted  that  these  passages  were  interpolated  by  Eufinus,  who  took  many 
liberties  with  the  text  of  Origen  ;  but  one  of  them,  which  occurs  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  seventh  homily  on  Joshua,  is  so  peculiar  that  we  cannot 
well  doubt  that  Origen  himself  was  its  author.  In  allusion  to  the  proces- 
sion of  priests  blowing  with  trumpets  when  the  Israelites  compassed  the 
walls  of  Jericho  (Josh.  chaj).  6),  he  compares  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  so  many  sacerdotal  trumpeters,  assigning  to  them  trumpets  for 
each  book,  and  mentioning  every  hook,  as  well  the  disputed  as  the  acknowl- 
edged :  ' '  First  Matthew  in  his  gospel,  gave  a  blast  with  his  sacerdotal 
trumpet.  Mark  also,  Luke,  and  John,  sounded  with  their  single  sacerdo- 
tal trumpets.  Peter  also  sounds  aloud  with  the  two  trumpets  of  his  epistles  ; 
James  also,  and  Jude.  But  John  adds  yet  again  to  blow  with  the  trumpet 
through  his  epistles  and  Apocalypse  ;  Luke,  also,  narrating  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  But  last  of  all  that  man  came,  who  said  :  '  I  think  that  God  has 
set  forth  us  apostles  last, '  and  thundering  with  the  fourteen  trumpets  of  his 
epistles,  overthrew  to  their  foundations  the  walls  of  Jericho,  and  all  the  en- 
gines of  idolatry  and  dogmas  of  philosophers."  The  "epistles"  through 
which  the  apostle  John  sounds  are  obviously  his  three  epistles.  The  "four- 
teen trumpets"  upon  which  Paul  blows  include  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
In  this  remarkable  passage,  then,  we  have  an  exliaustive  list  of  our  present 
canonical  books  ;  and  there  is  no  ground  for  imputing  any  interjjolation  to 
the  translator.  It  may  be  said,  indeed,  that  this  enumeration  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  is  made  in  a  popular  way,  and  does  not  imply 
Origen's  dehberate  judgment  that  they  were  all  of  apostoHc  authority.  If 
this  be  granted,  it  still  remains  evident  from  the  form  of  the  passage  that 
all  the  books  of  our  present  canon  were  in  current  ecclesiastical  %ise  in  Origen'.v 
day,  whatever  doubts  he  may  have  had  respecting  some  of  them,  and  that 
they  constituted,  along  with  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  that  whole 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  ido 

of  divine  revelation  which  the  Christian  churches  employed  in  assaulting 
the  kingdom  of  Satan. 

The  testimony  of  Eusebius  himself  is  of  the  same  general  import  as  that 
of  Origen — that  the  first  epistle  of  Peter  has  been  universally  acknowl- 
edged ;  but  that  the  one  current  as  the  second  has  not  been  received  as  a 
part  of  the  NeAv  Testament ;  but  yet,  appearing  useful  to  many,  has  been 
studied  with  the  other  Scriptures  (Hist.  Eccl.,  3.  3)  ;  that  among  the  wri- 
tings which  are  disputed,  yet  known  to  many,  are  the  epistles  current  as 
those  of  James  and  Jude,  and  the  second  epistle  of  Peter  (Hist,  EccL, 
3.  25). 

Jerome  says  that  Peter  "wrote  two  epistles  that  are  called  catholic,  of 
which  the  second  is  denied  by  most  persons  on  account  of  its  disagreement 
in  style  with  the  first."  Scrip.  EccL,  1.  But  he  himself  received  the  epis- 
tle, and  explained  the  difi'erence  in  style  and  character  and  structure  of 
words  by  the  assumption  that  Peter  used  different  interpreters  in  the  com- 
position of  the  two  epistles  (Epist.  120  ad  Hedib. ,  chap.  11)  ;  and  from  his 
time  onward  the  ei)istle  was  generally  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

The  reader  who  wishes  to  investigate  farther  the  question  of  external 
testimonies  will  find  them  all  given  in  Davidson's  Introduct,  to  New  Test.  ; 
and  Alf  ord's  Commentary,  Introduction  to  2  Peter.  We  simply  repeat  the 
remark  already  made  (Chap.  6,  No.  3)  that  although  the  universal  and  un- 
disputed reception  of  a  book  by  all  the  early  churches  cannot  be  explained 
except  on  the  assumption  of  its  genuineness,  its  non-reception  by  some  is 
no  conclusive  argument  against  it.  It  may  have  remained  (as  seems  to  have 
been  peculiarly  the  case  with  some  of  the  catholic  epistles)  for  a  considerable 
period  in  obscurity.  When  it  began  to  be  more  extensively  known,  the 
general  reception  and  use  of  it  would  be  a  slow  process  both  from  the 
difficulty  of  communication  in  ancient  as  compared  with  modern  times, 
and  especially  from  the  slowness  and  hesitancy  with  which  the  churches  of 
one  region  received  anything  new  that  came  from  another  region.  Chajo. 
2,  No.  5.  Jerome  does  indeed  mention  the  objection  from  the  difference 
of  style  between  this  epistle  and  the  first  of  Peter ;  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  in  this  matter  he  speaks  for  the  early  churches  generally.  The 
obscurity  in  which  the  epistle  had  remained,  partly  at  least  because  it  was 
not  addressed  to  the  guardianship  of  any  particular  church,  seems  to  have 
been  the  chief  ground  of  doubt. 

The  inter nalie&iim.o\\j  for  and  against  the  genuineness  of  this  epistle  has 
been  discussed  at  gTeat  length  by  many  writers.  The  reader  will  find  good 
summaries  of  them  in  the  two  works  above  referred  to,  also  in  the  critical 
commentaries  generally  and  the  modern  Bible  dictionaries.  If  one  would 
come  to  tri.e  results  in  this  field  of  investigation  it  is  important  that  he  be- 
gin with  true  principles.     There  are  what  may  be  called  staple  peculiarities, 


495  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

which  mark  the  style  of  one  writer  as  compared  with  that  of  another — that 
of  John,  for  example,  in  contrast  with  that  of  Paul.  We  cannot  conceive  of 
these  as  being  wanting.  But  then  we  must  allow  to  one  and  the  same  writer 
a  considerable  range  of  vp,riation  in  style  and  diction,  dependent  partly  on 
difference  of  subject-matter,  and  partly  on  varying  frames  of  mind  of  which 
no  definite  account  can  be  given.  If  one  would  be  convinced  of  this,  he 
has  only  to  read  side  by  side  the  epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Romans  and  his 
second  to  the  Corinthians.  Reserving  now  the  second  chapter  of  the  pres- 
ent epistle  for  separate  consideration,  we  do  not  find  in  the  two  remaining 
chapters,  as  compared  with  the  first  epistle,  any  such  fundamental  differ- 
ences of  style  and  diction  as  can  constitute  a  just  ground  for  denying  the 
common  authorship  of  the  two  epistles.  Eor  the  particulars,  as  well  as  for 
the  examination  of  other  objections  of  an  internal  character,  the  reader 
must  be  referred  to  the  sources  above  named.  It  is  certainly  remarkable 
that  Peter  should  refer  to  the  writings  of  Paul  in  such  terms  as  to  class 
them  with  the  "  Scrii3tures  "  of  the  Old  Testament.  Chap.  3  :16.  But,  as 
Alford  remarks,  this  im}3lies  not  that  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  had 
been  settled  when  the  present  ei)istle  was  written,  but  only  that  "there 
were  certain  writings  by  Christian  teachers,  which  were  reckoned  on  a  level 
with  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  and  called  by  the  same  name.  And 
that  that  was  not  the  case,  even  in  the  traditional  lifetime  of  Peter,  it  would 
be  surely  unreasonable  to  deny."  We  close  this  part  of  the  discussion 
with  the  following  words  from  the  same  author  ;  "  Our  general  conclusion 
from  all  that  has  preceded  must  be  in  favor  of  the  genuineness  and  canon- 
icity  of  this  second  epistle  ;  acknowledging  at  the  same  time,  that  the  sub- 
ject is  not  without  considerable  difficulty.  That  difficulty  however  is  light- 
ened for  us  by  observing  that  on  the  one  hand,  it  is  common  to  this  epistle 
with  some  others  of  those  called  catholic,  and  several  of  the  later  writings 
of  the  New  Testament ;  and  on  the  other,  that  no  difference  can  be  imag- 
ined more  markedly  distinctive,  than  that  which  separates  all  these  writings 
from  even  the  earliest  and  best  of  the  post-apostolic  period.  Our  epistle 
is  one  of  those  latter  fruits  of  the  great  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  on  the 
apostles,  which,  not  being  intrusted  to  the  custody  of  any  one  church  or 
individual,  required  some  considerable  time  to  become  generally  known  ; 
which  when  known,  were  suspected,  bearing,  as  they  necessarily  did  traces 
of  their  late  origin,  and  notes  of  polemical  argument ;  but  of  which  as 
apostolic  and  inspired  writings,  there  never  was,  when  once  they  became 
known,  any  general  doubt ;  and  which,  as  the  sacred  canon  became  fixed, 
acquired,  and  have  since  maintained,  their  due  and  providential  place 
among  the  books  of  the  New  Testament," 

13.  The  ohject  of  the  present  epistle  is   to  warn  believers 
against  being  led  away  with  the  error  of  the  wicked  so  as  to 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  497 

fall  from  their  own  steadfastness.  Chap.  3 :  17.  It  contains 
accordingly  extended  notices  of  the  gross  errors  in  doctrine  and 
morals  which,  as  -we  know  from  the  New  Testament,  abounded 
in  the  Christian  church  near  the  close  of  the  apostolic  period. 
The  second  chapter,  which  is  occupied  with  a  vivid  description 
of  the  false  teachers  that  had  "crept  in  unawares  "  (chap.  2:1; 
Jude  4),  is  very  peculiar  in  its  contents;  and  its  agreement 
with  the  epistle  of  Jude  is  of  such  a  character  as  leads  to  the 
inference  that  the  two  writings  are  somehow  connected  with 
each  other.  It  has  been  supposed  that  both  writers  drew  from 
a  common  source  unknown  to  us.  More  probable  is  the  opin- 
ion that  one  of  them  had  in  view  the  words  of  the  other.  A 
comparison  of  the  two  writings  wdll  perhaps  lead  to  the  belief 
that  Jude's  was  the  original,  though  on  this  point  biblical  schol- 
ars differ.  It  matters  not  to  us  whether,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Peter  employed,  in  a  free  and  independent 
way,  the  words  of  Jude,  or  Jude  those  of  Peter.  Upon  either 
supposition  his  writing  is  as  much  inspired  as  if  he  had  written 
independently.  The  most  prominent  idea  of  Peter's  first  epistle 
is  patience  and  steadfastness  in  the  endurance  of  suffering  for 
Christ's  sake  ;  that  of  this  second  epistle  is  caution  against  the 
seductions  of  false  teachers.  Thus  each  epistle  fills  an  impor- 
tant place  in  the  entire  economy  of  revelation. 

III.     EPISTLES  OF  JOHN. 

14.  The  first  epistle  of  John  bears  throughout  the  impress 
of  its  authorsliif.  That  it  was  written  by  the  same  man  who 
wrote  the  fourth  gospel  is  too  evident  to  be  reasonably  contro- 
verted. On  this  ground  alone  its  genuineness  and  authenticity 
may  be  regarded  as  established  on  a  firm  basis.  But  the  ex- 
ternal testimonies  to  its  authorship  are  also  abundant  from  Pol- 
ycarp,  the  disciple  of  the  apostle,  and  onward.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  enumerate  them.  In  respect  to  the  date  of  this  epistle 
we  have  no  certain  knowledge.  The  common  opinion  is  that  it 
was  written  after  the  gospel,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  first 
century.     With  this  supposition  the  contents  agree.     It  con- 


4^8  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

tains  the  affectionate  counsel  of  an  aged  apostle  to  his  younger 
brethren,  whom  he  addresses  as  his  "little  children."  He 
writes,  moreover,  in  "  the  last  time,"  when,  according  to  the 
prediction  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  many  antichrists  and 
false  prophets  are  abroad  in  the  world  (chaps.  2:18;  4:1-3), 
and  there  are  some  who  deny  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the 
flesh  (chap.  4:2,  3).  As  to  the  jplace  of  the  apostle's  writing,  if 
we  follow  ancient  tradition,  which  makes  Ephesus  his  home  in 
his  old  age,  we  may  well  believe  that  he  wrote  from  that  city, 
and  that  the  epistle  was  addressed  primarily  to  the  circle  of 
churches  which  had  Ephesus  for  a  centre. 

Some  of  the  ancients  refer  to  the  present  epistle  as  written  to  the  Parl/ii- 
ans.  Bnt  this  is  a  very  improbable  assumption,  and  rests  apparently  on 
some  mistake.  The  apostle  evidently  writes  to  those  who  are  under  his 
spiritual  care  ;  and  these  are  not  the  Parthians,  but  the  Christians  of  Asia, 
to  whom  also  the  seven  letters  of  the  Ax^ocalypse  are  addressed. 

15.  The  epistle  has  unity  throughout,  but  not  the  unity  of 
systematic  logical  arrangement.  Its  unity  consists  rather  in 
the  fact  that  all  its  thoughts  revolve  around  one  great  central 
truth,  the  incarnation  of  fJie  Son  of  God  in  the  joerson  of  Jesus 
Christ  for  the  salvation  of  the  ivorld.  With  this  truth  he  begins, 
and  he  affirms  it  authoritatively,  as  one  of  the  primitive  apos- 
tolic witnesses:  "That  which  we  have  seen  and  heard  de- 
clare we  unto  you."  Chaps.  1:3;  4:6.  He  guards  it  also 
against  perversion,  when  he  insists  upon  the  reality  of  our 
Lord's  incarnation  :  "  Every  spirit  that  confesseth  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh,  is  of  God :  and  ever}^  spirit  that 
confesseth  not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh,  is  not  of 
God  "  (chap.  4 : 2, 3),  words  which  are  with  good  reason  understood 
as  referring  to  a  very  ancient  form  of  error,  that  of  the  Docetce, 
who  maintained  that  the  Son  of  God  had  not  a  real,  but  only 
an  apparent  body.  The  reception  through  faith  of  this  great 
truth,  that  the  Son  of  God  has  come  in  the  flesh  for  man's  sal- 
vation, brings  us  into  blissful  union  and  communion  with  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  and  thus  into  the  possession  of  sonship  and 
eternal  life.     Chaps.  1 : 3;  3:1,  2;  4 :  15;  5:1,  13,  20.     The  re- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  499 

jection  of  tins  truth  is  the  rejection  of  God's  own  testimony 
concerning  his  Son  (chaps.  2  :22;  5:9,  10),  and  thus  the  rejec- 
tion of  eternal  life ;  for  out  of  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  there  is 
no  life  (chap.  5  :11,  12).  But  this  reception  of  Christ  is  not  a 
matter  of  mere  theoretic  belief.  It  is  a  practical  coming  to  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  and  a  holy  union  with  them.  The  proof 
of  such  union  with  God  and  Christ  is  likeness  to  God  and  obe- 
dience to  God's  commandments.  They  who  profess  to  know 
God  and  to  be  in  him,  while  they  walk  in  darkness  and  allow 
themselves  in  sin,  are  liars  and  the  truth  is  not  in  them.  Chaps. 
1:5-7;  2:4-6;  3:5-10,  24;  5:4,  5,18.  The  sum  of  all  God's 
attributes  is  love ;  and  the  sum  of  Christian  character  is  love 
also.  Chap.  4 :  16.  But  there  can  be  no  true  love  towards  God 
where  there  is  none  towards  the  brethren;  and  such  love  must 
manifest  itself  "  not  in  word,  neither  in  tongue ;  but  in  deed  and 
in  truth."  Chaps.  3:11-18;  4:7-11,  20,  21;  5:1.  He  that 
loves  his  brother  abides  in  the  light ;  but  he  that  hates  him 
abides  in  darkness  and  death.  Chaps.  2:9-11;  3:14,  15.  All 
believers  have  an  abiding  unction  of  the  Spirit,  which  enables 
them  to  distinguish  between  truth  and  falsehood,  and  keeps 
them  from  the  seductions  of  the  many  antichrists  that  are 
abroad.  Chap.  2  :  18-27.  Such  true  believers,  whose  hearts 
are  filled  with  love,  are  raised  above  fear,  and  have  confidence 
in  prayer,  and  may  look  forward  with  joyful  confidence  to  the 
day  of  judgment.  Chaps.  2 :  28  ;  3  :  18-20  ;  4  :  17,  18 ;  5 :  14,  15. 
These  fundamental  truths  the  apostle  reiterates  in  various 
forms  and  connections,  intermingling  with  them  various  admo- 
nitions and  promises  of  a  more  particular  character.  He  dwells 
with  especial  fulness  on  the  evidences  of  discipleship  as  mani- 
fested in  the  daily  spirit  and  life.  There  is  perhaps  no  part  of 
God's  word  so  directly  available  to  the  anxious  inquirer  who 
wishes  to  know  what  true  religion  is,  and  whether  he  jDossesses 
it.  He  who,  in  humble  reliance  on  the  illumination  of  the  di- 
vine Spirit,  applies  to  himself  this  touchstone  of  Christian 
character,  will  know  whether  he  is  of  God,  or  of  the  world  that 
lies  in  wickedness. 


500  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

16.  Second  and  third  epistles  op  John.  These  two  short 
epistles  are  so  closely  related  to  each  other  in  style  and  man- 
ner that  they  have  always  been  regarded  as  written  by  one  and 
the  same  person.  In  considering,  therefore,  the  question  of 
their  authorship  we  take  them  both  together.  Though  reck- 
oned by  Origen  (in  Eusebius'  Hist.  EccL,  6.  25)  and  by  Euse- 
bius  himself  (Hist.  EccL,  3.  25 ;  Demonstratio  Evangel.  3.  5) 
among  the  disputed  writings,  the  external  testimony  to  their 
apostolic  authorship  is  upon  the  whole  satisfactory,  embracing 
the  names  of  Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria,  Jerome,  etc.  When  we  take  into  account  the 
small  extent  of  these  epistles  it  is  plain  that  no  unfavorable  in- 
ference can  be  drawn  from  the  silence  of  Tertullian  and  others. 
Nor  is  there  any  internal  evidence  against  them.  That  the 
man  who,  in  his  gospel,  studiously  avoids  the  mention  of  his 
own  name,  describing  himself  as  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved,"  and,  in  his  first  epistle,  simply  classes  himself  with  the 
other  apostles — "  that  which  tue  have  seen  and  heard,"  etc. — 
should  in  these  epistles,  where  some  designation  of  himself 
was  necessary,  speak  of  himself  as  "the  elder"  is  not  sur- 
prising.    Compare  1  Peter  5  :1. 

17.  Concerning  the  date  of  these  two  epistles  we  know 
nothing.  The  object  of  the  first  seems  to  have  been  to  set 
before  the  lady  to  whom  it  was  addressed  the  importance  of  a 
discriminating  love,  which  diLstlnguishes  between  truth  and 
falsehood,  and  does  not  allow  itself  to  aid  and  abet  error  by 
misplaced  kindness  towards  its  teachers. 

In  the  second  the  apostle,  writing  to  Gains,  commends  to 
his  hospitalit}^,  certain  missionary  brethren,  who  were  strangers 
in  the  place  where  this  disciple  lived.  It  would  seem  that  the 
design  of  these  brethren  was  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  Gen- 
tiles without  charge ;  that  he  had  in  a  former  letter,  com- 
mended them  to  the  church  where  Gains  resided ;  but  that 
Diotrephes  had  hindered  their  reception,  and  persecuted  those 
who  favored  them. 

Short  as   these  epistles  are,  then,  each  of  them  contains 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  501 

weighty  instruction — the  first,  in  reference  to  ill-timed  kindness 
and  liberality  towards  the  teachers  of  error  ;  the  second,  con- 
cerning the  character  and  conduct  of  those  who  love  to  have 
the  preeminence,  and  the  abhorrence  in  which  they  ought  to 
be  held  by  all  who  love  the  purity-  and  peace  of  the  churches. 

IV.     EPISTLE   OF  JUDE. 

18.  The  writer  of  this  epistle  styles  himself  "the  servant  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  brother  of  James."  Chap.  1:1.  This  James 
is  undoubtedly  the  same  man  who  held  so  conspicuous  a  place 
in  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  the  author  of  the  epistle 
which  bears  his  name.  Whether  Jude  was  an  apostle,  or  an 
apostolic  man,  like  Mark  and  Luke,  depends  upon  the  question 
respecting  the  relation  which  his  brother  James  held  to  Christ, 
concerning  which  see  the  introduction  to  the  epistle  of  James. 
In  either  case  the  canonical  authority  of  the  epistle  holds  good. 
The  close  relation  between  this  epistle  and  the  second  chapter 
of  Peter's  second  epistle  has  already  been  noticed.  See  above. 
No.  13.  It  was  probably  anterior  in  time  to  that  epistle,  but 
not  separated  from  it  by  a  great  number  of  years.  If  we  may 
infer  anything  from  the  abundant  use  made  by  the  writer  of 
Jewish  history  and  tradition,  the  persons  addressed  are  Jewish 
Christians. 

19.  Eusebius  classes  this  epistle  also  among  the  disputed 
writings  (Hist.  EccL,  2.  23 ;  3.  25),  yet  the  testimonies  to  its 
genuineness  are  ample  —  the  Muratorian  canon,  Tertullian, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Jerome,  etc. 

It  was  objected  to  this  epistle  in  ancient  times  that  the  writer  quotes 
from  the  apocryphal  book  of  Enoch  (verses  14,  15).  To  this  it  may  be 
answered — (1)  that,  if  this  be  the  case,  Jude  does  not  sanction  the  book 
of  Enoch  as  a  whole,  but  only  this  particular  tradition  embodied  in  it ; 
(2)  that  the  writer  of  the  book  of  Enoch  manifestly  made  use  of  a  current 
tradition,  and  that,  for  anything  that  appears  to  the  contrary,  Jude  may 
have  availed  himself  of  the  same  tradition,  independently  of  the  book  of 
Enoch.  That  an  inspired  writer  should  refer  to  a  traditional  history  not 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  ought  not  to  give  offence.  The  apostle  Paul 
does  the  same  (2  Tim.  3:8,  9)  ;  and  Jude  himself  in  another  passage 
(verse  9). 


502  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

20.  The  design  of  the  epistle  Jude  himself  gives  in  explicit 
terms  (verses  3,  4).  It  is  to  guard  believers  against  the  seduc- 
tions of  false  teachers,  corrupt  in  practice  as  well  as  doctrine ; 
whose  selfishness,  sensuality,  and  avarice ;  whose  vain-glorious, 
abusive,  and  schismatic  spirit,  he  describes  in  vivid  language, 
denouncing  upon  them  at  the  same  time  the  awful  judgment  of 
God.  The  apostolic  portraiture  has  not  yet  become  antiquated 
in  the  history  of  Christ's  church. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  503 


CHAPTEK    XXXII. 


JHE     / 


"POCALYPSE. 


1.  The  word  Apocalypse  (Greek  Apokalupsis)  signifies  Revela- 
tion,  the  title  given  to  the  book  in  our  English  version  as  well 
from  its  opening  word  as  from  its  contents.  Of  all  the  writings 
of  the  New  Testament  that  are  classed  by  Eusebius  among  the 
disputed  books  {Anklegomena,  chap.  5.  6),  the  apostolic  author- 
ship of  this  is  sustained  by  the  greatest  amount  of  external  evi- 
dence ;  so  much  so  that  Eusebius  acknowledges  it  as  doubtful 
whether  "it  should  be  classed  among  the  acknoivledged  or  the 
disputed  books. 

It  was  known  to  Papias,  to  Melito  bishop  of  Sardis,  and  to  Theopliilus 
of  Antioch  ;  is  quoted  as  a  part  of  Scripture  by  the  churches  of  Vienne  and 
Lyons  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  second  century ;  and  is  expressly  ascribed 
to  the  apostle  John  by  Justin  Martyr,  Irenseus,  Tertullian,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  the  Muratorian  canon,  Hipi^olytus,  Origen,  Jerome,  etc.  The 
testimonies  may  be  seen  in  Davidson's  Introduction  to  the  New  Test. ,  in 
Alford,  and  in  the  other  works  already  frequently  referred  to,  Eusebius, 
after  giving  a  list  of  the  acJcnowledged  books,  adds  :  "After  these  should  be 
placed,  if  it  be  thought  proper,  the  Revelation  of  John,  concerning  which 
we  shall  give  the  opinions  at  the  proper  time."  Then,  at  the  end  of  a  list 
of  the  disputed  and  I'ejecied  hooks  he  adds  :  "And  moreover,  as  I  said,  the 
Revelation  of  John,  if  it  be  thought  proper,  which  some,  as  I  said,  reject, 
but  others  reckon  among  the  acknowledged  books"  (Hist.  Eccl.,  3.  25)  ; 
and  again,  after  mentioning  with  approbation  the  account  of  those  who 
said  that  there  Avere  at  Ephesus  two  who  bore  the  name  of  John  (John  the 
apostle,  and  the  so-called presbi/ter  John),  he  adds  :  "For  it  is  probable  that 
the  second,  if  any  one  be  not  willing  to  allow  that  it  was  the  first,  saw  the 
Revelation  current  under  the  name  of  John"  (Hist.  Eccl.,  3.  39).  Those 
who  denied  the  apostolic  authorship  of  the  book  generally  referred  it  to  this 
latter,  John  the  presbyter.  So  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  and  others.  But 
for  this  they  adduced  no  historic  proof.  Their  arguments  were  draAvn 
wholly  from  considerations  relating  to  its  internal  character,  especially  in  the 
case  ot  some,  its  supi^osed  millenai-ian  views.     Upon  any  fair  princij^le  of 


504  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

judging,  we  must  concede  that  the  apostolic  authorship  of  this  book  is 
sustained  by  a  mass  of  ancient  testimony  not  rebutted  by  any  contrary 
testimony  which  rests  on  a  historic  basis. 

2.  In  modern,  as  in  ancient  times,  the  main  arguments 
against  the  apostolic  authorship  of  tlie  Apocalypse  have  been 
drawn  from  its  internal  character,  especially  as  contrasted  with 
that  of  the  fourth  gospel  and  the  first  epistle  of  John.  On  this 
ground  the  assaults  upon  the  book  have  been  many  and  strong, 
and  they  have  been  met  with  vigorous  resistance.  To  review 
the  arguments  on  both  sides  Avould  exceed  our  limits.  Many 
of  them,  moreover,  presuppose  a  knowledge  of  the  original  lan- 
guages of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.  We  can  only 
indicate  some  considerations  of  a  general  nature. 

(1.)  No  valid  argument  against  the  aj^ostolic  authorship  of  this  book  can 
be  drawn  from  the  fact  that  the  writer  specifies  his  name  in  the  introduction 
and  elsewhere.  Chaps.  1  : 1,  4,  9  ;  21  : 2  ;  22  : 8.  It  may  surprise  us  that  the 
man  who  studiously  avoids  mentioning  his  name  in  the  fourth  gospel,  and 
who  describes  himself  in  his  second  and  third  epistles  as  ' '  the  elder, "  should 
here  directly  introduce  his  name  at  the  beginning  and  in  the  progress  of  the 
book.  But  for  this  difference  he  may  have  had  a  good  reason,  whether  we 
can  discover  it  or  not.  The  direct  command,  addressed  to  him  personally, 
that  he  should  write  down  his  visions  and  send  them  to  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia  would  seem  to  imply  the  propriety,  if  not  the  necessity,  of  his  con- 
necting his  OAvn  name  with  the  record  of  them.  He  addressed  the  churches 
immediately  and  authoritatively  in  the  name  of  the  risen  and  glorified 
Saviour.  What  more  natural  and  proper  than  that  he  should  inform  them 
directly  who  he  was  that  had  received  this  heavenly  message. 

(2.)  The  doctrinal  views  of  the  Apocalypse  afford  no  argument  against  its 
apostolic  authorship.  The  writer,  it  is  tiTie,  moves  to  a  great  extent  in  a 
new  and  peculiar  sphere  of  truth  ;  but  there  is  nothing  in  it  contradictory 
to  the  teachings  of  John's  gospel  and  epistles.  On  the  contrary,  the  great 
central  truths  that  relate  to  Christ's  person  and  office  are  in  perfect  har- 
mony with  those  teachings. 

(3.)  The  spirit  oi  the  Apocalypse  is  not  contradictory  to  that  of  the  gos- 
pel and  epistles.  A  writer  in  Alexander's  Kitto  says  :  "Quiet  contempla- 
tion has  full  scope  in  the  evangelist ;  mildness  and  love  find  utterance  in 
affectionate  discourse.  Bat  the  spirit  of  the  apocalyptist  is  stern  and  re- 
vengeful, with  cutting  reproofs,  calls  to  repentance,  commands  and  threat- 
enings."  The  answer  to  aU  this  is  that,  just  as  the  human  body  has  bones 
and  muscles  as  well  as  fluids  and  soft  tissues,  so  the  mediatorial  govern- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  505 

ment  of  Christ  lias  a  stern  as  well  as  a  mild  side  ;  and  that  the  very  nature 
of  the  visions  contained  in  the  apocalypse  gives  prominence  to  this  side. 

(4. )  The  main  objections  are  based  on  diversity  of  style  and  diction.  Not- 
withstanding all  the  true  points  of  resemblance  in  this  respect  that  have 
been  adduced  by  various  writers,  the  difference  between  the  Apocalypse, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  gospel  and  epistles  of  John,  on  the  other,  is  very 
striking.  But  here  we  must  take  into  account,  jBrst  of  all,  the  great  differ- 
ence in  the  subject-matter,  which  naturally  brings  a  corresponding  differ- 
ence of  language.  Next,  the  difference  in  the  mode  of  divine  communication. 
The  gosjDel  and  epistles  were  written  under  that  constant  tranquil  illumi- 
nation of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  all  the  apostles  enjoyed.  The  subject-mat- 
ter of  the  Apocalyi^se  was  given  in  direct  vision — much  of  it,  moreover, 
through  the  medium  of  oral  address.  To  one  who  believes  in  the  reahty 
of  the  revelations  here  recorded  it  is  vain  that  an  opponent  urge  the  differ- 
ence in  style  between  the  first  epistle  of  John  and  the  epistles  to  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  ;  since  these  latter  are  expressed  in  the  very  words  of 
Christ.  Inseparably  connected  with  the  peculiar  mode  of  revelation  in  the 
Apocalypse  are  the  peculiar  mental  state  and  circumstances  in  which  the 
apostle  wrote.  He  composed  the  gospel  and  epistles  in  the  calmness  of 
tranquil  contemplation  and  reminiscences  of  the  past.  The  visions  of  the 
Apocalypse  he  received  "in  the  Spirit"  (chap.  1 :  10  ;  4:2);  that  is,  in  a 
state  of  ecstacy  ;  and,  according  to  the  plain  language  of  the  book,  he 
wrote  them  down  at  the  time,  beginning,  as  we  must  supi^ose,  with  the  second 
chapter,  the  introductory  chapter  and  some  closing  remarks  having  been 
added  afterwards.  The  direction:  "What  thou  seest  write  in  a  book" 
(chap.  1  :  11,  19),  does  not  indeed  imply  that  he  should  wi'iteupon  the  spot ; 
but  that  he  did  so  is  plainly  indicated  elsewhere  :  ' '  When  the  seven  thun- 
ders had  uttered  their  voices,  I  was  about  to  write  :  and  I  heard  a  voice 
from  heaven  saying  unto  me.  Seal  up  those  things  which  the  seven  thun- 
ders uttered,  and  write  them  not"  (chap.  10  : 4).  In  entire  harmony  with 
this  is  another  passage  :  "And  I  heard  a  voice  from  heaven  saying  unto  me, 
Write,  Blessed  are  the  dead  which  die  in  the  Lord  from  henceforth,"  etc. 
(chap.  14  :13)  ;  that  is,  "Write  down  now  these  words  of  comfort."  The 
apostle,  therefore,  wrote  down  his  visions  one  after  another  immediately 
after  they  were  received.  When  he  wrote  he  was  not  in  a  state  of  uncon- 
sciousness, but  of  mental  and  spiritual  exaltation  above  his  ordinary  condi- 
tion. To  affirm  that  he  could  not  have  received  this  series  of  visions  with- 
out being  deprived  of  the  capacity  to  record  them  at  the  time,  would  be 
to  limit  the  modes  of  divine  revelation  by  our  ignorance.  If  we  cannot 
understand  how  the  apostle  could  hear  "in  the  Spirit"  the  voices  of  the 
S3ven  thunders,  and  immediately  prepare  to  write  down  their  utterances, 
we  ought,  at  least,  reverently  to  receive  the  fact  as  stated  by  him.  To  ex- 
pect from  one  writing  in  such  circumstances  careful  attention  to  the  rules 

Comp.  to  Fible-  22 


50(3  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  Greek  syntax  and  the  idioms  of  the  Greek  language  would  be  absurd. 
Undoubtedly  Plato  in  a  like  situation  would  have  written  pure  Attic  Greek, 
becaiise  that  would  have  been  to  him  the  most  natural  mode  of  writing. 
But  the  Galilean  fisherman,  a  Jew  by  birth  and  education,  fell  back  upon 
the  Hebrew  idioms  with  which  he  was  so  familiar.  Finally  we  must  re- 
member that,  after  the  analogy  of  the  Old  Testament  prophecies,  this 
prophetic  book  is  expressed  in  poetic  diciion.  It  is  full  of  images  borrowed 
from  the  old  Hebrew  prophets,  often  spiritualized  and  appHed  in  a  higher 
sense.  Looking  to  the  imagery  alone,  one  may  well  call  this  book  a  grand 
anthology  of  the  old  Hebrew  poets.  But  the  poetic  diction  of  one  and  the 
same  writer  may  differ  widely  from  his  prose  style,  as  we  see  in  the  case 
of  Moses,  Isaiah,  and  Jeremiah. 

If  the  above  considerations  do  not  wholly  remove  the  difficulty  .under 
consideration  they  gi*eatly  relieve  it.  The  apostolic  authorship  of  the 
fourth  gospel  and  the  first  epistle  of  John  is  sustained  by  a  mass  of  evi- 
dence that  cannot  be  set  aside.  That  the  same  John  also  wrote  the  visions 
of  the  Apocalypse  is  attested,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  almost  unanimous 
voice  of  antiquity.  Ear  greater  difficulties  are  involved  in  the  denial  of 
the  ancient  tradition  of  the  church  than  in  the  admission  of  it. 


3.  The  date  of  the  Apocalypse  has  been  a  matter  of  much 
discussion,  the  great  question  being  whether  it  was  written  be- 
fore or  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans.  The 
external  testimony  strongly  preponderates  on  the  side  of  a  lato 
date ;  for  the  great  body  of  this  tradition  represents  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  apostle  to  the  isle  of  Patmos  as  having  taken 
place  under  Domitian  who  succeeded  Titus,  and  reigned  from 
A.  D.  81  to  96*  This  supposition  also  agrees  with  the  fact  that 
the  recipients  of  our  Lord's  seven  messages  (chaps.  2,  3)  are  the 
seven  churches  of  Proconsular  Asia,  among  whom,  according  to 
the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  primitive  church,  the  apostle 
spent  the  latter  years  of  his  life.  The  hypothesis  of  an  earlier 
date  is  but  feebly  supported  by  external  testimony.  It  rests 
mainly  on  the  alleged  reference  of  the  writer  to  the  overthrow 
of  Jerusalem  as  an  event  yet  future,  and  as  being  the  main  sub- 
ject of  the  prophesies  contained  in"  the  book.  But  this  refer- 
ence has  never  been  clearly  established,  and  is  contradicted  by 
the  general  analogy  of  prophecy,  by  the  contents  of  the  book, 
and  by  its  manifest  relation  to  the  prophecies  of  Daniel.     A 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  507 

few  only  of  the  briefer  prophetic  books,  as  those  of  Jonah  and 
Nahum,  confine  themselves  to  one  particular  event  lying  in  the 
near  future.  All  the  more  extended  among  them,  and  many  of 
the  shorter,  look  forward  undeniably  to  the  distant  future.  The 
book  of  Daniel  can  be  interpreted  only  as  containing  a  great 
scheme  of  j^rophecy  stretching  forward  into  the  distant  future, 
and  with  this  the  revelation  of  John  has  the  closest  connection. 
The  place  where  the  revelation  was  received  was  the  isle  of  Pat- 
mos,  one  of  the  group  called  Sporades  in  the  ^gean  sea  off  the 
southwestern  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  where  the  apostle  represents 
himself  to  have  been  "  for  the  word  of  God,  and  for  the  testi- 
mony of  Jesus  Christ  "  (chap.  1:9):  that  is,  in  accordance  with 
ancient  tradition,  banished  to  that  isle  on  account  of  the  gospel. 

4.  For  the  interpretation  of  this  book  many  and  very  discord- 
ant plans  have  been  proposed.  Setting  aside  at  the  outset  all 
those  schemes  which  do  not  find  in  the  Apocalypse  a  view  of  the 
conflicts  of  Christ's  people  to  the  end  of  time  and  their  final  victory 
over  their  enemies,  there  remain  two  general  principles  of  inter- 
pretation. The  first  may  be  called  the  generic  principle.  Those 
who  adopt  it  inquire  only  after  the  general  import  of  the  sym- 
bols employed,  without  attempting  any  particular  application 
of  them  to  the  history  of  the  church  in  connection  with  that  of 
the  world.  Thus,  the  white  horse  of  the  first  seal  (chap.  6  : 2) 
denotes  in  general  the  conquests  of  Christ  through  his  gospel ; 
the  red  horse  of  the  second  seal  (chap  6:4),  war  and  carnage, 
as  accompanying  the  progress  of  the  truth ;  and  so  on  through- 
out the  other  symbols  of  the  book.  But  when  we  come  to  the 
most  important  part  of  the  prophecies,  those  concerning  the 
two  beasts  (chap.  13),  and  that  concerning  the  woman  riding  on 
the  scarlet-colored  beast  (chap.  17),  this  principle  utterly  fails. 
It  cannot  be  that  so  many  specific  and  very  peculiar  marks 
mean  only  persecuting  powers  in  general.  They  point  with 
wonderful  clearness  and  precision  to  that  grand  combination  of 
the  civil  with  the  ecclesiastical  power  of  which  papal  Home  has 
ever  been  the  chief  representative. 

We  come,  then,  for  the  true  key  to  the  Apocalypsej  to  the 


50S  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

other  principle,  whicli  may  be  called  the  historic.  This  seeks 
in  the  history  of  the  church  and  of  the  world  for  the  great 
events  foretold  in  this  book.  It  is  no  valid  objection  to  this 
principle,  that  in  the  attempt  to  apply  it  interpreters  find  great, 
and  in  many  cases  insuperable  difficulties.  The  mystery  of 
God  is  not  yet  finished.  It  may  be  that  the  mighty  events  of 
the  future  can  alone  throw  a  clear  light  on  the  entire  plan  of 
the  book.  Meanwhile  we  must  wait  in  reverential  expectation, 
having  in  the  plain  fulfilment  of  that  part  of  its  prophecies 
which  describes  the  rise  and  character  of  the  combined  ecclesi- 
astical and  political  power  which,  under  the  name  of  Christian- 
ity, persecutes  the  true  servants  of  Christ,  a  certain  pledge  that 
all  the  rest  will  be  accomplished  in  due  season.  Expositors 
are  agreed  that  tlie  predictions  of  the  book  do  not  run  on  in 
chronological  order  from  beginning  to  end.  Most  find  in  chaps. 
6  : 1 — 11 :  18  (with  an  episode,  chaps.  10  : 1 — 11 :  13)  one  series 
relating  more  to  the  outward  history  of  the  world  in  its  rela- 
tions to  God's  people ;  while  in  chap.  12  the  writer  returns  to 
the  primitive  days  of  Christianity,  and  gives  a  more  interior  and 
spiritual  view  of  the  conflicts  of  God's  people  along  the  track  of 
ages  and  their  final  triumph,  adding  at  the  close  various  supple- 
mentary views  of  the  same  mighty  struggle  and  victory. 

5.  On  the  symholic  import  of  the  numbers  in  the  Apocalypse 
a  few  words  may  be  added. 

Seven  is  the  well  known  symbol  of  completeness,  and  this 
is  the  most  prominent  number  in  the  book.  Thus  we  have  the 
seven  churches  of  Asia  represented  by  the  seven  golden  candle- 
sticks, and  their  seven  angels  represented  by  seven  stars  (chap. 
1 : 4, 12, 16,  20) ;  the  seven  lamps  of  fire  burning  before  the  throne 
which  are  the  seven  spirits  of  God  (chap.  4:5);  the  seven  seals 
(chap.  5:1);  the  seven  trumpets  (chap.  8:2);  the  seven  thunders 
(chap.  10:4);  the  seven  last  plagues  (chap.  15:1);  to  which 
may  be  added  the  seven  ascriptions  of  praise — power,  riches, 
wisdom,  strength,  honor,  glory,  blessing  (chap.  5  :  12),  blessing, 
glory,  wisdom,  thanksgiving,  honor,  power,  might  (chap.  7:12). 
Lastly,  we  have  the  seven  heads  of  the  persecuting  beast  in  all 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  509 

its  various  forms.  Chaps.  12  :3  ;  13  :1 ;  17  :3.  So  far  as  the 
number  seven  has  its  fulfilment  in  the  history  of  the  world,  we 
are  at  liberty  to  suppose  that  this  is  accomplished,  in  part  at 
least,  by  the  manner  in  which  the  wisdom  of  God  has  been 
pleased  to  group  together  the  events  of  prophecy — a  grouping 
which  is  always  appropriate,  but  might  have  been  different  had 
the  plan  of  representation  so  required.  The  final  judgments 
which  precede  the  millenium,  for  example,  which  in  chaps.  15 
and  16  are  set  forth  under  the  figure  of  seven  vials  full  of  the 
wrath  of  God,  might  have  been,  by  another  mode  of  distribution, 
represented  under  the  number  two.  Many  think  they  are  thus 
represented  in  chap.  14:14-20.  Another  prophetic  number, 
occurring  in  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse,  always  as  a  designa- 
tion of  time,  is  the  half  of  seven.  Thus  we  have  "  a  time,  and 
times,  and  half  a  time,"  that  is,  three  years  and  a  half  (chap. 
12:14);  or  in  months,  "forty  and  two  months"  (chaps.  11:2* 
13:5);  or  in  days,  "a  thousand  two  hundred  and  threescore 
days"  (chaps.  11:3;  12:6).  Compare  Daniel  7:25.  Again, 
answering  to  these  three  years  and  a  half,  w^e  have  the  three 
days  and  a  half  during  which  the  two  witnesses  lie  dead.  Chap. 
11 : 9,  11.  The  number  siXj  moreover,  from  its  peculiar  rela- 
tion to  seven,  represents  the  preparation  for  the  consummation 
of  God's  plans.  Hence  the  sixth  seal  (chap.  6  :  12-17),  the  sixth 
trumpet  (chap.  9:14-21),  and  the  sixth  vial  (chap.  16:12-16) 
are  each  preeminent  in  the  series  to  which  they  belong.  They 
usher  in  the  awful  judgments  of  Heaven  which  destroy  the 
wicked.  Here,  perhaps,  we  have  the  key  to  the  symbolic  im- 
port of  the  number  of  the  beast,  Q^QQ.  While  it  represents, 
accordiug  to  the  principles  of  Greek  numeration,  the  number 
of  a  man,  it  seems  to  indicate  that  upon  him  fall  all  the  judg- 
ments of  the  sixth  seal,  the  sixth  trumpet,  and  the  sixth  vial. 

Four  is  the  natural  symbol  for  universality.  Thus  we  have 
the  four  living  creatures  round  about  the  throne  (chap.  4 : 6), 
perhaps  as  symbols  of  the  agencies  by  which  God  administers 
his  universal  providential  government  (chaps.  6:1,  3,  5,  7 ; 
15 : 7) ;  the  four  angels  standing  on  the  four  corners  of  the  earth 


510  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

and  holding  the  four  winds  (chap.  7:1);  and  the  four  angels 
bound  in  the  river  Euphrates  (chap.  9  :  14).  So  also  in  the  four- 
fold enumeration,  "  kindred,  and  tongue,  and  people,  and  na- 
tion," or  its  equivalent.  Chaps.  5  : 9  ;  10 :  11 ;  11 : 9  ;  14 : 6  ;  17 :  15. 
A  third  and  o.  fourth  part,  on  the  contrar}^,  represent  what  is 
partial.     Chaps.  6:8;  8 :  12  ;  9 :  18. 

Twelve  is  the  well-known  signature  of  God's  people.  Com- 
pare the  twelve  tribes  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  twelve 
apostles  of  the  New ;  the  woman  with  a  crown  of  twelve  stars 
(chap.  12:1);  the  twelve  gates,  twelve  angels,  twelve  founda- 
tions of  the  New  Jerusalem,  the  twelve  times  twelve  cubits  of 
its  wall,  and  its  tree  of  life  that  ^delds  twelve  harvests  a  year 
(chaps.  21:12,  14;  22:2).  We  have  also  the  same  number 
combined  with  a  thousand,  the  general  symbol  for  a  great  num- 
ber. From  each  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  are  sealed  twelve 
thousand  (chap.  7:4-8),  making  for  the  symbolical  number  of 
the  redeemed  twelve  times  twelve  thousand  (chap.  14  : 1,  3) ;  and 
the  walls  of  the  New  Jerusalem  are  in  every  direction  twelve 
thousand  furlongs  (chap.  21 :  16). 

Ten  is  possibly  only  a  symbol  of  diversity,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  ten  horns  of  the  beast  (chaps.  12  : 3  ;  13  : 1 ;  17  : 3) ;  though 
some  take  a  literal  view  of  it. 

6.  Dark  as  are  many  parts  of  the  Apocalypse  and  difficult 
of  interpretation,  the  book  as  a  whole  is  radiant  with  the  prom- 
ise to  God's  people  of  a  final  and  complete  victory  in  their  con- 
flict with  the  kingdom  of  Satan.  Though  long  delayed,  as  we 
mortals  reckon  time,  it  shall  come  at  last  with  a  splendor  above 
the  brightness  of  the  sun,  and  the  earth  be  lighted  from  pole 
to  pole  with  its  glory.     "  Amen.     Even  so,  come,  Lord  Jesus  "  I 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  511 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  III. 

Writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  with 
SOME  Notices  of  the  ^^pocryphal  New  Testa- 
ment Writings. 

1.  A  WIDE  distinction  sliould  be  made  between  the  writings  of  the  apos- 
tolic fathers  wliich  are  acknowledged  to  be  genuine,  or  the  genuineness  of 
which  may  be  maintained  on  more  or  less  j^robable  grounds,  and  the  large 
mass  of  spurious  works  afterwards  palmed  ui)on  the  Christian  world  as  the 
productions  of  apostles  or  their  contemporaries.  The  latter  constitute 
properly  the  New  Testament  Apocrypha,  though  the  term  is  sometimes 
applied  in  a  loose  way  to  both  classes  of  writings.  The  wi-itings  of  the 
apostolic  fathers,  though  possessing  no  divine  authority, .  are  valuable  as 
showing  the  state  of  the  Christian  churches  at  the  time  when  they  were 
composed  in  respect  to  both  doctrine  and  discipline,  as  well  as  the  various 
errors  and  divisions  by  which  they  were  troubled.  Their  testimonies  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  New  Testament  have  been  already  considered.  Chap. 
2,  No.  10.  Some  of  the  apocryphal  works  also,  worthless  as  they  are  for 
instruction  in  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  Christianity,  throw  much  light 
on  the  religious  spirit,  tendencies,  and  heretical  sects  of  the  times  to  which 
they  belong.  Others  of  these  writings  are  unutterably  absurd  and  puerile, 
worthy  of  notice  only  as  showing  the  type  of  the  puerilities  current  in  the 
age  of  their  composition. 

I.     WKITINGS  OF   CLEMENT. 

2.  Appended  to  the  Alexandrine  manuscript  (Chap.  26,  No.  5)  is  an 
epjistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians,  followed  by  part  of  a  so-called 
second  epistle  to  the  same  church.  The  first  of  these  epistles  is  acknowl- 
edged to  be  genuine.  It  was  known  to  the  ancient  fathers  as  the  work  of 
Clement  of  Eome,  and  highly  commended  by  them.  Their  quotations 
from  it  agree  with  the  contents  of  the  epistle  as  we  now  have  it,  nor  does 
it  exhibit  any  marks  of  a  later  age ;  for  the  author's  reference  to  the  well- 
known  fable  of  the  phoenix  as  a  type  of  the  resurrection  (chap.  25),  consti- 
tutes no  real  difficulty.  It  may  prove  that  he  was  credulous,  but  not  that 
he  belonged  to  a  later  than  the  apostoHc  age.  The  ancients  represent 
this  Clement  to  have  been  identical  with  Clement  bishop  of  Rome.  Whether 
he  was  also  identical  with  the  Clement  named  by  the  apostle  Paul  (Phil. 


512  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

4 : 3),  is  a  question  that  we  may  well  leave  undecided.  The  epistle  wna 
written  shortly  after  some  persecution  (chap.  1),  which  Grabe,  Hefele,  and 
others  suppose  to  have  been  that  under  Nero ;  Lardner,  Cotelerius,  and 
others,  that  under  Domitian.  Upon  the  former  supposition  it  was  written 
about  A.  D.  68— a  supposition  apparently  favored  by  the  way  in  which  he 
refers  to  the  temple  and  service  at  Jerusalem  as  still  in  existence  (chains. 
40,  41)  ;  upon  the  latter,  about  a.  d.  96  or  97. 

3.  The  occasion  of  the  epistle,  which  Clement  writes  in  the  name  of  the 
church  at  Eome,  is  easily  gathered  from  its  contents.  As  in  the  days  of 
Paul,  so  now,  the  Corinthian  church  was  troubled  by  a  "wicked  and  un- 
holy sedition,"  fomented  by  "a  few  rash  and  self-willed  men,"  who  had 
proceeded  so  far  as  to  thrast  out  of  their  ministiy  some  worthy  men. 
Chap.  44.  It  would  seem,  also,  from  chaps.  24-27  that  there  were  among 
them  those  who  denied  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  To  restore  in  the 
Corinthian  church  the  spirit  of  love  and  unity  is  the  grand  scope  of  the 
epistle.  The  author  commends  them  for  their  orderly  and  holy  deport- 
ment before  their  present  quarrel  arose,  traces  it  to  its  true  source  in  the 
pride  gendered  by  the  honor  and  enlargement  granted  them  by  God,  and 
urges  them  to  lay  aside  their  contentions  by  every  motive  that  the  gospel 
offers— the  mischiefs  that  strife  occasions,  the  rules  of  their  religion,  the 
example  of  the  Saviour  and  holy  men  of  all  ages,  the  relation  of  believers 
to  God,  his  high  value  of  the  spirit  of  love  and  unity,  the  reward  of  obe- 
dience and  pimishment  of  disobedience,  etc.  Comparing  the  church  to  an 
army,  he  insists  earnestly  on  the  necessity  of  different  ranks  and  orders, 
and  the  spirit  of  obedience.  Comparing  it  again  to  the  human  body,  he 
shows  that  aU  the  particular  members,  each  in  his  place,  should  conspire 
together  for  the  preservation  of  the  whole. 

Clement's  style  has  not  the  merit  of  compactness  and  conciseness.  He 
is,  on  the  contrary,  diffuse  and  repetitious.  But  a  thoroughly  evangelical 
spirit  pervades  the  present  epistle,  and  it  is,  moreover,  characterized  by  a 
noble  fervor  and  simplicity.  "It  evinces  the  calm  dignity  and  the  iDracti- 
cal  executive  wisdom  of  the  Roman  church  in  her  original  apostolic  sim- 
plicity, without  the  slightest  infusion  of  hierarchical  arrogance."  Schaff, 
Hist.  Christ.  Church,  vol.  1,  p.  460.  In  its  internal  character,  as  in  the 
time  of  its  composition,  it  approaches  the  canonical  writings  of  the  New 
Testament  more  nearly  than  any  other  remains  of  antiquity. 

4.  The  second  epistle  ascribed  to  Clement  is  not  mentioned  by  any 
of  the  fathers  before  Eusebius,  who  speaks  of  it  doubtingly  :  "But  it 
should  be  known  that  there  is  said  to  be  also  a  certain  second  e^Distle  of 
Clement.  But  it  is  clear  to  us  that  this  is  not  equally  known  with  the  first ; 
for  we  know  that  the  ancients  have  not  made  use  of  it."  Hist.  Eccles.  3.38. 
It  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be  spurious,  and  is,  perhaps,  as  Hefele 
suggests,  one  of  the  homilies  falsely  ascribed  to  Clement.     With  this  sup- 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  513 

position  its  contents  well  agree  ;  for  it  does  not  seem  to  have,  like  the  first 
a  definite  end  to  accomplish.  It  opens  with  a  general  exhortation  that  the 
Corinthians  should  think  worthily  of  Christ  in  view  of  the  great  work  which 
he  has  wrought  in  their  behalf,  and  urges  upon  them  a  steadfast  confession 
of  him  before  men,  not  by  empty  words,  but  by  a  life  of  holy  obedience. 
It  sets  before  them  the  incomi^atibility  of  the  service  of  God  and  mammon, 
and  dwells  with  especial  earnestness  on  the  high  rewards  of  eternity  in 
comparison  with  the  pleasures  and  pains  of  the  present  hfe  ;  as  if  the  wri- 
ter liad  in  mind  those  who  were  exposed  to  the  double  jperil  of  substituting 
an  empty  i)rofession  for  the  living  spirit  of  obedience,  and  of  apostatizing 
from  Christ  through  fear  of  persecution  and  martyrdom. 

5.  Besides  the  above,  there  is  a  mass  of  writings  current  in  ancient  days 
under  the  name  of  Clement  which  are  acknowledged  by  all  to  be  spurious. 
Among  these  are  :  The  Eecognitions  of  Clement;  The  Clemeniines,  or,  ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  title,  Cleinenfs  Epitome  of  Peter's  Discourses  in  Trav- 
el; Clemenf  s  Epitome  concerning  the  Acts  and  Discourses  of  Peter  in  Travel — 
three  forms  of  substantially  the  same  work.  It  will  be  sufiicient  to  give  a 
brief  notice  of  the  Eecognitions.  The  author,  apparently  a  Jew  by  birth 
and  a  philosopher  of  the  Alexandrine  school,  has  embraced  a  form  of  Chris- 
tianity mixed  up  with  the  dogmas  of  his  philosophy.  For  the  purpose  of 
attacking  and  overthrowing  the  false  religious  notions  of  his  age,  he  invents 
an  ingenious  historic  plot.  Clement,  a  Roman  citizen,  who,  as  appears  in 
the  sequel,  has  been  separated  in  early  life  from  his  father,  mother,  and 
two  brothers,  whom  he  supposes  to  be  dead,  is  introduced  as  sending  to 
James,  who  presides  over  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  with  an  accompanying 
letter,  an  account  of  his  early  education  ;  his  acquaintance  with  the  apos- 
tle Peter,  who  chooses  him  to  be  his  companion  in  travel ;  Peter's  conver- 
sations with  himself  and  the  rest  of  the  company ;  his  public  addresses 
and  acts  ;  especially  his  famous  encounters  with  Simon  Magus,  whom  he 
overthrows  and  puts  to  public  shame.  In  the  course  of  their  journeying 
they  visit  a  certain  island,  where  they  meet  with  a  poor  woman  begging 
alms,  who  is  found,  upon  the  relation  of  her  history,  to  be  the  mother  of 
Clement.  Upon  farther  inquiry  it  appears  that  two  of  Peter's  company, 
Nicetus  and  Aquila,  are  her  sons  and  the  brothers  of  Clement.  Finally, 
Peter  encounters  on  the  sea-shore,  whither  he  had  gone  to  perform  for  the 
newly  discovered  mother  and  sons  the  rite  of  baptism,  an  old  man  who  is 
found  to  be  the  long  lost  husband  and  father.  From  these  recognitions  the 
work  receives  its  title.  But  this  historic  plot  is  only  the  occasion  of  intro- 
ducing the  writer's  theological  and  philosophical  opinions,  with  especial 
reference  to  the  prevailing  errors  of  his  day.  Any  page  of  the  work  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  Peter  and  Clement  had  nothing  to  do  with  its  com- 
position.    It  cannot  be  placed  earlier  than  the  close  of  the  second  or  tho 

22* 


514  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

beginning  of  the  third  century.  Prefixed  to  these  Clementine  writings, 
and  having  reference  to  them,  are  two  spurious  epistles,  one  from  Peter  to 
James,  president  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  with  the  proceedings  of 
James  consequent  upon  the  reception  of  it,  and  one  from  Clement  to 
James.     These  it  is  not  necessary  to  notice. 

The  so-called  Consiituiions  of  Clement  in  eight  books,  embracing,  as 
their  name  indicates,  a  system  of  rules  pertaining  to  church  order  and  dis- 
cipline, were  certainly  not  the  work  of  Clement.  It  is  not  certain  that 
they  had  their  origin  as  a  whole  in  the  same  age ;  but  the  judgment  of 
learned  men  is  that  no  part  of  them  is  older  than  the  second  half  of  the 
third  century.  The  eighty-five  so-called  Apostolic  Caiions  have  prefixed  to 
them  the  spurious  title  :  "Ecclesiastical  Bules  of  the  Holy  Apostles  pro- 
mulgated by  Clement  High  Priest  (Pontifex)  of  the  Church  of  Bome." 
The  origin  of  these  canons  is  uncertain.  They  first  appear  as  a  collection 
with  the  above  title  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  century.  How  much 
older  some  of  them  may  be  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty. 

II.     THE   EPISTLES  OF   IGNATIUS. 

6.  Ignatius  was  bishop  of  the  church  at  Antioch,  and  sujQfered  martyr- 
dom at  Rome  by  exposure  to  wild  beasts  a.  d.  107,  or  according  to  some 
accounts,  a.  d.  116.  Of  the  fifteen  epistles  ascribed  to  him,  it  is  agreed 
among  biblical  scholars  that  eight  are  spurious  and  of  later  origin.  The 
remaining  seven  are  generally  regarded  as  genuine,  but  the  text  of  these, 
as  of  all  the  rest,  is  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition.  There  are  two 
Greek  recensions,  a  longer  and  a  shorter,  the  latter  containing  approxi- 
mately the  true  text,  though  not  without  the  suspicion  of  interpolations. 
There  is  a  Syriac  version  containing  but  three  of  Ignatius'  ei)istles,  and 
these  in  a  much  reduced  form  (which  some  are  inclined  to  regard  as  the 
only  genuine  epistles)  ;  also  an  Armenian  version  containing  thirteen  epis- 
tles. See  further  Schaff,  Hist.  Chris.  Church,  vol.  1,  pp.  469-471.  As  the 
question  now  stands,  we  may  with  good  reason  receive  as  genuine  the  seven 
mentioned  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.  3.  36)  and  Jerome  (De  Viris  iUust.  16). 
They  were  all  written  on  his  last  journey  to  Rome  ;  four  from  Smyrna, 
where  Polycarp  was  the  bishop,  to  the  Ephesians,  Magnesians,  Trallians, 
and  Romans ;  three  after  his  departure  from  Smyrna,  to  the  churches  of 
Philadelphia  and  Smyrna,  and  to  Polycarp  bishop  of  Smyrna.  The  native 
vigor  and  energy  of  Ignatius,  as  also  the  depth  and  sincerity  of  his  piety, 
shine  forth  conspicuously  in  these  letters  ;  but  they  difier  from  the  epistle 
of  Clement  in  the  manifestation  of  an  intense  ecclesiastical  spirit,  by  which, 
indeed,  they  are  marked  as  belonging  to  a  later  era  of  the  church.  If  we 
except  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  they  all  abound  in  exhortations  to  ren- 
der implicit  obedience  to  their  spiritual  rulers  as  to  Christ  himself.     To 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  515 

tliese  precepts  lie  adds  exliortations  to  maintain  unity,  and  to  avoid  false 
doctrines,  specifying  particularly  Judaizing  teachers  and  sucli  as  deny  our 
Lord's  proper  humanity. 

We  cannot  read  his  letter  to  the  Eomans,  among  whom  he  expected 
shortly  to  lay  down  his  life  for  Christ's  sake,  without  deep  interest.  But 
it  is  marred  by  the  manifestation  of  an  undue  desire  to  obtain  the  crown 
of  martyrdom,  which  leads  him  to  protest  against  any  interposition  of  the 
Koman  brethren  in  his  behalf.  "I  beseech  you,"  says  he,  "show  no  un- 
seasonable good- will  towards  me.  Suffer  me  to  be  the  food  of  wild  beasts, 
hy  means  of  which  I  may  attain  to  God.  I  am  the  wheat  of  God,  and  am 
ground  by  the  teeth  of  wild  beasts,  that  I  may  be  found  the  pure  bread  of 
God."  Chap.  4.  His  letter  to  Polycarp,  a  fellow  bishop,  abounds  in  pre- 
cej^ts  for  the  right  discharge  of  his  duties.  It  is  interesting  as  showing 
Ignatius'  idea,  on  the  one  side,  of  the  office  with  its  high  responsibilities, 
and,  on  the  other,  of  the  duties  which  the  churches  owe  to  those  who  are 
set  over  them  in  the  Lord. 

7.  There  are  some  spurious'' epistles  ascribed  to  Ignatius  which  it  is 
sufficient  simply  to  name.  These  are  :  A  letter  to  one  Maria  a  proselyte  of 
Cilicia  in  answer  to  her  request  that  certain  young  men  might  be  sent  to 
lier  people  as  their  s^^iritual  guides :  ei^istles  to  the  church  of  Tarsus,  of 
Antioch,  and  of  Philippi — theological  dissertations  mostly  made  up  of 
texts  of  Scripture  ;  a  letter  to  Hero  a  deacon,  containing  precepts  for  the 
right  discharge  of  his  office,  and  abounding,  like  those  just  named,  in  quo- 
tations from  Scripture  :  two  pretended  letters  of  Ignatius  to  the  apostle 
John  ;  one  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  with  her  reply. 

Finally,  there  are  some  fragments  of  Ignatius'  writings  preserved  to  us 
in  the  quotations  of  the  ancients,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  notice. 

III.     THE   EPISTLE   OF   POLYCARP. 

8.  Polycarp  was  a  disciple  of  the  apostle  John,  and  presided  over  the 
church  in  Smyrna.  He  suffered  martyrdom  about  the  year  166.  Of  his 
writings  only  one  short  epistle  remains,  addressed  by  him  to  the  Philii)pi- 
ans  soon  after  the  martyrdom  of  Ignatius,  who  passed  through  Smyrna  on 
his  way  to  Rome.  This  we  gather  from  the  letter  itself ;  for  in  this  he 
assumes  that  Ignatius  has  already  suffered  (chap.  9),  and  yet  he  has  not 
heard  the  particulars  concerning  his  fate  and  that  of  his  companions. 
Chap.  14.  This  brief  epistle  is  marked  by  a  fervor  and  simplicity  worthy 
of  an  apostolic  man.  The  writer  commends  the  PhilipiDians  for  the  love 
manifested  by  them  towards  the  suffering  servants  of  Christ,  exhorts  them 
to  steadfastness,  reminds  them  of  Paul's  precepts  in  his  epistle  to  them, 


516  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

and  proceeds  to  unfold  and  inculcate  the  duties  belonging  to  the  officers 
and  several  classes  of  members  in  the  church.  The  immediate  occasion  of 
the  letter  seems  to  have  been  his  transmission  to  the  Philippians,  in  com- 
pliance with  their  request,  of  Ignatius'  epistle  to  himself,  with  such  others 
of  his  epistles  as  had  come  mto  his  hands.  Chap.  13.  The  preservation 
of  the  present  epistle  is  jDrobably  due  to  this  its  connection  with  the  epis- 
tles of  Ignatius  forwarded  by  him  to  the  Philippians. 

IV.     THE   WRITINGS  OF   BARNABAS  AND  HEBMAS. 

9.  The  writings  current  under  the  names  of  Barnahas  and  Hermas 
have  by  no  means  the  outward  testimony  in  their  favor  by  which  the  pre- 
ceding epistles  of  Clement,  Ignatius,  and  Polycarp  are  supported ;  nor  the 
inward  evidence  arising  from  the  consideration  of  their  contents.  We  will 
consider  them  briefl^^  in  the  order  abovenamed. 

10.  Until  recently  the  first  part  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnahas  existed 
only  in  a  Latin  version.  But  in  1859  Tischendorf  discovered  at  Mount 
Sinai  the  Sinai  Codex  (Chap.  26,  No.  5),  which  contains  the  entire  epistle 
in  the  original  Greek.  That  the  writer  was  the  Barnabas  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament  as  the  companion  of  Paul  in  preaching  the  gospel, 
cannot  be  maintained  on  any  firm  basis  of  evidence.  As  to  the  date  of  its 
composition  learned  men  differ.  Hefele  places  it  between  the  years  107 
and  120.     Apostolic  Fathers,  Prolegomena,  p.  15. 

The  writer  was  apparently  a  Hellenistic  Jew  of  the  Alexandrine  school, 
and  he  wrote  for  the  purpose  of  convincing  his  brethren,  mainly  from  the 
Old  Testament,  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  and  that  in  him  the  rites  of  the 
Mosaic  law  are  done  away.  His  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  are 
numerous,  and  his  method  of  interpretation  is  allegorical  and  sometimes 
very  fanciful,  as  in  the  following  passage,  for  the  right  understanding  of 
which  the  reader  should  know  that  the  two  Greek  letters  IH,  which  stand 
first  in  the  name  IHS0T2,  Jesus,  and  represent  that  name  by  abbreviation, 
signify  as  numerals,  the  first  ten,  the  second,  eight;  also  that  the  Greek  let- 
ter T  (the  sign  of  the  cross)  denotes  as  a  numeral,  three  hundred.  "The 
Scripture  says,"  argues  Barnabas,  "that  Abraham  circumcised  of  his  house 
three  hundred  and  eighteen  men.  What  was  the  knowledge  communicated 
to  him  [in  this  fact]  ?  Learn  first  the  meaning  of  the  eighteen,  then  of  the 
three  hundred.  Now  the  numeral  letters  I,  ten,  H,  eight,  make  eighteen. 
Here  you  have  Jesus  (Greek  IH20TN,  of  which  the  abbreviation  is  IH). 
And  because  the  cross,  which  lies  in  the  letter  T,  was  that  which  should 
bring  grace,  he  says  also  three  hundred.'"  Chaj).  9.  The  Kabbinic  system 
of  interpretation  in  which  the  writer  was  educated  furnishes  an  explanaiion^ 
indeed,  of  this  and  other  like  puerilities,  but  no  vindicatio7i  of  them. 

11.  The  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  as  the  work  current  under  the  name  of 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  517 

Hennas  is  called,  consists  of  three  books — liis  Visions,  liis  Commands,  and 
his  Similitudes.  The  four  visions  are  received  through  the  ministry  of  an 
aged  woman,  who  is  the  church  of  Christ.  The  twelve  commands  and  ten 
similitudes  are  received  from  one  who  appears  to  him  "in  the  habit  of  a 
shepherd,  clothed  with  a  white  cloak,  having  his  bag  upon  his  back,  and 
his  staff  in  his  hand,"  whence  the  title  The  Sheplierd  of  Hermas.  All  these 
are  intended  to  unfold  the  truths  of  Christianity  with  its  doctrines  and 
duties.  The  writer  has  a  most  luxuriant  imagination.  In  reading  his 
books,  particularly  the  first  and  the  third,  one  sometimes  finds  himself  be- 
wildered in  a  thicket  of  images  and  similitudes,  some  of  them  grotesque 
and  not  altogether  congruous.  Yet  the  work  throws  much  light  on  the 
religious  ideas  and  tendencies  of  its  age. 

The  ancients  speak  doubtingly  of  the  authority  of  this  work.  Origen, 
whom  Eusebius  and  Jerome  follow,  ascribes  it  to  the  Hermas  mentioned 
in  the  epistle  to  the  Romans  (chap.  16:  14)  ;  though  it  does  not  appear 
that  he  had  any  other  ground  for  this  than  the  identity  of  the  name.  The 
Muratorian  canon  names  as  its  author  Hermas  the  brother  of  Pius  bishop 
of  Eome.  According  to  this,  which  is  the  more  probable  view,  the  date  of 
its  composition  would  be  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 

V.     THE  APOSTLES'  CEEED. 

12.  "We  put  this  among  the  remains  of  the  apostolic  fathers,  not  be- 
cause there  is  any  doubt  as  to  its  containing  the  substance  of  the  doctrines 
taught  by  the  apostles,  but  because,  as  is  generally  admitted,  it  did  not 
receive  its  present  form  at  their  hand.  "  Though  not  traceable  in  its  pres- 
ent shape  before  the  third  century,  and  found  in  the  second  in  different 
longer  or  shorter  forms,  it  is  in  substance  altogether  apostolic,  and  exhib- 
its an  incomparable  summary  of  the  leading  facts  in  the  revelation  of  the 
triune  God  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  resurrection  of  the  body  ; 
and  that  in  a  form  intelligible  to  all,  and  admirably  suited  for  public  wor- 
ship and  catechetical  use. "     Schaff,  Hist.  Chris.  Church,  pp.  121,  122. 

VI.  APOCHYPHAL  GOSPELS  AND  ACTS. 

13.  These  are  very  numerous.  Under  the  head  of  Apocryphal  Gospels. 
Tischendorf  has  published  twenty-two  works ;  under  that  of  Apocryphal 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  thirteen.  To  the  student  of  church  history  they  are 
not  without  value ;  for  they  illustrate  the  origin  of  many  ancient  tradi- 
tions and  some  ritual  observances.  But  if  we  look  to  their  intrinsic  char- 
acter, they  may  be  described  as  a  mass  of  worthless  legends  abounding  in 
absurd  and  puerile  stories.  The  contrast  between  the  miracles  which  they 
relate  and  the  true  miracles  recorded  in  the  canonical  gospels  and  Acts  ia 


518  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

immense,  and  sucli  as  makes  the  darkness  of  these  spurious  writings  more 
visible.  The  miracles  of  the  canonical  books  have  always  a  worthy  occa- 
sion, and  are  connected  with  the  Saviour's  work  of  redemption.  But  the 
pretended  miracles  of  the  apocryphal  writings  are,  as  a  general  rule, 
wrought  on  trivial  occasions,  with  either  no  end  in  view  but  the  display 
of  supernatural  power,  or  with  a  positively  unlawful  end,  whence  it  not 
unfrequently  happens  that  their  impiety  rivals  their  absurdity.  Many 
samples  of  both  these  characters  could  be  given,  but  the  general  reader 
may  well  remain  ignorant  of  them. 


PART  IV. 


PRINCIPLES 


OF 


Biblical  Interpretation. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  BIBLICAL  INTERPRE- 
TATION. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

Introductory  Remarks. 

1.  The  term  Hermeneutics  (Greek,  hermeneuo,  to  interpret) 
is  commonly  employed  to  denote  the  2^rinci2jles  of  scriptural 
interpretation.  The  Greek  word  exegesis — that  is,  exposition — 
denotes  the  actual  tuorh  of  interpretation.  Hermeneutics  is, 
therefore,  the  science  of  interpretation;  Exegesis,  the  applica- 
tion of  this  science  to  the  word  of  God.  The  hermeneutical 
writer  lays  down  general  principles  of  interpretation  ;  the  exe- 
getical  writer  uses  these  principles  in  the  exposition  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  terms  epexegesis  and  epexegetical  are  used  by  expos- 
itors in  a  special  sense  to  denote  something  explanatory  of  the 
immediate  context. 

2.  The  expositor's  office  is,  to  ascertain  and  unfold  the  true 
meaning  of  the  inspired  writers,  without  adding  to  it,  subtract- 
ing from  it,  or  changing  it  in  any  way.  Here  we  may  draw  an 
instructive  parallel  between  his  work  and  that  of  the  textual 
critic.  The  textual  critic  aims  to  give,  not  what  some  one 
might  think  the  inspired  penman  should  have  written,  but 
what  he  actually  did  write.  So  the  true  expositor,  taking  the 
very  words  of  Scripture,  seeks  not  to  force  upon  them  a  mean- 
ing in  harmony  with  his  preconceived  opinions,  but  to  take 
from  them  the  very  ideas  which  the  writer  intended  to  exj^ress. 
It  is  pertinent,  therefore,  to  consider  at  the  outset  the  qualifi- 
cations which  belong  to  the  biblical  interpreter.  These  include 
high  moral  and  intellectual  quaUties,  as  well  as  varied  and 
extensive  acquirements. 


522  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

3.  Foremost  among  the  qualities  tliat  belong  to  the  inter- 
preter is  a  supreme  regard  for  truth.  A  general  conviction  and 
acknowledgment  of  the  duty  of  truthfulness  will  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  guard  him  against  all  the  seductive  influences  that 
beset  his  path.  Though  he  may  be  a  sincere  Christian,  he  will 
still  be  in  danger  of  being  misled  by  the  power  of  preconceived 
opinions  and  party  connections.  He  will  need  a  constant  and 
vivid  apprehension  of  the  sacredness  of  all  truth,  more  espe- 
cially of  scriptural  truth,  wliich  God  has  revealed  for  the  sanc- 
tification  and  salvation  of  men.  "  Sanctify  them  through  thy 
truth  :  thy  w^ord  is  truth."  These  words  of  the  Saviour  he  will 
do  well  to  ponder  night  and  day,  till  they  become  a  part  of  his 
spiritual  life ;  and  to  remember  always  that,  if  such  be  the  divine 
origin  and  high  office  of  scriptural  truth,  God  will  not  hold 
guiltless  any  who  tamper  with  it  in  the  interest  of  preconceived 
human  opinions,  thus  substituting  the  folly  of  man  for  the  wis- 
dom of  God. 

4.  The  interpreter  further  needs  a  sound  judgmejit,  combined 
with  the  power  of  vivid  conceiDtion.  These  two  qualities  are 
named  together,  because  they  mutually  supplement  each  other. 
A.  large  part  of  the  Bible  is  occupied  with  description.  Here 
the  interpreter  needs  the  power  of  conception,  that  he  may 
bring  before  his  mind  a  vivid  picture  of  the  scenes  described, 
with  the  relations  of  their  several  parts  to  each  other.  Another 
large  part  of  the  Bible  contains  the  language  of  poetry  and 
impassioned  feeling.  In  the  interpretation  of  this,  the  faculty 
of  conception  is  especially  necessary,  that  we  may  place  our- 
selves as  fully  as  possible  in  the  circumstances  of  the  writers, 
and  form  a  true  idea  of  the  emotions  which  filled  their  minds 
and  gave  form  and  complexion  to  their  utterances.  Pure  cold 
logic,  with  the  addition  of  any  amount  of  human  learning,  will 
not  enable  us  to  comprehend  and  expound  aright  the  forty- 
second  Psalm.  By  the  power  of  imagination,  we  must  go  with 
the  poet,  in  his  exile  from  the  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  across  the 
Jordan  to  the  land  of  the  Hermonites ;  must  see  his  distressed 
and  forsaken  condition ;  must  hear  the  bitter  taunts  of  his  ene- 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  523 

mies ;  must  witness  the  inward  tempest  of  his  feelings — a  con- 
tinual conflict  between  nature  and  faith — before  we  can  have  a 
true  understanding  of  his  words.  The  same  might  be  said  of 
innumerable  other  passages  of  Scripture. 

But  this  power  of  vivid  conception,  when  not  held  in  check 
by  a  sound  judgment  J  will  lead  the  expositor  of  Scripture  into 
the  wildest  vagaries  of  fancy.  Disregarding  the  plainest  rules 
of  interpretation,  he  will  cover  up  the  obvious  sense  of  Scrip- 
ture with  a  mass  of  allegorical  expositions,  under  color  of  edu- 
cing from  the  words  of  inspiration  a  higher  and  more  edifying 
meaning.  That  high  natural  endowments,  united  with  varied 
and  solid  learning  and  indefatigable  zeal  for  the  gospel,  do  not 
of  themselves  constitute  a  safeguard  against  this  error,  we  learn 
from  the  example  of  Origen  and  many  others.  Not  content  to 
let  the  simple  narratives  of  Scripture  speak  for  themselves  and 
convey  their  proper  lessons  of  instruction,  these  allegorical 
expositors  force  upon  them  a  higher  spiritual  sense.  In  so 
doing,  they  unsettle  the  very  principles  by  which  the  spiritual 
doctrines  of  Scripture  are  established. 

Origen,  for  example,  in  commenting  on  the  meeting  between  Abra- 
ham's servant  and  Rebecca  at  the  well  in  Haran,  says  :  ' '  Rebecca  came 
every  day  to  the  wells.  Therefore  she  could  be  found  by  Abraham's  ser- 
vant, and  joined  in  marriage  with  Isaac. "  Thus  he  gives  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  this  transaction.  But  he  then  goes  on  to  show,  among  other  things, 
that  Rebecca  represents  the  human  soul,  which  Christ  wishes  to  betroth 
to  himself,  w^hile  Abraham's  servant  is  ' '  the  prophetic  word,  which  unless 
you  first  receive,  you  cannot  be  married  to  Christ."  See  in  Davidson's 
Sacred  Hermeneiitics,  pp.  103,  104. 

5.  Another  indispensable  qualification  of  scriptural  inter- 
pretation is  sympcdhy  tvith  divine  truth;  in  other  words,  that 
harmony  of  spirit  with  the  truths  of  revelation  which  comes 
from  a  hearty  reception  of  them,  and  a  subjection  of  the  whole 
life,  inward  and  outward,  to  their  control.'  "If  any  man," 
said  our  Saviour,  "  will  do  his  will,  he  shall  know  of  the  doc- 
trine, whether  it  be  of  God,  or  whether  I  speak  of  myself." 
John  7 :  17.     In  these  words  our  Lord  proposed  to  the  unbe- 


524  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

lieviiig  Jews  the  true  remedy  for  their  ignorance  and  erroi 
respecting  his  person  and  office,  which  had  their  ground  not  in 
the  want  of  evidence,  but  in  their  perverse  and  guilty  rejection 
of  evidence.  Their  moral  state  was  one  of  habitual  rebellion 
against  the  truth  of  God ;  and  they  could  not,  therefore,  have 
sympathy  with  the  Saviour's  doctrine.  They  hated  the  light, 
and  would  not  come  to  the  light,  because  their  deeds  were 
evil.  John  3 :  20.  What  they  needed  was  not  more  light, 
but  that  obedient  spirit  which  loves  the  light,  and  allows  it  to 
shine  through  the  soul.  The  man  who  would  be  a  successful 
interpreter  of  God's  word  must  begin  where  the  Saviour  directed 
these  Jews  to  begin.  So  far  as  he  knows  the  truth,  he  must 
give  it  a  hearty  reception  not  in  theory  alone,  but  in  daily 
practice.  Then  he  will  be  prepared  to  make  further  progress 
in  the  knowledge  of  it,  and  to  unfold  its  heavenly  treasures  to 
his  fellow-men.  But  if  he  comes  to  the  study  of  God's  w^ord 
with  a  heart  habitually  at  variance  with  its  holy  precepts,  and 
an  understanding  darkened  by  the  power  of  sinful  affections, 
no  amount  of  scholarship  or  critical  sagacity  will  avail  to  make 
him  a  true  expositor  of  its  contents.  Having  no  sympathy  with 
the  great  foundation  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  but  regarding  them 
with  positive  aversion,  he  will  neither  be  able  to  apprehend  them 
in  their  true  light,  nor  to  explain  them  aright  to  his  fellow-men. 
In  the  work  of  interpretation,  a  good  heart — good  in  the  scrip- 
tural sense — is  not  less  imporUuit  than  a  clear  understanding 
and  well-furnished  mind. 

6.  How  extensive  and  varied  should  be  the  acquirements  of 
the  able  interpreter  will  be  manifest  to  any  one  who  considers 
the  extent  and  variety  of  the  fields  of  knowledge  covered  by 
the  Holy  Scriptures. 

The  languages  in  w^hich  they  are  written  are  no  longer  spo- 
ken. The  knowledge  of  them,  like  that  of  all  dead  languages, 
is  locked  up  in  b'ooks — grammars,  lexicons,  ancient  versions, 
and  various  subsidiary  helps — and  can  be  mastered  only  by 
severe  and  protracted  study.  It  is  not  indeed  necessary  that 
the  great  body  of  Christians,  or  even  all  preachers  of  the  gos- 


BIBLICAL  INTERPEETATION.  525 

pel,  should  be  able  to  read  the  Bible  in  the  original  languages. 
But  it  is  a  principle  of  Protestantism,  the  soundness  of  which 
has  been  confirmed  by  the  experience  of  centuries,  that  there 
should  always  be  in  the  churches  a  body  of  men  able  to  go 
behind  the  current  versions  of  Scripture  to  the  original  tongues 
from  which  these  versions  were  executed.  The  commentator, 
at  least,  must  not  take  his  expositions  at  second  hand ;  and  a 
healthy  tone  of  feeling  in  regard  to  the  sacredness  and  supreme 
authority  of  the  inspired  word  will  always  demand  that  there 
should  be  a  goodly  number  of  scholars  scattered  through  the 
churches  who  can  judge  from  the  primitive  sources  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  interpretations. 

The  Scriptures  are  crowded  with  references  to  the  cities, 
mountains,  plains,  deserts,  rivers,  and  seas  of  Palestine  and 
the  surrounding  regions;  to  their  climate,  soil,  animals,  and 
plants;  to  their  agricultural  products  and  mineral  treasures; 
to  the  course  of  travel  and  commerce  between  the  different 
nations;  in  a. word,  to  those  numerous  particulars  which  come 
under  the  head  of  geography  and  nahiral  history.  The  extended 
investigations  of  modern  times  in  these  departments  of  knowl- 
edge have  shed  a  great  light  over  the  pages  of  inspiration,  which 
no  expositor  who  is  worthy  of  the  name  will  venture  to  neglect. 

And  if  one  collect  and  illustrate  the  various  allusions  of 
Scripture  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
to  their  civil  institutions  and  their  religious  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies, he  will  compose  a  volume  on  biblical  antiquities. 

The  connection,  moreover,  which  the  covenant  people  had 
with  the  surrounding  nations,  especially  the  great  monarchies 
which  successively  held  sway  over  the  civilized  world — Egypt, 
Assyria,  Chaldea,  Greece,  Rome — requires  an  extended  knowl- 
edge of  ancient  history ^  and,  as  inseparably  connected  with  this, 
of  ancient  chronology.  Biblical  chronology  constitutes,  indeed, 
a  science  of  itself,  embracing  some  ver}^  perplexed  and  difficult 
questions,  the  solution  of  which  has  an  important  bearing  upon 
the  passages  of  Scripture  to  which  they  have  reference. 

7.  We  do  not  affirm  that  all  the  above-named  qualifications 


525  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

are  necessary  to  a  saving  knowledge  of  God's  word.  Its  great 
essential  doctrines  and  precepts  are  so  plain  that  the  unlettered 
reader,  who  brings  to  the  work  an  honest  heart,  cannot  fail  to 
understand  them.  In  this  respect  God  has  made  the  vision  so 
plain  "  that  he  may  run  that  readeth  it ;"  and  the  road  to  heaven 
so  direct  that  "  the  wayfaring  men,  though  fools,  shall  not  err 
therein."  But  the  interpreter  of  Scripture  is  expected  to  unfold 
the  meaning  of  the  difficult  passages  also,  as  far  as  human 
investigation  will  enable  him  to  do  so.  They  are  a  part  of 
"all  Scripture  given  by  inspiration  of  God,"  which  the  apostle 
affirms  to  be  "profitable  for  doctrine,  for  reproof,  for  correc- 
tion, for  instruction  in  righteousness."  He  shonld  spare  no 
effort,  therefore,  to  ascertain  their  exact  sense,  and  to  expound 
this  sense  to  others  with  all  possible  fidelity  and  clearness. 

8.  There  is  a  human  and  a  divine  side  to  biblical  interpreta- 
tion— a  human  side,  because  the  Scriptures  address  men  in 
human  language,  and  according  to  human  modes  of  thinking 
and  speaking ;  a  divine  side,  because  they  contain  a  true  reve- 
lation from  God  to  men,  and  differ  in  this  respect  from  all  other 
writings.  The  neglect  of  the  human  side  leads  to  visionary 
schemes  of  interpretation,  in  which  the  writer's  fancy  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  sober  rules  of  criticism,  and  the  word  of  God 
accommodated  to  his  preconceived  opinions.  The  rejection, 
open  or  covert,  of  the  divine  side,  manifests  itself  in  a  cold, 
skeptical  criticism,  which  denies  or  explains  away  all  that  is 
supernatural  in  the  Bible ;  which,  instead  of  seeking  to  discover 
and  unfold  that  unity  of  plan  and  harmony  of  parts  which 
belong  to  every  work  of  God,  delights  rather  in  exaggerating 
the  supposed  inconsistencies  and  contradictions  of  the  sacred 
writers,  and  in  arraying  one  part  of  Scripture  against  another ; 
and  which,  having  no  faith  itself  in  the  Bible  as  containing  a. 
revelation  from  God,  infuses  doubts  respecting  its  divine  origin 
into  the  mind  of  the  reader.  It  is  only  by  keeping  steadily  in 
view  these  two  sides  of  revelation,  which  mutually  supplement 
each  other,  that  we  can  attain  to  a  true  knowledge  of  the 
inspired  word. 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPRETATION.  527 


FIRST  DIVISION 
INTERPRETATION  VIEWED  OX  THE  HUMAN  SIDE. 


CHAPTER   XXXIV. 

General   Principles   of    Interpretation, 

1.  Since  the  Bible  addresses  men  in  human  language,  and 
according  to  human  modes  of  thinking  and  speaking,  the  inter- 
preter's first  work  is  to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  the  terms  em- 
ployed. Here  he  must  proceed  as  in  the  case  of  other  writings, 
seeking  by  the  aid  of  grammars,Jexicons,  cognate  languages, 
ancient  versions,  ancient  interpreters,  and  whatever  other  out- 
ward helps  are  available,  to  gain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
language  employed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  in  his  revelations  to 
men.  To  these  external  sources  of  knowledge  he  will  add  all 
the  internal  light  which  comes  from  a  careful  consideration  of 
the  context,  of  the  author's  known  use  of  terms,  of  paTallel  pas- 
sages, etc. 

In  the  case  of  the  New  Testament,  a  knowledge  of  classical  Greek  will 
not  be  sufficient.  The  intei-preter  must  superadd  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  the  pecuhar  dialect  of  the  New  Testament  (Chap.  24,  No.  5),  and  also 
the  special  usages  of  i^articular  writers.  The  apostle  John,  to  adduce  a 
single  instance,  applies  the  term  Logos,  Word,  to  the  Son  of  God.  But 
we  cannot  argue  from  this  for  a  like  usage  by  other  writers  ;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, in  the  well-known  passage  :  "  The  word  of  God  is  quick  and  powerful," 
etc.     Heb.  4  :  12. 

Usage  alone  is  often  insufficient  to  determine  the  meaning  of  a  word  in 
a  particular  passage ;  for  (1)  the  term  may  occur  nowhere  else,  (2)  it  may 
have  in  current  usage  two  or  more  di£ferent  significations.  In  the  former 
case,  the  interpreter  must  avail  himself  of  all  the  external  helps  above  spe- 


528  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

cified,  and  especially  of  the  light  shed  upon  the  meaning  of  the  term  in 
question  by  the  context.  In  the  latter  case,  the  context  must  be  his  chief 
guide.  The  same  Greek  word,  for  example,  signifies  stature  (Luke  19  : 3) 
and  age  (Heb.  11:11).  In  the  interpretation  of  Matt.  6  :27,  where  our 
version  reads  :  "Which  of  you  by  taking  thought  can  add  one  cubit  unto  his 
stature  ?"  the  question  may  naturally  enough  arise  in  which  of  these  two 
senses  the  Saviour  employed  it.  Whatever  may  be  the  decision,  it  must 
have  for  its  basis  not  simple  usage,  which  is  ambiguous,  but  the  connec- 
tion of  the  word  in  the  context.     Many  like  examples  might  be  adduced. 

It  has  been  already  remarked  (Chap.  24,  No.  5)  that  in  New  Testament 
usage  many  words  have  a  technical  and  therefore  peculiar  meaning.  We 
are  not  at  liberty,  however,  to  determine  such  technical  meanings  at  ran- 
dom, or  in  accordance  with  any  preconceived  opinions.  It  can  only  be 
done,  as  in  the  case  of  all  other  writings,  in  accordance  with  the  acknowl- 
edged laws  of  interpretation.  The  general  result,  then,  at  which  we  arrive 
is,  that  in  determining  the  meaning  of  scriptural  terms  we  must  be  guided 
by  the  same  rules  which  we  follow  in  the  interpretation  of  other  writings. 

2.  From  the  signification  of  particular  words  we  proceed 
to  the  consideration  of  the  sense  embodied  in  the  language  of 
the  sacred  writers.  A  knowledge  of  the  words  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  a  sentence  does  not  of  itself  give  us  a  true 
apprehension  of  the  sense  which  the  writer  seeks  to  convey. 
We  must  know  the  writer's  aim,  the  shape  and  course  of  his 
argument,  the  ideas  which  he  is  combating  as  well  as  those 
which  he  seeks  to  establish,  the  emphatic  words  of  the  sen- 
tence, whether  he  wishes  to  be  understood  literally  or  figura- 
tively, and  various  other  particulars ;  all  which  are  to  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  same  rules  which  we  employ  in  the  interpretation 
of  language  generally. 

3.  The  scope  or  design  of  the  inspired  writer  may  be  general 
or  special ;  the  former  being  his  design  in  writing  the  whole 
work  in  question,  the  latter,  his  design  in  particular  sections 
of  it.  "  The  scope,"  it  has  been  well  observed,  "  is  the  soul  or 
spirit  of  a  book ;  and,  that  being  once  ascertained,  every  argu- 
ment and  every  word  appears  in  its  right  place,  and  is  j^^erfectly 
intelligible;  but  if  the  scope  be  not  duly  considered,  every 
thing  becomes  obscure,  however  clear  and  obvious  its  meaning 
may  really  be."     Home's  Introduct.,  vol.  2,  p  265,  edit,  of  1860. 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  529 

This  language  is  not  too  strong.  It  is  by  a  neglect  or  perver- 
sion of  the  scope  that  the  meaning  of  the  inspired  writers  is 
perverted,  and  they  are  made  to  contradict  one  another. 

The  apostle  Paul  says,  for  examijle  :  "Therefore  we  conclude  that  a 
man  is  justified  by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  the  law."  Rom.  3:28. 
The  apostle  James  :  "Ye  see  then  how  that  by  works  a  man  is  justified, 
and  not  by  faith  only."  James  2  :24.  If  one  insists  on  leaving  out  of 
account  the  separate  and  distinct  design  which  each  of  these  two  writers 
had  in  view  respectively,  he  can  easily  bring  their  words  into  contradic- 
tion. Had  the  scope  of  Paul's  argument  been  to  show  that  faith  in  Christ 
releases  men  from  the  obligation  of  obeying  the  divine  law,  and  thus 
makes  good  works  unnecessary  ;  or  had  James  been  laboring  to  prove  that 
good  works  are  the  meritoynous  ground  of  men's  forgiveness,  then  the  doc- 
trines of  the  two  apostles  would  have  been  irreconcilably  at  variance.  But 
we  know  that  neither  of  these  suj^positions  is  true.  Paul  was  combating 
the  error  of  the  Pharisees  "who  trusted  in  themselves  that  they  were 
righteous" — righteous  on  the  ground  of  "the  deeds  of  the  law" — "and 
despised  others."  His  aim  was  to  show  that  men  receive  forgiveness  and 
salvation  neither  wholly  nor  in  part  on  the  ground  of  the  suj^posed  merit 
of  their  good  works,  but  wholly  tlirough  faith  in  Christ ;  as  he  elsewhere 
argues  that  "if  it  be  by  grace,  then  it  is  no  more  of  works  :  otherwise  grace 
is  no  more  grace."  Rom.  11  :6.  We  know  also,  from  the  whole  tenor  of 
his  writings,  that  he  condemned  as  s^jurious  that  pretended  faith  which 
does  not  manifest  itself  in  good  works.  In  this  very  ej)istle,  where  the 
question  is  not  concerning  the  meritorious  ground  of  justification,  but  con- 
cerning that  character  which  God  wiU  accept,  the  apostle  lays  down  the 
great  principle  :  "Unto  them  that  are  contentious,  and  do  not  obey  the 
truth,  but  obey  unrighteousness,  indignation  and  wrath,  tribulation  and 
anguish,  upon  every  soul  of  man  that  doeth  evil ;  of  the  Jew  first,  and  also 
of  the  Gentile  ;  but  glory,  honor,  and  peace  to  every  man  that  worketh 
good ;  to  the  Jew  first,  and  also  to  the  Gentile  :  for  there  is  no  respect  of 
persons  with  God.  Rom.  2  : 8-11.  If  now  we  turn  to  the  epistle  of  James, 
we  find  that  the  faith  without  works  which  he  condemns  as  dead  is  one  of 
mere  empty  notions— an  inoperative  belief  about  Christ  instead  of  that 
hearty  trust  in  him  which  brings  the  heart  and  life  into  subjection  to  his 
authority.  In  a  word,  Paul  condemns,  as  dead,  works  without  faith  ; 
James,  faith  without  works.  The  one  rejects  dead  works  (Heb.  9  :  14)  ; 
the  other,  dead  faith.  Between  these  two  judgments  there  is  no  contra- 
diction. We  have  dwelt  somewhat  at  large  upon  this  example  of  alleged 
contradiction  for  the  purpose  of  full  illustration.  The  same  mode  of  rea- 
soning might  be  applied  to  many  other  passages,  where  a  knowledge  of 
the  writer's  design  is  essential  to  the  true  apprehension  of  his  meaning. 


530  COMPANION   TO   THE  BIBLE. 

Such  being  the  importance  of  the  scope,  the  question  arises : 
How  shall  it  be  ascertained  ?  Here  mechanical  rules  will  be 
of  little  avail.  The  attentive  and  judicious  reader  will  be  able, 
in  general,  to  gather  it  from  the  various  indications  given  by 
the  writer  himself,  or  from  the  known  circumstances  in  which 
lie  wrote,  just  as  in  the  case  of  other  writings. 

Sometimes  an  author  directly  states  his  general  end,  or  his  design  m 
writing  a  particular  section  of  his  work.  An  example  of  the  former  kind 
is  John  20  :  31  :  "  These  things  are  written  that  ye  might  believe  that  Jesus 
is  the  Son  of  God;  and  that  believing  ye 'might  have  life  through  his 
name;"  of  the  latter  kind,  1  Cor.  7:1:  *'Now  concerning  the  things 
whereof  ye  wrote  unto  me,"  etc.  ;  whence  we  leam  that  in  this  particular 
chapter  the  apostle's  design  is  to  answer  certain  inquiries  of  the  Corin- 
thian Christians  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  marriage.  More  commonly 
the  writer's  scope  is  indicated  indirectly  by  various  inferential  remar'ks,  as 
in  the  passage  already  quoted  :  "  Therefore  we  conclude  that  a  man  is  jus- 
tified by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  the  law,"  which  is  in  fact  a  statement 
of  the  apostle's  design  in  the  i^receding  argument.  See  Home's  Intro- 
duct.,  vol.  2,  pp.  266,  267,  where  the  author  follows  Morus,  Hermeneutica, 
1.  2.  2. 

Sometimes  a  clear  light  is  shed  upon  the  design  of  a  writer  or  speaker 
by  a  knowledge  of  historical  circumstances  ;  especially,  of  his  own  position 
and  that  of  his  opponents.  The  twenty- third  chapter  of  Matthew,  in 
which  the  Saviour  exposes  the  wickedness  and  doctrinal  errors  of  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees,  and  denounces  upon  them  the  judgments  of  heaven, 
cannot  be  thoroughly  understood  without  a  knowledge  of  the  systerd  of 
Pharisaism,  and  the  high  position  of  authority  and  influence  which  the 
Pharisees  held ;  sitting,  as  they  did,  in  Moses'  seat,  imposing  upon  the 
people  their  human  traditions  in  place  of  God's  commandments,  substitu- 
ting a  religion  of  outward  forms  for  one  of  inw-ard  faith,  love,  and  obedi- 
ence, and  thus  taking  away  from  the  people  the  key  of  divine  knowledge. 
It  was  necessary  that  the  Son  of  God,  to  whom  the  church  belonged,  who 
came  to  shed  his  blood  for  her  redemption,  and  to  establish  her  in  the 
principles  of  truth  and  holiness,  should  expose  with  unsparing  severity  the 
wickedness  and  ignorance  of  these  scribes  and  Pharisees,  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  his  people  in  all  coming  ages.  A  knowledge  of  the  same  historical 
circumstances  throws  a  strong  light  on  the  apostle's  aim  in  writing  to  the 
Romans  and  Galatians.  Had  we  fuller  information  respecting  the  false 
teachers  referred  to  in  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians  and  the  pastoral  epis- 
tles, we  should  understand  more  clearly  the  apostle's  arguments  against 
them. 

But  the  surest  means  of  ascertaining  a  writer's  scope  is  the  repeated 


BIBLICAL  INTEEPKETATION.  531 

^nd  careful  perusal  of  his  words.  The  biblical  student  should  early  form 
the  habit  of  reading  over  with  earnest  attention  a  whole  book  at  a  sitting — 
the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  for  example,  or  that  to  the  Hebrews — without 
pausing  to  investigate  particular  questions ;  his  aim  being  to  throw  him- 
self as  fully  as  possible  into  the  general  current  of  thought,  and  to  be  car- 
ried forward  by  it  to  the  writer's  final  conclusions.  When  he  has  thus 
made  himself  familiar  with  the  scope  of  the  work  as  a  whole,  he  will  be 
better  jorei^ared  for  the  examination  of  the  particvilar  difficulties  that  offer 
themselves  in  the  course  of  the  author's  arg-ument. 

4.  The  word  context  (Latin,  contextus)  signifies  literally  a 
iVPCLving  together ;  and  is  appropriately  used,  therefore,  to  de- 
note the  web  of  a  writer's  discourse.  The  scope  is  the  end 
which  a  writer  proposes  to  accomplish  :  the  context  gives  the 
form  and  manner  of  its  acconiplishnent.  With  reference  to  a 
given  passage,  the  context  has  been  loosely  defined  to  be  that 
Avhich  immediately  precedes  and  follows.  More  accurately,  it 
is  the  series  of  statements,  arguments,  and  illustrations  con- 
nected with  the  passage  whose  meaning  is  sought,  including 
all  the  various  connections  of  thought. .  The  sober  interpreter, 
then,  must  have  constant  reference  to  the  context,  as  well  for 
the  signification  of  particular  terms  as  for  the  general  sense  o^ 
the  passage  under  consideration.  To  interpret  without  regard 
to  the  context  is  to  interpret  at  random ;  to  interpret  contrar} 
to  the  context  is  to  teach  falsehood  for  truth. 

The  necessity  of  having  constant  reference  to  the  context  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  sense,  as  well  as  of  the  particular  terms  employed,  admitu 
of  innumerable  illustrations.     From  these  we  select  a  few  examples  : 

In  Rom.  14  :  23  the  apostle  lays  down  the  following  maxim  :  "He  that 
doubteth  is  damned  [literally,  condemned]  if  he  eat,  because  he  eateth  not 
of  faith  :  for  whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  sin."  The  context  relates  not  to 
the  Lord's  supper,  but  to  scruples  in  respect  to  the  use  of  particular  kinds 
of  food*  "One  believeth  that  he  may  eat  all  things;  another  who  is 
weak" — over-scrupulous  in  respect  to  distinctions  of  food — "  eateth  herbs  " 
(ver.  2).  Consequently  there  is  no  reference  here  to  the  personal  qualifi- 
cations requisite  for  partaking  of  that  ordinance,  or  to  the  consequence  of 
eating  unworthily.  The  apostle  means  to  say  that  whoever  has  scruples 
about  the  lawfulness  of  using  a  particular  article  of  food  is  condemned  if 
he  eat  it,  "because  he  eateth  not  of  faith."  He  acts  contrary  to  his  per- 
suasion of  duty.     Thus  he  violates,  in  this  particular  case,  that  general 


532  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

law  of  faitli  which  requires  that  in  all  things  we  keep  a  conscience  void  of 
offence  towards  God  and  man,  subjecting  ourselves  in  loving  confidence  to 
Christ's  authority,  and  doing  in  all  things  what  we  believe  to  be  right  in 
his  sight. 

Again  we  read  in  Gal.  5  'A  the  words:  "Ye  are  fallen  from  grace." 
Taken  out  of  their  connection,  these  words  are  ambiguous  in  their  applica- 
tion. But  the  context  makes  all  plain.  The  apostle  is  addressing  those 
who  are  inclined  to  substitute  a  system  of  justification  by  works  for  the 
grace  of  the  gospel :  ' '  Christ  is  become  of  no  effect  unto  you,  whosoever  of 
you  are  justified  by  the  law ;  ye  are  fallen  from  grace"- — fallen  away  from 
grace,  as  the  original  word  means.  Ye  have  abandoned  the  system  of 
grace  revealed  in  the  gospel  for  one  of  works. 

The  psalmist  says:  "My  soul  thirsteth  for  God,  for  the  living  God  : 
when  shall  I  come  and  appear  before  God  ?"  Psa.  42  : 2.  Taken  out  of 
their  connection,  these  words  might  be  understood  of  his  desire  to  enjoy 
the  beatific  vision  of  God  in  heaven.  But  the  context  shows  that  the  wri- 
ter had  in  mind  God's  earthly  sanctuary,  from  which  he  was  banished : 
"  My  tears  have  been  my  meat  day  and  night,  while  they  continually  say 
unto  me,  Where  is  thy  God  ?  When  I  remember  these  things,  I  pour  out 
my  soul  in  me  :  for  I  had  gone  with  the  multitude,  I  went  mtli  them  to 
the  house  of  God,  with  the  voice  of  joy  and  praise,  with  a  multitude  that 
ker  i-,  holy-day  (ver.  3,  4). 

A.gain  the  psalmist  says  :  "  The  king's  daughter  is  all  glorious  within  " 
(Ps<i.  45  :  13)  ;  words  that  have  more  than  once  been  applied  directly  to  the 
inward  spiritual  beauty  of  the  church,  the  bride  of  Christ.  This  is,  indeed, 
the  idea  that  we  gain  from  a  true  interj)retation  of  them.  But  it  comes 
not  directly,  but  through  a  beautiful  figure.  The  primary  meaning  of  the 
words  is,  that  the  royal  bride  appearing  within  the  palace  in  raiment  of 
wrought  gold  is  all  glorious  to  the  beholder's  view.  Undoubtedly  she  rep- 
resents the  church  espoused  to  Christ ;  dwelling,  so  to  speak,  in  his  kingly 
mansion,  and  gloriously  adorned  with  his  righteousness.     Eev.  19  :  8. 

The  question  may  naturally  occur  to  the  reader  :  Within  what  limits 
is  the  context  to  be  consulted  ?  The  answer  must  be,  that  no  definite  lim- 
its can  be  prescribed.  The  entire  web  of  discourse  must  be  carefully  stud- 
ied, including  the  more  remote  as  well  as  the  nearer  context ;  for  the 
inspired  writers  do  not,  as  a  general  rule,  proceed  according  to  formal 
divisions  and  subdivisions.  The  train  of  argument  is  often  interrupted  by 
parenthetical  remarks,  particularly  in  the  writings  of  the  apostle  Paul,  or 
it  is  resumed  in  an  informal  way  after  extended  digressions.  The  true 
connection  of  thought,  then,  is  to  he  gathered  not  so  much  from  our  mod- 
ern notions  of  what  logical  accuracy  would  require,  as  from  the  rejDeated 
and  careful  perusal  of  the  ^mting  in  question.  In  this  way  alone  can  we 
place  ourselves  in  the  author's  position,  and  look  at  the  subject  under  dis- 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  533 

cussion  from  liis  point  of  vieAv ;  tliat  is  to  say,  in  tliis  way  alone  can  "we 
enter  into  his  modes  of  thinking  and  reasoning,  and  thus  quahfy  ourselves 
to  be  the  expounders  of  them  to  others. 

In  some  cases  no  context  exists,  and  none  is  to  be  sought.  In  a  large 
part  of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  for  example,  each  separate  aphorism  shines 
by  its  own  light.  If  it  have  any  connection  with  what  precedes  or  fol- 
lows, it  is  only  casual  or  superficial.  In  some  books,  again,  like  that  of 
Ecclesiastes,  the  transitions  are  rapid,  and  often  difficult  to  explain. 
Here  we  should  be  careful  not  to  force  upon  the  author  a  logical  connec- 
tion of  which  he  never  thought.  Systematic  arrangement  is  good  in  its 
place  ;  but  the  Holy  Spirit  did  not  think  it  needful  to  secure  it  in  the  case 
of  all  who  spake  as  he  moved  them. 

Some  religious  teachers  are  fond  of  employing  scriptural 
texts  simply  as  mottoes,  with  little  or  no  regard  to  their  true 
connection.  Thus  they  too  often  adapt  them  to  their  use  by 
imparting  to  them  a  factitious  sense  foreign  to  their  proper 
scope  and  meaning.  The  seeming  gain  in  all  such  cases  is 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  loss  and  danger  that  attend 
the  practice.  It  encourages  the  habit  of  interpreting  Scrip- 
ture in  an  arbitrary  and  fanciful  way,  and  thus  furnishes  the 
teachers  of  error  wdth  their  most  effective  weapon.  The  prac- 
tice cannot  be  defended  on  any  plea  of  necessity.  The  plain 
words  of  Scripture,  legitimately  interpreted  according  to  their 
proper  scope  and  context,  contain  a  fulness  and  comprehen- 
siveness of  meaning  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  all  men  in  all 
circumstances.  That  piety  alone  is  robust  and  healthful  which 
is  fed,  not  by  the  fancies  and  speculations  of  the  preacher  who 
'  practically  j)uts  his  own  genius  above  the  word  of  God,  but  by 
the  pure  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  Bible,  unfolded  in  their 
true  connection  and  meaning. 

It  is  important  to  remark,  however,  that  when  the  general 
principle  contained  in  a  given  passage  of  Scripture  has  been 
once  fairly  explained,  it  admits  of  innumerable  applications 
which  are  in  the  highest  sense  legitimate  and  proper.  The 
principle,  for  example,  that  "  whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  sin," 
which  the  apostle  Paul  announces  in  connection  with  the  ques- 
tion of  using  or  abstaining  from  particular  kinds  of  food,  may 


534:  COMPANION   TO   THE   BIBLE. 

be  applied  to  the  settlement  of  cases  of  conscience  arising  in 
widely  different  relations  and  spheres  of  action.  The  preach- 
er's power  lies  very  mucli  in  the  ability  of  unfolding  to  the 
understanding  and  applying  to  the  conscience  the  general 
principles  involved  in  the  passage  of  Scripture  which  he  under- 
takes to  expound. 

5.  We  may  next  consider  the  help  to  be  derived  from  par- 
allel passages.  The  ordinary  division  of  parallelisms  is  into 
verbal  and  real:  verbal,  where  the  same  word  or  phrase  occurs; 
real,  where  the  same  thought  is  expressed  or  the  same  subject 
discussed.  Yerbal  parallelisms  often  shed  much  light  on  the 
meaning  of  particular  words  or  phrases,  because  what  is  obscure 
in  one  passage  is  made  plain  in  another  by  some  explanatory 
addition. 

All  example  is  the  use  of  the  expression  mi/  glory  (English  version,  my 
honor),  in  Gen.  49  :  6  :  "O  my  soul,  come  not  thou  into  their  secret" 
(their  secret  conclave)  ;  "  unto  their  assembly,  my  glory,  be  not  thou  uni- 
ted." A  comparison  of  the  parallel  passages,  Psa.  7:5;  16  : 9 ;  30  :  12  ; 
57  : 8  ;  108  : 1,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  in  such  a  connection  the  expres- 
sion is  substantially  equivalent  to  my  soul,  the  soul  being  made  in  the 
image  of  God,  and  thus  the  seat  of  man's  glory.  By  a  like  process  of 
comparison,  we  arrive  at  the  true  signification  of  the  phrase,  "if7^e  right- 
eousness of  God,"  or  more  fully,  "the  righteousness  lohich  is  of  God  by 
faith,"  when  used  with  reference  to  the  way  of  salvation  through  Christ; 
at  the  meaning  of  the  Greek  terms  translated  ^^propitiation,"  etc.  In  the 
same  way,  as  already  remarked  (No.  1,  above),  the  interpreter  ascertains 
the  different  significations  in  which  words  are  employed,  and  determines 
which  of  these  is  appropriate  to  any  given  passage. 

Real  parallelisms  are  subdivided,  again,  into  doctrinal  and 
Jdstoric ;  doctrinal,  where  the  same  truth  is  inculcated;  historic, 
where  the  same  event  or  series  of  events  is  recorded.  The 
supreme  importance  of  doctrinal  parallelisms  will  appear  most 
fully  when  we  come  to  look  at  revelation  on  the  divine  side,  as 
constituting  a  grand  system  of  truth  harmonious  in  all  its 
parts.  At  present  we  regard  them  simply  as  among  the  means 
of  ascertaining  the  sense  of  a  given  passage.  Presuming  that 
every  author  means  to  be  self-consistent,  it  is  our  custom  to 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  535 

place  side  by  side  his  different  statements  which  relate  to  the 
same  subject,  that  they  may  mutually  explain  each  other.  The 
same  reasonable  method  should  be  pursued  with  the  writings 
of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  of  Paul  and 
John  in  the  New.  What  is  obscure  is  to  be  interpreted  by 
what  is  clear;  what  is  briefly  hinted,  by  what  is  more  fully 
expressed.  Different  writers,  moreover,  belonging  to  the  same 
age,  animated  by  the  same  spirit,  and  confessedly  governed  by 
the  same  general  rules  of  faith  and  practice,  mutually  explain 
each  other.  Thus  the  prophets  Isaiah,  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos, 
and  Micah,  who  belong  to  the  same  century,  and  in  a  less 
degree  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  other  prophets  of  a  later 
age,  shed  each  a  light  on  the  pages  of  all  the  rest.  The  same 
is  true  of  all  the  epistolary  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  not- 
withstanding their  marked  differences  of  style,  and  the  differ- 
ent aspects  also  in  which  they  respectively  contemplate  Chris- 
tian doctrine  and  duty. 

Our  Saviour  says  of  those  who  claimed  to  be,  before  his  advent,  the 
shepherds  and  leaders  of  God's  spiritual  fold  :  "All  that  ever  came  before 
me  are  thieves  and  robbers  ;  but  the  sheep  did  not  hear  them."  John 
10  :  8.  Yet  according  to  this  same  evangelist  he  honored  Abraham,  Moses, 
and  the  proijhets,  as  true  leaders  and  teachers  of  God's  people.  Chaps. 
8:39,  40,  56;  5:45-47;  12:38-4L  We  know,  then,  that  the  Saviour's 
words  must  be  restricted  to  such  spiritual  thieves  and  robbers  as  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees  of  his  day,  who  under  the  leadership  of  Satan  (chap. 
8  :  41,  44)  climbed  up  some  other  way  into  the  fold. 

The  apostle  Paul  says  (Rom.  2  :  7)  that  God  shall  render  "  to  them  who 
by  patient  continuance  in  well-doing  seek  for  glory,  and  honor,  and  immor- 
tahty,  eternal  life. "  We  know  at  once,  without  reference  to  the  context, 
that  he  does  not  mean,  in  opposition  to  the  whole  tenor  of  his  epistles,  to 
affirm  that  men  can  obtain  eternal  life  by  their  own  w-ell-doing,  wdthout 
respect  to  "the  righteousness  of  God,  which  is  by  faith  of  Jesus  Christ, 
unto  all  and  upon  all  them  that  believe."  But  if  we  examine  the  con- 
text, this  shows  that  here  the  apostle  is  not  speaking  of  the  meritorious 
ground  of  justification,  but  of  God's  impartial  regard  to  a  righteous  char- 
acter in  both  Jews  and  Gentiles. 

Historical  parallelisms  hold  of  necessity  a  prominent  place 
in  the  interpretation  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament. 


536  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

In  the  Old  Testamerit  we  have  the  two  parallel  histories  of  the 
Hebrew  commonwealth,  first  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  the 
Kings,  then  in  the  books  of  Chronicles.  In  the  New,  th®  four 
gospels  are  four  parallel  accounts  of  our  Lord's  life  and  teach 
iugs.  Then  there  are  several  parallelisms  of  less  extent;  as, 
for  example,  Isaiah's  account  of  Sennacherib's  war  upon  Heze- 
kiah,  and  Hezekiah's  sickness  (Isa.  chaps.  36-39,  compared 
witli  2  Kings  18  :  13 — 20 :  21,  and  the  briefer  notice  of  2  Chron. 
chap.  32) ;  the  three  accounts  of  Paul's  conversion  (Acts  9 : 1-22; 
22 : 1-21 ;  26 : 1-20) ;  and  other  passages  which  will  readily  occur 
to  the  reader.  To  the  work  of  comparing  and  harmonizing  these 
parallel  histories  biblical  students  have  with  reason  devoted 
much  labor,  since  they  mutually  supplement  and  illustrate  each 
other  in  many  ways.  We  understand  the  books  of  Samuel  and 
Kings  more  fully  by  comparison  with  the  books  of  Chronicles, 
and  the  reverse.  Each  of  the  four  gospels  sheds  light  on  the 
other  three.  It  is  by  placing  the  three  accounts  of  Paul's  con- 
version side  by  side  that  we  gain  the  most  perfect  knowledge 
of  this  event.  The  numerous  coincidences  between  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  Pauline  epistles,  give  us  a  fuller  idea  of 
the  apostle's  inward  life  and  outward  labors  than  we  could 
otherwise  gain.  Without  the  epistles  the  biographical  notices 
of  the  Acts  would  be  very  incomplete ;  without  the  narrative  of 
the  Acts  many  references  in  the  epistles  would  remain  obscure. 
Yet  these  same  historic  parallehsms,  which  are  the  source 
of  so  much  light,  are  the  occasion  of  difficulties  also,  which 
require  for  their  adjustment  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  spirit 
of  inspiration.  In  respect  to  all  essential  matters  of  faith  and 
practice,  a  divine  unity  pervades  the  Holy  Scriptures.  But 
this  essential  unity  does  not  exclude  diversity  of  conception 
and  representation.  Though  all  the  "holy  men  of  God  spake 
as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  it  pleased  the  divine 
Spirit  to  leave  them  free  to  speak  each  in  accordance  with  his 
individual  peculiarities  of  thought  and  language.  A  page  from 
the  writings  of  the  apostle  John,  taken  anywhere  at  random, 
can  be  at  once  distinguished  from  a  page  of  Paul  or  Luke.    In 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  537 

relating  the  same  transactioiij  two  inspired  writers  often  select 
different  materials,  or  handle  them  in  a  different  way.  The 
narrative  of  each  is  truthful,  but  not  exhaustive.  It  gives  a 
correct  view  of  the  thing  related,  but  not  all  the  particulars 
connected  with  it.  The  omission  from  two  or  more  parallel 
narratives  of  concomitant  circumstances,  or  the  neglect  of 
exact  chronological  order,  sometimes  makes  the  work  of  har- 
monizing them  a  very  difficult  matter.  We  feel  confident  that 
each  separate  narrative  is  correct,  and  that,  had  we  all  the 
accompanying  circumstances  in  the  true  order  of  time,  we 
could  see  hoiu  they  are  consistent  with  each  other ;  but  for  want 
of  this  light  the  exact  mode  of  reconciliation  remains  doubtful 
Such  difficulties  are  incident  to  all  parallel  histories.  Had  the 
Holy  Spirit  seen  good,  he  could  have  excluded  them  from  the 
pages  of  inspiration ;  but  herein  he  chose  to  deal  with  us  not 
as  children,  but  rather  as  men  "  of  full  age,  even  those  who,  by 
reason  of  use,  have  their  senses  exercised  to  discern  both  good 
and  evil."  It  is  worthy  of  special  notice,  that  where  two  or 
more  evangelists  record  the  same  words  of  our  Saviour,  they 
are  solicitous  only  about  their  substance. 

In  the  three  parallel  accounts  of  the  storm  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  the 
disciples  say  according  to  Matthew  (8:25)  :  "Lord  save  us,  we  perish;" 
according  to  Mark  (4:38)  :  "Master,  carest  thou  not  that  we  perish?" 
according  to  Luke  (8  :  24)  :  "Master,  master,  we  perish."  And  the  Lord 
answers  according  to  Matthew  (v.  26)  :  "Why  are  ye  fearful,  O  ye  of  little 
faith  ?"  according  to  Mark  (v,  40) :  "  Why  are  ye  so  fearful  ?  how  is  it  that 
ye  have  no  faith  ?"  according  to  Luke  (v.  25)  :  "Where  is  your  faith?" 
On  the  variations  in  the  words  of  the  disciples  Augustine  well  remarks 
(and  the  same  remarks  hold  good  of  our  Lord's  answer)  :  "The  disciples 
have  one  and  the  same  meaning  in  thus  awaking  the  Lord  and  desiring 
salvation.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to  inquire  which  of  these  addresses,  rather 
than  the  others,  contains  the  exact  words  spoken  to  him.  For  whether  they 
uttered  one  of  the  three,  or  other  words  which  no  one  of  the  evangelists 
has  mentioned,  which  yet  have  the  same  force  in  respect  to  the  truth  of 
the  thought,  what  matters  it  ?"  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  2.  24,  quoted  by 
Alford  on  Matth.  8  :  25. 

On  the  relation  of  the  books  of  Chronicles  to  those  of  Kings  and  the 
diflSculties  connected  with  them,  see  Cliap.  20,  Nos.  21,  22.     On  the  rela- 

23* 


538  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

tion  of  the  four  gospels  to  each  other,  see  Chap.  29,  Nos.  4-10.  We  cannot 
here  go  into  particulars.  It  must  suffice  to  indicate  the  general  principle 
by  which  the  harmonist  must  be  guided. 

6.  The  external  acquirements  necessary  to  constitute  the 
well- furnished  expositor  of  God's  word — the  "  scribe  which  is 
instructed  unto  the  kingdom  of  heaven  " — have  been  already 
briefly  noticed.  Chap.  33,  No.  6.  Not  only  are  the  Scriptures 
in  their  original  form  locked  up  in  dead  languages  which  the 
interpreter  must  thoroughly  master,  but  they  are,  so  to  speak, 
embedded  in  ancient  history,  chronology,  and  archaeology. 

Illustrations  of  this  point  are  so  numerous  that  the  only  difficulty  is  in 
the  selection.  The  servitude  of  the  Israehtes  under  the  Egyptians,  their 
captivity  in  Babylon,  their  dehverance  under  Cyrus,  and  their  subsequent 
history  till  the  time  of  our  Lord's  advent,  connect  themselves  immediately, 
as  all  know,  mth  the  general  history  of  the  ancient  heathen  world.  But 
there  are  many  illustrations  of  a  more  special  character.  The  difficulty  of 
the  position  in  which  our  Lord  was  placed  by  the  ensnaring  question  of 
the  Pharisees  and  Herodians  respecting  the  lawfulness  of  paying  tribute 
to  Csesar,  and  the  divine  wisdom  of  his  answer  (Matt.  22  :  15-22  :  Mark 
12  :  13-17  ;  Luke  20  :  20-26)  cannot  be  perfectly  understood  without  a 
knowledge,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the  pohtical  condition  and  feeling  of  the . 
Jews  as  subjected  to  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  which  they  thoroughly 
detested,  and  of  which  dominion  the  tribute  money  daily  reminded  them  ; 
and,  on  the  other,  of  the  hatred  which  both  Pharisees  and  Herodians  bore 
towards  Christ,  and  their  anxiety  to  find  a  pretext  for  accusing  him  to  the 
people  or  before  this  same  Roman  government. 

To  apprehend  the  force  of  our  Lord's  argument  from  the  Pentateuch 
against  the  error  of  the  Pharisees:  "Have  ye  not  read  that  which  was 
spoken  unto  you  by  God,  saying,  I  am  the  God  of  Abraham,  and  the  God 
of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob  ?  God  is  not  the  God  of  the  dead,  but  of 
the  li^dng"  (Matt.  22  :  31,  32),  we  must  understand  the  form  in  which  the 
Sadducees  denied  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  They  denied,  namely, 
the  existence  of  spirits  separated  from  bodies.  Acts  23  : 8.  To  them, 
consequently,  the  death  of  the  body  Avas  the  anniliilation  of  the  whole  man, 
which  made  the  very  idea  of  a  future  resurrection  an  absurdity.  Our  Sav- 
iour showed  from  the  writings  of  Moses,  whose  authority  they  acknowl- 
edged, the  error  of  their  assumption  that  the  spirit  dies  with  the  body. 
Thus  he  demolished  the  ground  on  which  their  denial  of  a  future  resurrec- 
tion rested. 

The  psalmist  says  of  those  who  hate  Zion  :  "Let  them  be  as  the  grasa 


BIBLICAL  INTEEPRETATION.  53^' 

upon  the  house-tops,  ivhich  Avithereth  before  one  pkicketh  it"  (Eng.  ver- 
sion, "before  it  groweth  up  ") :  "  wherewith  the  mower  fiUeth  not  his  hand, 
nor  he  that  bindeth  sheaves  his  bosom."  Psa.  129  : 6,  7.  For  the  ilhistra- 
tion  of  these  words  we  need  a  double  reference,  (1)  to  the  oriental  custom 
of  constructing  flat  roofs  covered  with  earth,  on  which  grass  readily  springs 
up  ;  (2)  to  the  division  of  the  year  into  two  seasons,  the  rainy  and  the  dry, 
upon  the  commencement  of  which  latter  such  grass  speedily  withers. 
Another  reference  to  the  same  oriental  roofs  we  have  in  the  w^ords  of  Solo- 
mon :  *'  The  contentions  of  a  wife  are  a  continual  dropping  ;"  "a  contin- 
ual dropping  in  a  very  rainy  day  and  a  contentious  woman  are  alike" 
(chaps.  19  :  13  ;  27  :  15),  wliere  we  are  to  understand  a  continual  dropping 
through  of  water  from  the  roof,  which  makes  every  thing  within  uncom- 
fortable. 

Our  Lord's  parable  of  the  ten  virgins  (Matt.  25  : 1-13)  requires  for  its 
illustration  a  knowledge  of  the  oriental  customs  connected  with  marriage  : 
the  transaction  recorded  by  Luke,  where  a  woman  came  behind  Jesus  as  he 
reclined  at  the  table,  washed  his  feet  with  her  tears,  and  wiped  them  with 
her  hair  (Luke  7  :  37,  38),  and  the  position  of  John  when  at  the  last  supper 
'^he  leaned  on  Jesus'  bosom  (John  13  :  23,  25),  cannot  be  made  intelligible 
v/ithout  a  knowledge  of  the  reclining  posture  in  which  meals  were  then 
taken  :  one  familiar  only  with  the  use  of  glass  or  earthen  bottles  cannot 
comprehend  the  force  of  our  Lord's  maxim-  respecting  the  necessity  of  put- 
ting new  wine  into  new  bottles  (Matt.  9  :  17),  tiU  he  is  informed  that  ori- 
ental bottles  are  made  of  leather.  We  might  go  on  multiplying  illustra- 
tions indefinitely,  but  the  above  must  suffice.  We  may  affirm,  without  fear 
of  contradiction,  that  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  has  contributed 
more  than  all  other  causes  to  the  diffusion  among  the  masses  of  the  com- 
munity of  a  knowledge  of  ancient  history  and  antiquities.  To  say  thr.t  a 
congregation  has  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Bible  is  equivalent  to  affirm- 
ing that  it  has  an  enlarged  acquaintance  with  the  ancient  world  in  its  spirit 
as  well  as  in  its  outward  institutions  and  forms. 

7.  That  the  interpreter  may  make  a  wise  and  effective  use 
of  all  the  helps  that  have  been  enumerated,  lie  needs  especially 
that  sound  and  practical  judgment  which  is  called  in  ordinary 
discourse  good  sense.  Investigations  respecting  the  meaning  of 
terms,  inquiries  concerning  the  scope,  reasonings  from  the  con- 
text, the  comparison  of  parallel  passages,  the  use  of  ancient 
history,  chronology,  and  archgeology — that  any  one  or  all  of 
these  processes  combined  may  lead  to  valuable  results  they 
must  be  under  the  guidance  of  that  sound  judgment  and  prac- 
tical tact  by  whicl\  the  interpr'eter  is  enabled  to  seize  the  true 


540  COMPANION  TO   THi:   BIBLE. 

meaning  of  liis  author  and  unfold  it  with  accuracy,  or  is  at 
least  kept  from  far-fetched  and  fanciful  expositions  where  the 
author's  real  sense  is  involved  in  obscurity. 

(1.)  This  quality  of  sound  judgment  will  preserve  the  inter- 
preter from  inept  expositions  for  which  a  plausible  reason  may 
be  assigned. 

Tims,  when  the  Saviour  says  to  Martha,  who  "was  cumbered  about 
much  serving:"  "One  thing  is  needful,"  these  words  have  been  inter- 
preted to  mean  one  disJi — not  many  and  elaborate  preparations,  but  a  sin- 
gle dish.  A  sound  judgment  rejects  at  once  this  inteipretation  as  below 
the  dignity  of  the  occasion,  and  not  in  agreement  with  what  imme- 
diately follows  :  * '  Mary  hath  chosen  that  good  part,  which  shall  not  be 
taken  away  from  her."  The  one  thing  needful  is  such  a  devotion  of  the 
soul  to  Christ  as  Mary  manifested.  So  the  words  :  "  Simon,  son  of  Jonas, 
lovest  thou  me  more  than  these  ?"  (John  21  :15),  have  been  explained  to 
mean :  more  than  these  fish,  or  the  emi^lojment  and  furniture  of  a  fisher- 
man— an  ingenious  substitution,  one  must  say,  of  a  low  and  trivial  mean- 
ing for  the  common  interpretation  :  more  than  these  thy  fellow-disciples 
love  me,  which  accords  so  perfectly  with  Peter's  former  profession : 
"Though  all  men  shall  be  offended  because  of  thee,  yet  will  I  never  be 
offended."     Matt.  26  :  33  ;  Mark  14  :  29. 

Interpreters  who  ordinarily  manifest  sound  judgment  and  skill  are 
sometimes  betrayed  into  inept  expositions  through  the  influence  of  some 
preconceived  opinion.  The  psalmist  says,  for  example  (Psa.  17  :  15):  "As 
for  me,  in  righteousness  shall  I  behold  thy  face  :  I  shall  be  satisfied  upon 
awaking  with  thy  likeness  ;"  that  is,  with  the  contemplation  of  thy  like- 
ness, with  apparent  reference  to  Numb.  12  : 8  :  "  The  likeness  of  the  Lord 
shall  he  behold. "  This  x)assage  is  ordinarily  interpreted  correctly  of  the 
vision  of  God  upon  awaking  in  the  world  to  come.  And  this  view  is  sus- 
tained by  other  like  passages  :  "In  thy  presence  is  fulness  of  joy  ;  at  thy 
right  hand  there  are  pleasures  for  evermore"  (Psa.  16  :11);  "Truly  God 
shall  redeem  my  soul  from  the  power  of  Sheol ;  for  he  shall  take  me," 
(Psa.  49  :15),  where  Tholuck  well  says :  "He  who  took  an  Enoch  and  a 
Moses  to  himself,  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  will  also  take  me 
to  himself;"  "Thou  shalt  guide  me  by  thy  counsel,  and  afterwards  take 
me  to  glory.  Whom  have  I  in  heaven  but  thee  ?  and  there  is  none  upon 
earth  that  I  desire  resides  thee.  My  flesh  and  my  heart  faileth  :  God  is 
the  strength  of  mj  heart,  and  my  portion  for  ever "  (Psa.  73  :  24-26) — 
words  that  are  ine  cplicable  except  as  containing  the  anticipation  of  a 
blessed  immortality  with  God  in  heaven  ;  "The  wicked  is  driven  away  in 
his  wickedness  ;  but  the  righteous  hath  hope  in  his^leath  "  (Prov.  14  :  32); 


BIBLTCx\L   IXTEHPRETATION  511 

etc.  But  there  is  a  class  of  interpreters  who,  having  adopted  the  maxim 
that  the  Old  Testament,  at  least  in  its  earlier  writings,  contains  no  antici  • 
pations  of  a  blessed  life  with  God  after  death,  are  constrained  to  give  to 
the  passage  in  question  the  frigid  meaning  :  I  shall  be  satisfied  with  thy 
likeness  when  I  awake  to-morrow,  as  if  the  psalm  were  intended  to  be  an 
evening  song  or  prayer ;  or,  whenever  I  awake,  that  is,  from  natural  sleep. 

(2.)  A  sound  jadgment  will  also  keep  the  biblical  scholar 
from  interpretations  that  are  coyitrary  to  the  known  nature  of  the 
subject. 

A  familiar  example  is  the  declaration  made  by  Moses  of  God's  view  of 
man's  wickedness  :  "x\nd  it  repented  the  Lord  that  he  had  made  man  on 
the  earth,  and  it  grieved  him  at  his  heart."  Gen.  6  :  6.  The  robust  com- 
mon sense  of  any  plain  reader  will  at  once  adjust  the  interpretation  of 
these  words  to  God's  known  omnisci^ce  and  immutability  ;  just  as  he  will 
the  prayer  of  the  psalmist :  "  Search  me,  O  God,  and  know  my  heart ;  try 
me,  and  know  my  thoughts  ;  and  see  if  there  be  any  wicked  way  in  me, 
and  lead  me  in  the  way  everlasting."  Psa.  139  :  23,  24.  The  immutable 
God  does  nothing  which  is  not  in  accordance  with  his  eternal  counsels. 
The  omniscient  God,  to  whom  all  truth  is  ever  present,  does  not  literally 
institute  a  process  of  searching  that  he  may  know  what  is  in  man.  But  in 
these  and  numberless  other  passages,  he  condescends  to  sj^eak  according 
to  human  modes  of  thought  and  action. 

When  it  is  said,  again,  that  "  tl].e  Lord  hardened  the  heart  of  Pharaoh  ;" 
that  ' '  God  sent  an  evil  spirit  between  Abimelech  and  the  men  of  Shech- 
em  "  (Judg.  9  :  23) ;  that  he  sent  a  lying  spirit  to  deceive  Ahab  through  his 
prophets  (1  Kings  22  :  21-23) ;  that  he  sent  Isaiah  with  the  command  : 
' '  Make  the  heart  of  this  people  fat,  and  make  their  ears  heavy,  and  shut 
their  eyes "  (Isa.  6  :  10)  ;  that  he  made  the  covenant  people  to  err  from 
his  ways,  and  hardened  their  heart  from  his  fear  (Isa.  63  :  17),  we  instinc- 
tively interpret  these  and  other  like  passages  in  harmony  with  the  funda- 
mental principle  announced  by  the  apostle  :  ' '  Let  no  man  say  when  he  is 
tempted,  I  am  tempted  of  God  ;  for  God  cannot  be  tempted  of  evil,  neither 
temiDteth  he  any  man.  But  every  man  is  tempted,  when  he  is  drawn  away 
of  his  own  lust,  and  enticed."  Jas.  1  :  13,  14.  The  Scriptures  ascribe 
every  actual  event  to  God  in  snch  a  sense  that  it  comes  into  the  jDlan  of 
his  universal  i)rovidence  ;  but  they  reject  with  abhorrence  the  idea  that  he 
can  excite  wicked  thoughts  in  men,  or  prompt  them  to  wicked  deeds. 

When  it  is  said,  once  more,  that  men  are  drawn  to  Christ  (John  6  :44), 
or  driven  to  Avorship  the  heavenly  bodies  (Deut.  4  :19),  we  understand  at 
once  a  drawing  and  a  driving  that  are  in  accordance  with  their  free  intelli- 
gent and  responsible  nature.     Other  illustrations  of  this  principle  will  be 


542  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

given  in  the  following  chapter,  which  treats  of  the  figurative  language  of 
Scripture. 

(3.)  The  same  quality  of  good  sense  will  enable  the  inter- 
preter to  make  those  limitations  in  the  language  of  the  sacred 
writers  -which  are  common  in  popular  discourse.  In  the  lan- 
guage of  daily  life  many  statements  are  made  in  general  terms 
that  require  for  their  exact  truthfulness  various  qualifications 
which  the  readers  or  hearers  can  readily  supply  for  themselves. 
Honest  men,  addressing  honest  men,  are  not  in  the  habit  of 
guarding  their  words  against  every  possible  misconstruction. 
It  is  enough  if  they  speak  so  that  all  who  will  can  understand 
them. 

It  is  said,  for  example  (Gen.  41  :57),  that  "all  countries  (literally,  all 
the  earth)  came  into  Egypt  to  Joseph  for  to  buy  corn  ;  because  the  famine 
was  sore  in  all  the  earth."  It  would  be  only  trifling  to  ask  whether  "aU 
the  earth  "  included  the  people  of  Europe  and  India.  The  reader  natu- 
rally understands  all  the  lands  around  Egypt,  since  they  only  could  come 
thither  for  corn.  So  when  it  is  said  in  the  account  of  the  deluge  that  "all 
the  high  hills  that  were  under  the  whole  heaven  were  covered "  (Gen. 
7:19),  it  is  straining  the  sacred  writer's  words  to  give  them  a  rigid  geo- 
graphical application,  as  if  they  must  needs  include  the  mountains  about 
the  North  pole.  "  All  the  high  hills  under  the  whole  heaven  "  were  those 
where  man  dwelt,  and  which  were  consequently  known  to  man.  "The 
Holy  Ghost,"  says  John,  "was  not  yet  given,  because  that  Jesus  was  not 
yet  glorified."  John  7:39.  Yet  David  prayed  ages  before:  "Take  not 
thy  Holy  Spirit  from  me  "  (Psa.  51  :  11)  ;  Isaiah  says  of  ancient  Israel  that 
"they  rebelled  and  vexed  his  Holy  Spirit"  (Isa.  63  :  10)  ;  the  Saviour,  long 
before  his  glorification,  promised  the  Holy  Spirit  to  all  that  should  ask  for 
him  (Luke  11 :  13)  ;  and  it  is  a  fundamental  article  of  our  faith  that  from 
Abel  to  the  archangel's  trump  all  holiness  is  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit.  But 
John's  readers,  who  lived  after  the  plenary  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  from 
the  day  of  Pentecost  and  onward,  could  not  fail  to  understand  him  as 
referring  to  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  in  that  special  sense.  The  apostle  Paul 
says  (1  Tim.  2  :4)  that  God  "will  have  all  men  to  be  saved,  and  to  come 
unto  the  knowledge  of  the  truth."  Yet  the  same  apostle  teaches  that  some 
will  remain  in  ignorance  of  the  truth,  and  thus  perish.  2  Thess.  1  :  8,  9  ; 
2  :  11,  12.  The  reader's  good  sense  readily  reconciles  the  former  with  the 
latter  passages.  He  understands  God's  wiU  to  have  all  men  saved  as  the 
will  of  benevolent  desire ;  just  as  God  says  of  ancient  Israel  (Psa.  81  :  13) : 
"  Oh  that  my  people  had  hearkened  unto  me,  and  Israel  had  walked  in  my 


BIBLICAL  INTERPEETATION.  543 

ways!"  but  because  they  would  not  do  this,  he  "gave  them  up  to  their 
own  heart's  hist,  and  they  walked  in  their  own  counsels"  (ver.  12).  Many 
like  illustrations  might  be  added. 

(4.)  Hence  we  readily  infer  the  office  of  a  sound  judgment 
in  reconciling  apparent  contradictions,  since  these  arise  mainly 
from  the  neglect,  in  one  or  both  of  the  passages  between  which 
the  contradiction  is  said  to  exist,  of  reasonable  qualifications 
and  limitations. 

A  striking  illustration  of  this  is  found  in  the  two  accounts  of  the  crea- 
tion. Gen.  chaps.  1-2  :  3  and  chap.  2  : 4-25.  In  the  former  narrative  the 
order  of  time  is  an  essential  element.  Not  so  in  the  latter,  where  man  is 
the  central  object,  and  the  different  parts  of  creation  are  mentioned  only 
as  the  writer  has  occasion  to  speak  of  them  in  connection  with  him.  Hence 
we  have  in  this  latter  passage  the  creation  of  the  man  (ver.  7),  the  planting 
of  the  garden  for  his  use  with  its  trees  and  rivers  (ver.  8-14),  the  placing 
of  the  man  in  the  garden  and  the  law  imposed  ui^on  him  (ver.  15-17),  the 
defective  condition  of  the  man  (ver.  18),  the  notice  in  connection  with  this 
of  the  creation  of  beasts  and  fowls  and  their  being  brought  to  the  man  to 
receive  names  (ver.  19,  20),  the  creation  of  the  woman  and  the  primitive 
condition  of  the  pair  (ver.  21-25).  This  simple  statement  of  the  course  of 
narration  sufficiently  refutes  the  allegation  that  the  second  account  is 
inconsistent  with  the  first. 

In  the  first  account  of  Paul's  conversion  it  is  said  that  "the  men  which 
journeyed  with  him  stood  speechless,  hearing  a  voice  but  seeing  no  man." 
Acts  9:7.  In  the  second  Paul  says  :  ' '  They  that  were  with  me  saw  in- 
deed the  light,  and  were  afraid  ;  but  they  heard  not  the  voice  of  him  that 
spake  to  me."  Acts  22  :9.  There  is  no  valid  ground  for  doubting  that 
the  first  narrative,  as  well  as  the  other  two,  came  from  the  lips  of  the  apos- 
tle himself,  and  the  assumption  of  any  essential  contradiction  is  unreason- 
able and  unnecessary.  In  regard  to  the  liglit,  it  is  certain  that  Paul  saw 
the  person  of  the  Saviour,  and  was  made  blind  by  the  glory  of  the  vision 
(Acts  9  ;  17,  27;  22  :  14;  1  Cor.  9  :1),  while  his  companions  saw  only  the 
light  that  shone  around  them,  which  did  not  make  them  blind.  In  regard 
to  the  voice,  it  is  a  fair  interpretation  that  they  heard  a  voice  only,  but  no 
intelligible  words.  Houi  this  difference  of  perception  between  Paul  and 
his  companions  in  regard  to  both  the  light  and  the  voice  was  effected  wo 
do  not  know,  nor  is  it  necessary  that  we  should.  The  first  account,  again, 
represents  Paul's  companions  as  having  "stood  speechless,"  while  in  the 
third  the  ajDostle  says:  "When  we  were  all  fallen  to  the  earth."  Acts 
26  :  14.  The  most  natural  explanation  here  is  that  the  third  narrative  gives 
the  posture  with  accuracy,  while  the  first  lays  stress  only  upon  the  amaze- 


511  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ment  which  fixed  them  in  a  motionless  attitude.  The  apparent  discrepan- 
cies in  these  three  parallel  histories  are  peculiarly  instructive,  because  they 
all  proceed  from  the  pen  of  the  same  author,  and  must  all  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  same  source.  Such  circumstantial  differences  have  the 
stamp  of  reality.  Instead  of  throwing  any  discredit  upon  the  transaction, 
they  only  establish  its  truth  upon  a  firmer  basis.  Many  like  illustrations 
might  be  added. 

(5.)  Finally,  where  the  means  of  reconciling  discrepancies 
are  not  apparent,  the  same  quality  of  a  sound  judgment  will 
keep  us  from  the  two  extremes  of  seeking,  on  the  one  hand, 
forced  and  unnatural  explanations,  and,  on  the  other,  of  discredit- 
ing well-attested  transactions  on  account  of  these  discrepancies. 
In  the  scriptural  narratives  there  are  some  difficulties  (rela- 
ting mostly  to  numbers,  dates,  and  the  chronological  order  of 
events)  which  we  find  ourselves  unable,  with  our  present  means 
of  knowledge,  to  solve  in  a  satisfactory  way.  It  is  the  part  of 
sober  reason  to  reserve  these  difficulties  for  further  light,  not 
to  set  aside,  in  view  of  them,  facts  attested  by  irrefragable 
proof. 

Nothing  in  the  evangelic  record  is  more  certain,  for  example,  than  the 
fact  of  our  Lord's  resurrection.  Yet  to  harmonize  the  four  accounts  which 
we  have  of  it  in  all  their  details  is  a  work  of  extreme  difficulty.  ' '  Sup- 
posing us  to  be  acquainted  with  every  thing  said  and  done,  in  its  order 
and  exactness,  we  should  doubtless  be  able  to  reconcile,  or  account  for,  the 
present  forms  of  the  narratives ;  but  not  having  this  key  to  the  harmon- 
izing of  them,  attempts  to  do  so  in  minute  particulars  carry  no  certainty 
with  them."  Alford  on  Matt.  28  : 1-10.  The  same  general  principle  ap- 
plies to  other  difficulties — in  the  Old  Testament,  that  respecting  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt,  and  other  chronological  questions ;  in  the 
New,  that  of  the  two  genealogies  given  of  our  Lord  by  Matthew  and  Luke, 
that  of  the  day  when  our  Lord  ate  the  passover  with  his  disciples,  etc.  See 
further  in  Chaps.  19,  Nos.  6  and  8  ;  20,  No.  22 ;  29,  Nos.  8-10. 

8.  In  bringing  this  chapter  to  a  conclusion,  we  add  a  few 
words  on  the  office  of  reason  in  the  interpretation  of  Scri^Dture. 
It  is  admitted  by  all  that  we  have  certain  primitive  intuitions 
which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  knowledge.  That  an  immu- 
table obligation,  for  example,  rests  on  all  men  to  be  truthful, 


BIBLICAL  INTERPKETATION.  54o 

just,  benevolent,  and  grateful,  is  a  truth  which  we  see  by  the 
direct  Hght  of  conscience.  There  are  certain  moral  axioms, 
also,  outside  of  the  direct  sphere  of  conscience,  which  shine  by 
their  own  light.  Such  is  that  fundamental  truth  of  theology 
thus  announced  by  the  apostle  John :  "  God  is  light,  and  in 
him  is  no  darkness  at  all"  (1  John  1:5);  where  light  and  dark- 
ness ai'e  both  taken  in  a  moral  sense,  as  the  context  shows; 
and  thus  by  the  apostle  James :  "  God  cannot  be  tempted  with 
evil,  neither  tempteth  he  any  man"  (Jas.  1 :13);  and  thus,  ages 
before,  by  Moses :  "  He  is  the  Rock,  his  work  is  perfect :  for  all 
his  wfxjs  are  judgment :  a  God  of  truth  and  without  iniquity, 
just  and  right  is  he"  (Deut.  32:4);  and  still  earlier  by  Abra- 
ham: "Shall  not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right?"  (Gen, 
18  :  25).  We  are  sure  that  no  declaration  of  God's  Vv^ord,  prop- 
erly interpreted,  will  contradict  these  necessary  and  universal 
convictions.  But  there  are  many  weighty  truths  that  lie  wholly 
above  the  sphere  of  our  direct  intuitions  on  which  the  infinite 
understanding  of  God  is  alone  competent  to  pass  an  infallible 
judgment.  Such  are  the  following:  If  it  be  God's  will  to  cre- 
ate a  race  of  intelligent  beings,  what  shall  be  the  compass  of 
their  faculties,  moral,  intellectual,  and  physical  ?  In  what  cir- 
cumstances and  relations  shall  he  place  them,  to  what  proba- 
tion shall  he  subject  them,  and  what  scope  shall  he  allow  to 
their  finite  freedom  ?  If  they  sin,  what  plan  shall  he  devise 
for  their  redemption,  and  by  what  processes  shall  he  reveal 
and  execute  this  plan?  These,  and  many  other  questions 
involving  man's  highest  interests,  lie  above  the  sphere  of  sim- 
ple intuition.  God  alone,  who  looks  through  eternity  at  a 
glance,  can  fully  comprehend  them,  for  they  are  all  constituent 
parts  of  his  eternal  plan.  That  human  reason,  which  cannot 
see  the  whole  of  truth,  should  affect  to  sit  in  judgment  upon 
them,  and  to  pronounce  authoritatively  what  God  may,  and 
what  he  may  not  do,  is  the  height  of  presumption  and  folly. 


646  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTEE  XXXY. 

The   Figurative   Language   of-    Scripture. 

1.  When  the  psalmist  says :  "  The  Lord  God  is  a  san  and 
shield"  (Psa.  84  :11),  he  means  that  God  is  to  all  his  creatures 
the  source  of  life  and  blessedness,  and  their  almighty  protector ; 
but  this  meaning  he  conveys  under  the  figure  of  a  sun  and  a 
shield.  When,  again,  the  apostle  James  says  that  Moses  is 
read  in  the  synagogues  every  Sabbath-day  (Acts  15 :  21),  he 
signifies  the  writings  of  Moses  under  the  figure  of  his  name. 
In  these  examples  the  figure  lies  in  particular  words.  But  it 
may  be  embodied  in  a  sentence,  thus  :  "  It  is  hard  for  thee  to 
kick  against  the  pricks  "  (Acts  26 :  14),  where  Saul's  conduct  in 
persecuting  Christ's  disciples  is  represented  under  the  form  of 
an  ox  kicking  against  the  ploughman's  goad  only  to  make  the 
wounds  it  inflicts  deeper.  Figurative  language,  then,  is  that 
in  which  one  thing  is  said  under  the  form  or  figure  of  another  thing. 
In  the  case  of  allegories  and  parables,  it  may  take  the  form,  as 
we  shall  hereafter  see,  of  continuous  discourse. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  words  in  all  languages,  in  truth  all  that 
express  intellectual  and  moral  ideas,  were  originally  figurative,  the  univer- 
sal law  being  to  represent  immaterial  by  material  objects.  Examples  are 
the  words  exist,  existence,  emotion,  affliction,  anguish,  etc.  But  in  these,  and 
innumerable  other  words,  the  primitive  physical  meaning  has  become 
obsolete,  and  thus  the  secondary  spiritual  meaning  is  to  us  literal.  Or, 
what  often  happens,  while  the  original  physical  signification  is  retained,  a 
secondary  figurative  meaning  of  the  word  has  become  so  common  that  its 
use  hardly  recalls  the  physical  meaning,  and  it  may  therefore  be  regarded 
as  literal ;  as  in  the  words  hard,  harsh,  rough,  when  applied  to  character. 
In  the  first  of  the  above  examples  :  "  It  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against  the 
jDricks,"  the  transfer  of  the  word  hard  from  what  is  physically  hard  to  what 
is  painful  or  difficult,  is  so  common  that  it  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  fig- 
urative. But  the  expression  that  follows  is  figurative  in  the  fullest  sense 
of  the  word. 

Rhetoricians  divide  figures  into  two  general  classes,  figures  of  words, 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  547 

and  figures  of  thought,  and  they  give  elaborate  definitions,  classifications, 
and  rules  for  their  use.  The  interpreter  of  Scripture,  however,  need  not 
encumber  himself  with  any  rhetorical  system.  The  general  rules  of  inter- 
pretation already  considered  will  be,  for  the  most  jpart,  a  sufficient  guide 
to  the  meaning  of  the  rich  variety  of  figures  contained  in  the  Bible,  espe- 
cially in  its  poetical  parts.  It  is  only  necessary  to  add  a  few  words  in  ref- 
erence to  the  ascertaining  of  figurative  language  ;  the  most  prominent 
classes  of  figures ;  and  some  principles  to  be  observed  in  their  interpreta- 
tion. 

2.  The  question  may  arise  whether  a  writer  is  to  be  under- 
stood literally  or  figuratively.  For  the  ascertaining  of  figurative 
language,  a  few  simple  rules  wdll  be,  in  general,  sufficient. 

(1.)  Multitudes  of  cases  can  be  decided  at  once  by  consid- 
ering the  nature  of  the  subject. 

Thus,  when  the  apostle  calls  Jesus  Christ  a  "foundation,"  and  speaks 
of  building  upon  this  foundation  "gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  wood, 
hay,  stubble,"  adding  that  "every  man's  work  shall  be  revealed  by  fire ; 
and  the  fire  shall  try  every  man's  work  of  what  sort  it  is  ;"  and,  further, 
that  "if  any  man's  work  abide"  this  fire,  "he  shall  receive  a  reward,"  but 
"if  any  man's  work  be  burned  he  shall  suffer  loss"  (1  Cor.  3  :  11-15),  wo 
know  at  once,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  that  he  speaks  figuratively. 
He  compares  the  church  of  God  to  a  temple,  of  which  Jesus  Christ  is  the 
foundation,  while  her  teachers  and  preachers  are  the  builders.  The  "  gold, 
silver,  precious  stones,  wood,  hay,  stubble,"  represent  primarily  the  mate- 
rials Avith  which  they  build ;  that  is,  the  character  of  their  doctrines  and 
precepts,  and  secondarily,  the  character  of  those  whom  they  bring  into 
the  Christian  fold.  The  "fire,"  again,  is  the  trial  and  judgment  of  the 
last  day. 

The  apostle  says  of  the  ancient  Israelites  that  "they  drank  of  that 
spiritual  Rock  that  followed  them;  and  that  Rock  was  Christ."  1  Cor. 
10:4.  So  also  Christ  is  called  to  believers  "a  chief  corner-stone,  elect, 
precious ;"  but  to  unbelievers  "  a  stone  of  stumbling  and  a  rock  of  offence  " 
(1  Pet.  2:6-8)  ;  "the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  the  Root  of  David" 
(Rev.  5:5);  "the  Lamb  of  God,"  and  simply  "the  Lamb"  (John  1 :  29, 
36;  Rev.  5:12;  6:1;  etc.);  "the  door  of  the  sheep"  (John  10:7,  9); 
"the  true  vine"  (John  15  : 1)  ;  and  "the  living  bread  which  came  down 
from  heaven"  (John  6  :  51).  He  himself  says  :  "Whoso  eateth  my  flesh 
and  drinktith  my  blood  hath  eternal  life  ;  and  I  Avill  raise  him  n\)  at  the 
last  day."  John  6  :  54.  There  is  no  more  ground  for  understanding  the 
last  of  these  passages  literally  than  the  preceding,  that  is,  there  is  no 
ground  whatever.      The  dogma  of  the  Romish  church,  which  teaches  that 


548  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  consecrated  bread  and  ^^-ine  are  literally  converted  into  the  body  and 
blood  of  Jesus,  violates  alike  sound  reason  and  every  sound  principle  of 
interpretation.  '*  x-Vs  the  words,  '  This  is  ray  body,'  and  '  This  is  my  blood,* 
were  spoken  before  Christ's  body  was  broken  upon  the  cross,  and  befoee 
his  blood  was  shed,  he  could  not  pronounce  them  Avith  the  intention  that 
they  should  be  taken  and  interpreted  literally  by  his  disciples.  He  could 
not  take  his  body  in  his  hands,  nor  offer  them  his  blood  in  the  cup  ;  for  ifc 
had  not  yet  been  shed."     Home,  vol.  2,  p.  319. 

(2.)  In  ascertaining  figurative  language,  the  interpreter  will 
naturally  take  into  account  the  scope,  the  context,  and  the  general 
analogy  of  scriptural  teaching.  If  the  literal  sense,  though  pos- 
sible in  the  nature  of  things,  is  inept  or  contrary  to  the  general 
tenor  of  Scripture,  it  must  be  rejected. 

The  prophet  Isaiah  tells  us  that,  under  the  future  reign  of  the  Mes- 
siah, the  wolf  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb,  the  leopard  He  down  with  the  kid, 
the  lion  eat  straw  like  the  ox,  and  the  child  play  with  impunity  on  the 
hole  of  the  asp.  Isa.  11  : 6-8.  It  is  possible  to  conceive  of  this  state  of 
things  as  effected  by  a  change  in  the  physical  nature  of  all  noxious  ani- 
mals. But  the  writer  immediately  adds  :  ' '  They  shall  not  hurt  nor  destroy 
in  all  my  holy  mountain  ;  for  the  earth  shall  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover  the  sea"  (ver.  9).  Since  then  the  change  is 
effected  by  the  universal  diffusion  of  "the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,"  it 
must  be  a  moral  change — a  transformation  of  the  character  of  wicked  men 
figuratively  described  as  wolves,  leopards,  bears,  lions,  and  vipers.  The 
general  analogy  of  prophetic  language,  which,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown, 
abounds  in  figurative  forms  of  representation,  strengthens  this  conclusion. 

By  the  prophet  Haggai,  again,  God  says  :  "Yet  once,  it  is  a  little  while, 
and  I  will  shake  the  heavens,  and  the  earth,  and  the  sea,  and  the  dry 
land."  Chap.  2  : 6.  The  key  to  the  meaning  of  these  words  is  given  in 
the  following  verse  :  "And  I  will  shake  all  nations,  and  the  Desire  of  all 
nations  shall  come  :  and  I  will  fill  this  house  with  glory,  saith  the  Lord  ol 
hosts."  In  such  a  connection,  and  with  such  a  result,  nothing  could  be 
more  vapid  than  to  understand  this  shaking  of  heaven  and  earth,  sea  and 
land,  in  a  physical  sense.  It  is  the  mighty  overturnings  among  the 
nations,  social,  moral,  and  j)olitical,  that  are  here  predicted,  as  Jehovah 
says  by  Ezekiel :  "  I  will  overturn,  overturn,  overturn  it,  and  it  shall  be  no 
more,  until  he  come  whose  right  it  is,  and  I  will  give  it  to  him. "  Chap. 
21 :  27.  Compare  Isa.  13  :  13  ;  Jer.  4  :  24  ;  Ezek.  38  :  20  ;  Joel  3  :  16.  So 
when  God  announces  that  he  "will  cause  the  sun  to  go  down  at  noon, 
and  darken  the  earth  in  the  clear  day  "  (Amos  8:9),  we  understand  at  once, 
that  under  this  figure  he  forewarns  the  covenant  people  of  the  sudden 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  549 

approach  of  great  calamity.  Compare  Deut.  28  :  29  ;  Job  5  :  14  ;  Isa. 
13  :  10  ;  Jer.  4  :  23-28  ;  Ezek.-32  ;  7,  8  ;  Joel  2  :  31 ;  3  :  15  ;  etc.  This  sub- 
ject will  be  further  discussed  under  the  head  of  the  interpretation  of 
prophecy. 

In  the  sermon  on  the  mount,  the  Saviour  says:  "Whosoever  shall 
smite  thee  on  the  right  cheek,  turn  to  him  the  other  also  "  (Matt.  5  :  39)  ; 
but  the  preceding  context  gives  the  scope  of  this  and  the  other  particular 
precepts  that  follow,  which  is  that  Christ's  followers  should  "resist  not 
evil,"  that  is,  by  rendering  evil  for  evil.  It  is  the  spirit  of  meekness  and 
forbearance  J;hat  he  inculcates,  not  a  slavish  regard  to  this  and  that  par- 
ticular form  of  manifesting  it.  So  when  he  says  :  "  Give  to  him  that  ask- 
eth  of  thee,  and  from  him  that  would  borrow  of  thee  turn  not  thou  away  " 
(ver.  42),  he  cannot  mean,  consistently  with  the  scope  of  the  passage  and 
his  teachings  elsewhere,  that  we  should  stultify  ourselves  by  literally  giv- 
ing to  every  asker  and  borrower,  without  regard  to  his  necessities,  real  or 
alleged.  He  means  rather  to  inculcate  that  liberal  spirit  which  n^ver  with- 
holds such  help  as  it  is  able  to  give  from  those  who  need  it. 

When  the  Saviour  says  again  :  "If  thy  right  eye  ofl'end  thee,  pluck  it 
out  and  cast  it  from  thee,"  etc.,  both  the  preceding  context  and  the  gen- 
eral tenor  of  the  Scriptures  teach  us  that  he  means  vdiat  is  expressed  by 
the  apostle  in  another  form:  "Mortify,  therefore,  your  members  which 
are  ujpon  the  earth."  Col.  3:5.  To  mortify  w,  to  deprive  of  life,  make 
dead.  We  mortify  our  members  which  would  seduce  us  into  sin,  not  by 
destroying  them,  but  by  keeping  them  in  subjection  to  "the  law  of  the 
spirit  of  life  in  Christ  Jesus." 

(3.)  If  the  interpreter  is  liable  to  err  by  taking  figurative 
language  in  a  literal  sense,  so  is  he  also  by  regarding  as  figu- 
rative what  should  be  understood  literally.  A  favorite  expedi- 
ent with  those  who  deny  the  supernatural  character  of  revela- 
tion is  to  explain  the  miraculous  transactions  recorded  in  the 
Bible  as  figurative  or  mythical.  When  David  says  that  in 
answer  to  his  prayer  "  the  earth  shook  and  trembled,  the  foun- 
dations also  of  the  hills  moved  and  were  shaken,  because  he 
was  wroth;"  that  God  "bowed  the  heavens  also  and  came 
down,  and  darkness  was  under  his  feet;"  that  "the  Lord  thun- 
dered in  the  heavens,  and  the  Highest  gave  his  voice,  hailstones 
and  coals  of  fire;"  that  "he  sent  out  his  arrows  and  scattered 
them,  and  he  shot  out  lightnings  and  discomfited  them,"  all 
acknowledge  that  the  language  is  to  be  figuratively  taken. 
Wh}^  then,  an  objector  might  ask,  not  understand  the  account 


550  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Sinai  amid  thunderings  and  light- 
nings as  figurative  also?  The  answer  of  every  plain  reader 
would  be — and  it  is  the  answer  of  unsophisticated  common 
sense — that  the  former  passage  occurs  in  a  lyric  poem,  where 
such  figurative  descriptions  are  entirely  in  place ;  the  latter  in 
a  plain  narrative,  Avhich  professes  to  give  throughout  historic 
facts  with  names  and  dates;  that  no  reader,  who  had  not  a 
preconceived  opinion  to  maintain,  ever  did  or  could  think  of 
interpreting  the  passage  in  Exodus  in  any  other  than  a  literal 
way,  while  every  reader  understands  at  once  that  the  poetic 
description  in  the  eighteenth  psalm  is  to  be  taken  figuratively. 
The  attempt  has  been  made  to  interpret  the  gospel  history  as 
a  myth — the  embodiment  of  a  system  of  pure  ideas  in  the  garb 
of  history.  It  is  difficult  to  refute  an  assumption  which  has  no 
foundation  to  rest  upon.  This  mythical  theory  may,  neverthe- 
less, be  disposed  of  in  a  very  short  and  simple  way.  The  great 
central  truth  of  the  gospel  history  is  the  death  and  resurrection 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  If  any  one  would  know  how  the  apos- 
tle Paul  regarded  this,  let  him  read  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  the 
first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  where  he  pledges  his  veracity 
as  a  witness  on  its  historic  reality  (ver.  15).  If,  now,  Paul  so 
regarded  it,  Luke,  his  companion  in  travel  and  labor,  cannot 
have  taken  a  different  view  of  it,  nor  any  other  of  the  evange- 
lists. But  if  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  are  recorded 
as  true  historic  events,  the  whole  mythical  theory  vanishes  at 
once  into  thin  air. 

(4.)  In  regard  to  those  prophecies  which  relate  to  the  dis- 
tant future,  it  may  sometimes  be  difficult  to  determine  whether 
we  are  to  look  for  a  literal  or  a  figurative  fulfilment  of  them. 
But  this  subject  will  come  up  for  consideration  in  another 
place. 

3.  In  regard  to  the  different  kinds  of  figures  a  few  words  may 
be  in  place. 

(1.)  The  term  tro2Je  (Greek,  tropos,  a  turn)  is  applied,  in  a 
general  sense,  to  figures  of  words  and  speech  of  every  variety ; 
but,  in  stricter  usage,  to  a  word  or  sentence  turned  from  its  lit- 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  551 

eral  signification  to  a  figurative  sense.  Quintilian  adds  (Inst. 
Orator.  8.  6.  1)  that  this  must  be  with  good  effect  (cum  vir- 
tute) ;  that  is,  it  must  add  clearness,  force,  or  beauty  to  the 
thought. 

The  principal  varieties  of  the  trope  are  the  metonymy  and  the  meiaplior. 
The  metonymy  is  founded  on  the  relation  of  one  thing  to  another.  Thus 
when  Abraham  says  to  the  rich  man  :  ' '  They  have  Moses  and  the  proph- 
ets, let  them  hear  them"  (Luke  16  :  29),  Moses  and  the  projphets  are  put 
for  their  writings  ;  that  is,  the  authors  for  their  icorks.  "A  soft  tongue," 
says  the  wise  man,  "breaketh  the  bone."  Prov.  25  :  15.  Here  the  word 
tongue  is  put  for  speech,  the' insti-umeni  for  the  thing  effected,  and  this  met- 
onymy is  joined  with  a  metaphor.  (See  below.)  The  synecdoche,  in  which 
fx  part  is  put  for  the  whole,  as  the  suoord  for  war,  is  in  its  nature  essentially 
a  metonymy.  Rhetoricians  give  elaborate  classifications  of  metonymies, 
but  they  are  of  little  value  to  the  scriptural  student,  since  all  are  inter- 
preted according  to  the  few  simple  principles  given  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

The  metaphor  is  founded  on  the  resemblance  of  one  thing  to  another  ; 
as  in  the  examples  already  given  :  *'The  Lord  God  is  a  sun  and  shield" 
(Psa.  84  :  11)  ;  "I  am  the  true  vine  and  my  Father  is  the  husbandman." 
John  15  : 1.  It  may  lie  not  in  a  single  word,  but  in  an  entire  expression, 
thus  :  "  It  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against  the  pricks  "  (Acts  26  :  14)  ;  "I 
counsel  thee  to  buy  of  me  gold  tried  in  the  fire,  that  thou  mayest  be  rich  ; 
and  white  raiment,  that  thou  mayest  be  clothed,  and  that  the  shame  of 
thy  nakedness  do  not  appear ;  and  anoint  thine  eyes  with  eye-salve,  that 
thou  mayest  see."  Rev.  3:18.  The  metaphor  and  metonymy  may  be 
joined,  as  in  the  words  already  quoted:  "A  soft  tongue  breaketh  the 
bone  ;"  or  they  may  blend  themselves  with  each  other,  as  when  Nalium 
says  of  the  princes  of  Nineveh  :  "The  sword  shall  devour  thy  young  lions." 
Chap,  2  :  13,  In  this  last  example,  as  often  elsewhere,  p^^rsonificaiion, 
which  is  properly  a  figure  of  thought,  is  added,  the  sword  being  rei3resent- 
ed  as  a  beast  of  prey.  The  grand  and  gorgeous  personifications  of  Scrip- 
ture naturally  clothe  themselves  in  tropical  language  of  inimitable  beauty 
and  exhaustless  variety.  "O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord,"  says  Jeremiah, 
"how  long  will  it  be  ere  thou  be  quiet  ?  put  up  thyself  into  thy  scabbard, 
rest,  and  be  still.  How  can  it  be  quiet,  seeing  the  Lord  hath  given  it  a 
charge  against  Ashkelon,  and  against  the  sea-shore  ?  There  hath  he  ap- 
XDointedit."  Chap.  47:6,  7,  The  prophet  Habakkuk  represents  God  as 
coming  forth  in  his  glory  for  the  salvation  of  his  people  :  "  The  mountains 
saw  thee,"  says  he,  "and  they  trembled:  the  overflowing  of  the  water 
passed  by  :  the  deep  uttered  his  voice,  and  lifted  up  his  hands  on  high  : 
the  sun  and  moon  stood  still  in  their  habitation."    Chap.  3  :  10,  11.    God's 


552  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

promise  to  his  redeemed  is  :  "Ye  shall  go  out  with  joy,  and  be  led  forth 
with  peace  :  the  mountains  and  the  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into 
singing,  and  all  the  trees  of  the  field  shall  clap  their  hands."  Isa.  55  :  12. 
Metonymies,  metaphors,  and  sometimes  personifications — the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  sparkle  wdth  these  figures,  and  they  are  used  always  for 
effect,  not  empty  show.  They  are  like  the  flaming  bolts  of  heaven,  which 
rend  and  burn  as  well  as  shine.  "Beware  of  false  prophets,"  says  the 
Saviour,  "which  come  to  you  in  sheep's  clothing,  but  inwardly  they  are 
ravening  wolves.  Ye  shall  know  them  by  their  fruits  :  do  men  gather 
grapes  of  thorns  or  figs  of  thistles  ?"  Matt.  7  :  15,  16.  How  effectually  does 
he  by  these  metax3hors  strip  off  the  mask  from  false  teachers  !  "If  the 
foot  shall  say.  Because  I  am  not  the  hand,  I  am  not  of  the  body  ;  is  it 
therefore  not  of  the  body  ?  And  if  the  ear  shall  say,  Because  I  am  not  the 
eye,  I  am  not  of  the  body  ;  is  it  therefore  not  of  the  body  ?"  1  Cor.  12  :  15, 
16.  Here  is  personification  without  a  trope.  "O  death,  where  is  thy 
sting  ?  O  grave,  where  is  thy  victory  ?  (1  Cor.  15  :  55),  here  is  a  majestic 
personification  in  metaphorical  form. 

As  resemblance  lies  at  the  foundation  of  tlie  metaphor,  it 
may  be  called'  an  abbreviated  form  of  comparison,  the  thing  with 
which  the  comparison  is  made  being  directly  predicated  of  that 
which  is  compared.  Thus,  when  we  say :  A  sluggard  is  vine- 
gar to  the  teeth  and  smoke  to  the  eyes  of  those  who  send  him, 
we  have  a  metaphor,  the  sluggard  being  directly  called  vinegar 
and  smoke.  But  if  we  say  :  "  As  vinegar  to  the  teeth,  and  as 
smoke  to  the  eyes,  so  is  the  sluggard  to  them  that  send  him  " 
(Prov.  10 :  26),  we  have  a  comparison,  and  the  language  ceases 
to  be  tropical.  The  metaphor  is  thus  a  more  vivid  form  of 
expression  than  the  comparison. 

A  common  mode  of  comparison  in  the  book  of  Proverbs  is  simply  to 
put  together  the  object  compared  and  the  thing  or  things  with  w^hich  it  is 
compared,  thus  :  "  A  whip  for  the  horse,  a  bridle  for  the  ass,  and  a  rod  for 
the  fool's  back  "  (chap.  26  : 3)  ;  that  is,  As  a  whip  is  appropriate  for  the 
horse,  and  a  bridle  for  the  ass,  so  is  a  rod  for  the  fool's  back.  Again, 
"Where  there  is  no  wood  the  fire  goetli  out,  and  Avhere  there  is  no  tale- 
bearer the  strife  ceaseth"  (Prov.  26:20)  ;  "Charcoal  to  live  coals,  and 
wood  to  fire  ;  and  a  m,an  of  strife  to  kindle  strife"  (Prov.  26  :  21) ;  "Silver 
dross  spread  over  an  earthen  sherd — burning  lips  [lips  glowing  with  pro- 
fessions of  love]  and  a  wicked  heart "  (Prov.  26  :  23)  ;  in  all  which  cases  our 
version  has  supplied  particles  of  comparison. 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  553 

(2.)  An  cdlegory  is  the  narrative  of  a  spiritual  transaction 
under  the  figure  of  something  loiver  and  earthly,  the  lower  transac- 
tion representing  directly  the  higher.  We  have  in  the  eigh- 
tieth Psalm  an  exquisite  example  of  the  allegory :  "  Thou 
hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast  cast  out  the  hea- 
then and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and 
didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.  The 
hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,"  etc.  (ver.  8-16) ; 
where  the  transfer  of  the  Israelitish  people  from  Egypt  to  the 
land  of  Canaan,  with  their  subsequent  history,  is  described 
under  the  figure  of  a  vine. 

The  metaphor  and  allegory  have  this  in  common,  that  the  foundation 
of  both  is  resemblance,  and  in  both  the  lower  object  is  pu2  directly  for  the 
higher.  Yet  the  metaphor  cannot  be  properly  called  a  condensed  allegory, 
nor  the  allegory  an  extended  metaphor  ;  for  it  is  essential  to  the  allegory 
that  it  have  the  form  of  a  narrative,  and  that  it  contain  real  history — in 
the  case  of  prophecy  it  may  be  future  history — under  a  figure.  Hence  it 
admits  of  indefinite  extension,  as  in  the  ^^ Pilgrim's  Progress;'^  and  we 
may  add  the  Canticles,  which  the  Christian  church  from  the  earliest  times 
has  regarded  as  an  allegory  of  which  the  subject  is,  in  Old  Testament  lan- 
guage, God  and  his  covenant  jjeople,  but,  according  to  the  representation 
of  the  New  Testament,  Christ  and  his  church. 

We  must  carefully  distinguish  between  true  allegory  and  the  allegorical 
or  mystical  application  of  real  history.  In  the  former  case  it  is  not  the  lit- 
eral meaning,  but  the  higher  sense  represented  by  it,  which  constitutes 
the  historic  truth.  God,  for  example,  never  transferred  a  vine  from  Egypt 
to  Palestine,  but  he  did  the  covenant  people.  The  story  of  Sarai  and 
Hagar,  on  the  contrary  (Gen.,  chap.  16),  is  true  history.  The  apostle 
Paul  makes  an  allegorical  application  of  it  to  the  two  covenants,  tliat  on 
Sinai  and  that  in  Christ,  Avhicli  is  very  beautiful  and  approi3riate ;  yet  the 
story  itself  is  not  allegory,  but  plain  history.  See  further,  in  Chap.  37, 
No.  4. 

(3.)  A  'parable  is  the  narrative  of  a  supposed  event  for  the 
purpose  of  illustrating  a  spiritual  truth  or  principle.  The  office 
of  the  narrative  is  to  embody  the  principle.  It  should,  there- 
fore, be  natural  and  probable  ;  but  its  literal  truth  is  of  no  con- 
sequence. In  our  Lord's  parable  of  the  unjust  steward,  for 
example  (Luke  16:1-9),  the  incidents  of  the  narrative  may  or 

Cnin  .r,i;iile.  24 


554:  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

may  not  have  been  historically  true ;  but  either  way  the  great 
principle  which  it  illustrates  (ver.  10)  remains  the  same. 

Allegories  and  parables  pass  into  each  other  by  insensible  degrees. 
Some  of  our  Lord's  so-called  parables  are  rather  allegories  ;  as  that  of  the 
\dneyard  let  out  to  husbandmen  (Matt.  21 :  33-41),  which  is  founded  on 
the  beautiful  allegory  of  Isaiah  (chap.  5  : 1-7) ;  so  also  that  of  the  good 
shepherd  (John  10  : 1-18).  In  their  pure  form,  however,  the  allegory  and 
the  parable  are  easily  distinguished  from  each  other.  In  the  allegory,  the 
figure  represents  directly  the  higher  transaction.  Hence  the  incidents 
introduced  in  the  figure — at  least  all  the  main  incidents — must  have  some- 
thing corresponding  to  them  in  the  spiritual  transaction  which  the  figure 
represents.  The  case  of  the  parable  is  different.  Here  the  spiritual  truth 
is  not  directly  described  in  terms  of  the  figure,  but  simply  illustrated  from 
it.  The  incidents  and  characters  of  the  story  are  separable  from  the  gen- 
eral principle  which  it  inculcates,  and  are  sometimes  foi-mally  separated  by 
the  speaker  himself ;  as  when  our  Lord  says  :  "  The  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
likened  unto  a  man  which  sowed  good  seed  in  his  field,"  etc.  Matt.  13  :  24. 
For  this  reason  they  may  belong  more  or  less  to  the  mere  draj)ery  of  the 
parable,  so  that  to  press  them  in  its  interpretation,  would  lead  to  error 
instead  of  truth.     See  further  below.  No.  7. 

(4.)  Th.e  fable  is  related  to  the  parable,  but  it  differs  from  it 
in  two  respects.  First,  it  moves  in  a  loorldly  sphere,  having  to 
do  with  prudential  maxims  rather  than  spiritual  truth.  /S'ec- 
ondly,  it  allows,  in  harmony  with  this  its  lower  nature,  irra- 
tional objects  as  speakers  and  actors,  which  would  be  contrary 
to  the  dignity  of  the  parable.  Our  Lord  never  employed  fables 
as  vehicles  of  instruction.  There  are  two  examples  of  them  in 
the  Old  Testament;  neither  of  them,  however,  coming  from  the 
lips  of  prophetical  men.  The  first  is  that  of  Jotham :  "  The 
trees  went  forth  on  a  time  to  anoint  a  king  over  them;  and 
they  said  unto  the  olive-tree,  Eeign  thou  over  us,"  etc.  Judg. 
9 : 8-15.  The  second  is  that  of  Jehoash  :  "  The  thistle  that  was 
in  Lebanon  sent  to  the  cedar  that  was  in  Lebanon,  saying, 
Give  thy  daughter  to  my  son  to  wife :  and  there  passed  by  a 
wild  beast  that  was  in  Lebanon,  and  trode  down  the  thistle." 
2  Kings  14 : 9. 

(5.)  A  symbol  is  a  material  object,  a  transaction  in  the  material 
loorldy  or  sometimes  a  number,  to  represent  some  higher  spirit- 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPRETATION.  555 

rial  truth.  Ritual  symbols,  like  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  the 
high-priest's  dress,  the  sacrifices,  and,  in  general,  the  whole 
tabernacle  and  temple  service,  will  be  considered  hereafter 
under  the  head  of  types.  AVe  speak  of  symbols  now,  only  so 
far  as  they  belong  to  the  human  side  of  interpretation.  We 
have  a  beautiful  example  of  a  symbolic  transaction  in  the  sev- 
enteenth chapter  of  the  book  of  Numbers,  where  the  princes 
of  Israel,  by  God's  direction,  take  twelve  rods,  write  each  man 
his  name  upon  his  rod,  and  lay  them  up  in  the  tabernacle 
before  the  Lord,  whereupon  Aaron's  rod  "  budded,  and  brought 
forth  buds,  and  blossomed  blossoms,  and  yielded  almonds;" 
a  symbol  that  God  would  make  the  priesthood  to  flourish  in 
his  family. 

Scriptural  symbols  exhibit  a  wonderful  variety.  Sometimes  they  are 
seen  in  dreams,  as  in  Jacob's  dream  of  a  ladder  reaching  to  heaven  (Gen. 
28  :  12-15)  ;  Pharaoh's  two  dreams  of  the  fat  and  lean  kine,  and  the  good 
and  thin  ears  (Gen.  41  : 1-7)  ;  or  in  prophetic  vision,  like  Jeremiah's  vision 
of  a  seething  pot  with  the  face  towards  the  north  (Jer.  1 :  13)  ;  Ezekiel's 
vision  of  the  cherubim  (chap.  1) ;  and  Amos'  vision  of  a  basket  of  sum- 
mer fruit  (chap.  8:2).  At  other  times  they  are  actual  transactions.  So 
the  false  prophet  Zedekiah  "made  him  horns  of  iron  :  and  he  said,  Thus 
saith  the  Lord,  with  these  shalt  thou  push  the  Syrians  till  thou  have  con- 
sumed them  "  (1  Kings  22  :  11)  ;  the  true  i)rophet  Jeremiah  wore  a  yoke 
upon  his  neck  as  a  sign  that  God  would  subject  the  nations  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's power,  and  the  false  prophet  Hananiah  broke  it,  that  he  might 
thus  signify  the  deliverance  of  the  people  from  Nebuchadnezzar's  rule. 
Jer.  27  : 1-8,  compared  with  28  :  10,  11. 

(6.)  A  proverb  is  a  short  maxim  relating  to  practical  life.  It 
may  be  expressed  literally  or  figuratively,  but  in  either  case  it 
must  contain  a  geyieral  truth.  "  A  scorner  loveth  not  one  that 
reproveth  him ;  neither  will  he  go  unto  the  wise  "  (Prov.  15 :  12), 
is  a  proverb  expressed  in  plain  language.  "The  name  of  the 
Lord  is  a  strong  tower:  the  righteous  runneth  into  it,  and  is 
safe"  (Prov.  18:10),  is  a  proverb  under  a  beautiful  figure. 
The  foolish  young  men  counselled  Rehoboam  to  say  to  the 
Israelites:  "My  little  finger  shall  be  thicker  than  my  father's 
loins."    1  Kings  12 :  10.    This  is  not  a  proverb,  because  it  con- 


55(3  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

tains  only  tlie  figurative  statement  of  a  particular  fact.  But  if 
we  change  the  form,  and  say  :  The  little  finger  of  a  foolish  ruler 
is  thicker  than  the  loins  of  a  wise  king,  we  make  it  general,  and 
thus  it  becomes  a  proverb. 

The  Hebrew  word  for  a  i^roverb  [maslial]  denotes  a  similitude,  this  being 
one  of  its  most  common  forms.  Examples  occur  in  abu-ndance  in  the  book 
of  Proverbs.  We  have  them  in  the  form  of  direct  comparison:  "As  in 
water  face  answereth  to  face,  so  the  heart  of  man  to  man  "  (chap.  27  :  19) ; 
"A  continual  dropping  in  a  very  rainy  day  and  a  contentious  woman  are 
alike"  (chap.  27 :  15)  ;  "Better  is  a  dinner  of  herbs  where  love  is,  than  a 
stalled  ox  and  hatred  therewith"  (chap.  15  :17).  We  have  them  also  in 
the  form  of  metaphor:  "The  contentions  of  a  wife  are  a  continual  droi> 
ping  "  (chai?.  19  :  13) ;  "  The  lips  of  knowledge  are  a  precious  jewel "  (chap. ' 
20  :15).  But  most  frequently  the  comparison  appears  in  the  form  of  con- 
trast, thus:  "A  wise  son  heareth  his  father's  instruction;  but  a  scorner 
heareth  not  rebuke  "  (chap.  13  : 1)  ;  "A  faithful  witness  will  not  lie  ;  but 
a  false  witness  will  utter  lies  "  (chap.  14  :  5).  The  signification  of  the  word 
proverb  is  then  extended  to  short  sententious  maxims  of  every  form,  even 
where  comparison  is  excluded,  thus  :  "A  wicked  man  taketh  a  gift  out  of 
the  bosom  to  pervert  the  ways  of  judgment "  (chaj).  17  :  23). 

(7.)  The  word  myth  (Greek  imithos)  was  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  a  legend  or  story  of  early  times,  then  to  a  fable,  like 
those  of  j3Esop.  In  modern  usage  it  is  defined  to  be  a  story  in 
which  "  there  is  an  unconscious  blending  of  the  deeper  meaning 
with  the  outward  symbol,  the  two  being  separate  and  separa- 
ble in  the  parable."  "  The  mythic  narrative  presents  itself  not 
merely  as  the  vehicle  of  the  truth,  but  as  itself  being  the  truth; 
while  in  the  parable  there  is  a  perfect  consciousness  in  all 
minds  of  the  distinctness  between  form  and  essence,  shell  and 
kernel,  the  precious  vessel  and  yet  more  precious  wine  that  it 
contains."  Trench,  Notes  on  the  Parables,  chap.  1.  A  good 
illustration  of  this  we  have  in  the  tales  of  Grecian  mythology, 
once  received  by  the  masses  of  the  people  as  literally  true; 
but  which  "  a  later  and  more  reflective  age  than  that  in  which 
the  mytlius  had  birth"  learned  to  regard  as  only  the  vehicle 
of  certain  ideas  respecting  deity.  The  myth,  as  thus  defined, 
does  not  come  within  the  sphere  of  biblical  interpretation. 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  557 

The  liistoric  events  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  may,  and 
often  do,  shadow  forth  something  higher.  In  that  case  they 
are  not  myths,  but  typical  history.  Chap.  37,  No.  4.  All  the 
scriptural  narratives,  on  the  contrary,  which  are  true,  not  in 
their  literal  meaning,  but  in  a  higher  sense,  come  under  the 
head  of  allegories,  parables,  or  symbolic  representations. 

4.  In  the  interpretation  of  figurative  language  we  must  be 
guided,  in  general,  by  the  principles  considered  in  the  prece- 
ding chapter.  To  lay  down  special  rules  for  the  interpretation 
of  the  rich  and  endlessly  varied  figures  which  adorn  the  pages 
of  Holy  Writ  would  be  as  impracticable  as  useless.  The  his- 
tory of  Biblical  exegesis,  however,  shows  that  some  general 
cautions  are  much  needed. 

5.  The  youthful  student  of  Scripture  should  be  reminded, 
first  of  all,  that  its  figurative  language  is  no  less  certain  and 
truthful  than  its  plain  and  literal  declarations.  The  figures  of 
the  Bible  are  employed  not  simply  to  please  the  imagination 
and  excite  the  feelings,  but  to  teach  eternal  verities.  The  Lord 
Jesus,  "the  faithful  and  true  Witness,"  said:  "Heaven  and 
earth  shall  pass  away :  but  my  words  shall  not  pass  away." 
Mark  13 :  31.  Yet  there  is  a  class  of  interpreters  who  seem  to 
think  that  if  they  can  show  in  any  given  case  that  his  language 
is  figurative,  its  meaning  is  well  nigh  divested  of  all  certainty 
and  reality.  Thrice  in  immediate  succession  did  he  solemnly 
warn  his  hearers  to  cut  off  an  offending  hand  or  foot,  and  to 
pluck  out  an  offending  eye,^rather  than  be  cast  with  the  whole 
body  into  hell,  "into  the  fire  that  never  shall  be  quenched: 
where  their  worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched." 
Mark  9 :  43-48.  But,  says  one  of  this  class  of  expositors,  the 
maiming  of  the  body  is  figurative  language,  and  so  is  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  worm  that  never  dies.  Undoubted^  the  maim- 
ing of  the  body  is  so ;  and  how  far  the  unquenchable  fire  may  also 
be  a  figure  for  the  dread  reality  that  awaits  the  incorrigibly  im- 
penitent in  the  world  to  come  we  pretend  not  to  know.  But  in  the 
lips  of  Jesus  figures  teach  truth,  not  fiction.  The  unhappy  sinner 
who  despises  the  grace  of  the  gospel  will  find  the  reality  not 


558  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

less  terrible  than  the  figures  by  which  Christ  has  represented 
it.  The  storj  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus  is  a  parable ;  but 
we  cannot  on  this  ground  set  aside  the  solemn  lessons  which  it 
inculcates.  What  these  lessons  are,  it  requires  only  candor 
and  faith  to  receive.  They  teach  us  that  God's  suffering  chil- 
dren go  immediately,  upon  death,  to  a  state  of  conscious  blessed- 
ness ;  and  "  the  men  of  the  world,  which  have  their  portion  in 
this  life,"  to  a  place  of  unmitigated  suffering.  Whatever  be 
the  comprehension  of  the  word  Hades  (rendered  in  our  version 
by  the  w^ord  hell),  there  is  an  impassable  gulf  between  Lazarus 
in  Abraham's  bosom  and  the  rich  man  in  torment.  The  "  great 
gulf  fixed"  may  be  a  figure ;  but  it  represents  an  awful  reality ; 
and  that  reality  is,  that  there  is  no  transition  from  the  one  state 
to  the  other. 

6.  In  the  allegory  the  higher  spiritual  transaction  is,  as  we 
have  seen,  directly  represented  by  the  lower.  When  we  know, 
therefore,  what  the  allegory  represents,  we  have  the  key  to  its 
interpretation,  and  all  its  incidents  fall  naturally  into  place. 
If  the  sphere  of  the  allegory  be  the  outward  history  of  God's 
people,  all  its  incidents — at  least  all  its  main  incidents — ought 
to  have  a  significance.  If  its  sphere  be  that  of  inward  spirit- 
ual experience,  as  in  the  Song  of  Solomon,  more  latitude  must 
be  allowed  for  the  drapery  of  the  story ;  yet  here  also  the  essen- 
tial parts  will  each  correspond  to  something  in  the  higher  object 
represented. 

An  example  of  pure  historic  allegory  is  that  of  the  vine  transplanted 
from  Egypt  (Psa.  80),  where  the  higher  object,  which  gives  the  key  to  the 
meaning,  is  GocVs  covenant  people.  The  casting  out  of  the  heathen  (ver. 
8),  is  literally  expressed,  but  in  the  verses  following,  the  figure  is  beauti- 
fully carried  out.  This  vine  takes  deep  root  and  fills  the  land ;  the  hills 
are  covered  with  its  shadow,  and  its  boughs  are  like  the  goodly  cedar  ;  it 
sends  out  its  boughs  to  the  sea,  and  its  branches  to  the  river  (ver.  9-11). 
Here  we  have  one  main  incident,  the  increase  of  the  people  in  the  land  of 
Canaan.  Then  God  breaks  down  its  hedges,  so  that  every  passer-by  plucks 
it ;  the  boar  out  of  the  wood  wastes  it,  and  the  wild  beast  of  the  field  de- 
vours it  (ver.  12,  13).  This  is  another  main  incident,  the  withdrawal  of 
God's  protection  from  his  people,  and  their  oppression  by  tlieir  heathen 
neighbors.     The  prayer  that  follows  in  behalf  of  this  vine  (ver.  14-16) 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPEETATION.  559 

represents  the  love  which  God's  people  bear  to  his  church.  All  these  parts 
of  the  allegory  have  their  proper  significance.  The  rest  of  the  imageiy — 
the  hills  overshadowed  by  it,  the  boughs  like  the  goodly  cedar,  the  wild 
boar  wasting  it,  etc. — is  but  the  drapery  of  the  allegory  ;  and  an  attempt  to 
find  a  spiritual  meaning  for  each  of  these  particulars — the  boar  out  of 
the  wood,  for  exa,mple,  and  the  beast  of  the  field  —  would  but  mar  its 
beauty  and  force. 

"We  give  from  Ezekiel  (chap.  17  : 3-10)  another  example  of  historic  alle- 
gory, in  which  the  essential  parts  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 
luxuriant  imagery  of  the  prophet :  "A  great  eagle  with  great  wings,  long- 
winged,  full  of  feathers,  which  had  divers  colors  [Nebuchadnezzar] ,  came 
unto  Lebanon,  and  took  the  highest  branch  of  the  cedar  [Jehoiachin, 
whom  Nebuchadnezzar  dethroned  and  carried  to  Babylon.  The  cedar  of 
Lebanon  represents  the  royal  family,  and  Jehoiachin,  as  the  reigning  mon- 
arch, its  highest  branch]  :  he  cropped  off  the  top  of  his  young  twigs  [the 
same  as  :  he  took  the  highest  branch  of  the  cedar] ,  and  carried  it  into  a 
land  of  traffic  [Chaldea]  ;  he  set  it  in  a  city  of  merchants  [Babylon].  He 
took  also  of  the  seed  of  the  land  [the  king's  seed,  meaning  Zedekiah,  whom 
Nebuchadnezzar  made  king  in  the  place  of  Jehoiachin],  and  planted  it  in 
a  fruitful  field ;  he  placed  it  by  great  waters,  and  set  it  as  a  willow- tree 
[established  Zedekiah  oa  the  throne,  and  gave  him  the  means  of  prosper- 
ity as  his  vassal] .  And  it  grew,  and  became  a  spreading  vine  of  low  stature 
[not  a  lofty  cedar,  but  a  low  vine  ;  that  is,  a  tributary  king] ,  whose  branches 
turned  towards  him  [towards  Nebuchadnezzar,  as  dependent  upon  him] , 
and  the  roots  thereof  were  under  him  [under  Nebuchadnezzar,  as  subject 
to  his  power]  :  so  it  became  a  vine,  and  brought  forth  branches,  and  shot 
forth  twigs.  -There  was  also  another  great  eagle  with  great  wings  and 
many  feathers  [Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt]  :  and  behold  this  vine  did  bend 
her  roots  towards  him  [Zedekiah  turned  away  his  confidence  from  Nebu- 
chadnezzar to  Pharaoh],  and  shot  forth  her  branches  towards  him,  that 
he  might  water  it  by  the  furrows  of  her  plantation.  It  was  planted  [had 
been  planted  by  Nebuchadnezzar]  in  a  good  soil  by  great  waters,  that  it 
might  bring  forth  branches,  and  that  it  might  bear  fruit,  that  it  might  be 
a  goodly  vine  [fidelity  to  Nebuchadnezzar  would  have  made  Zedekiah  j^ros- 
perous] .  Say  thou.  Thus  saith  the  Lord  God :  Shall  it  prosper  ?  [now 
that  it  bends  towards  the  second  eagle]  shall  he  [Nebuchadnezzar]  not 
pull  up  the  roots  thereof,  that  it  wither  ?  It  shall  wither  in  all  the  leaves 
of  her  spring,  even  without  gi-eat  power  or  many  people  to  pluck  it  uj)  by 
the  roots  thereof  [the  work  of  plucking  it  up  will  be  easy,  not  requiring  a 
numerous  force].  Yea,  behold,  being  planted  shall  it  prosper?  shall  it 
not  utterly  wither  when  the  east  wind  toueheth  it  ?  [a  new  figure  to  repre- 
sent its  destruction]  it  shall  wither  in  the  furrows  where  it  grew." 

There  is  a  class  of  allegories  in  the  Old  Testament  which  represent  tlie 


5G0  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

relation  of  God  to  his  people  under  the  figure  of  husband  and  wife.  Such 
are  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  the  two  remarkable  allegories  in  Ezekiel 
(chapters  16  and  23).  The  luxuriant  fulness  of  imagery  in  these  allegories 
does  not  admit  of  interpretation  in  detail.  The  general  scope  only  of  the 
images  is  to  be  taken  into  account,  since  this  contains  the  essential  idea. 

In  the  free  style  of  the  scri23tural  writers  the  allegory  admits  of  the. 
introduction  of  literal  clauses  ("  Tliou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and  planted 
it,"  Psa.  80  : 8),  and  also  of  explanatory  clauses,  though  not  so  readily  as  the 
parable.     See  examples  in  Isa.  5:7;  John  10  : 9,  11,  14. 

7.  The  scriptural  parables  have  a  rich  variety  of  form,  some- 
times approaching  to  that  of  the  allegory,  when  the  interpreta- 
tion must  be  upon  the  same  general  principle.  In  its  pure 
form,  however,  the  parable  does  not,  like  the  allegory,  repre- 
sent directly  the  higher  spiritual  truth,  but  is  simply  a  narra- 
tive to  illustrate  it.  It  may  be  introduced  in  the  absolute 
form,  like  the  parable  of  the  barren  fig-tree  (Luke  13 : 6-9) ; 
or,  more  commonly,  in  the  shape  of  a  similitude,  thus :  "  The 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  likened  unto  a  man  which  sowed  good 
seed  in  his  field"  (Matt.  13:24);  "Whereunto  shall  we  hken 
the  kingdom  of  God?  or  with  what  comparison  shall  we  com- 
pare it?"  Mark  4:30.  It  may  be  left  without  explanation, 
but  more  commonly  an  explanatory  remark  is  added.  So  to 
the  parable  of  the  two  sons  whom  the  father  asked  to  work  in 
his  vineyard  is  added  the  application:  "Verily  I  say  unto 
you,  that  the  publicans  and  the  harlots  go  into  the  kingdom  of 
God  before  you"  (Matt.  21:28-31);  and  the  parable  of  the 
Pharisee  and  publican  is  both  introduced  and  followed  by  an 
explanatory  clause  (Luke  18:9-14).  All  such  clauses  are  of 
the  highest  importance  for  the  interpretation  of  the  parables 
to  which  they  are  annexed.  In  the  interpretation  of  a  parable, 
the  first  and  most  important  thing  is  to  ascertain  the  spiritual 
truth  which  it  is  intended  to  inculcate.  How  far  a  spiritual 
significance  is  to  be  sought  for  the  particular  incidents  of  par- 
ables is  a  question  to  be  determined  separately  for  each,  accord- 
ing to  its  nature. 

In  the  parable  of  the  sower,  which  our  Lord  himself  interpreted  (Matt. 
13  : 3-8,  19-23),  all  the  parts  are  essential,  since  the  four  different  kinds  of 


BIBLICAL  INTERPEETATION.  5(jl 

soil  represent  four  different  classes  of  hearers.  So  in  the  parable  of  ihe 
tares  in  the  field  (Matt.  13  :  24-30,  37-43),  the  good  seed  sown  by  the  owner 
of  the  field,  the  tares  sow^i  by  his  enemy,  the  separation,  at  the  time  of 
harvest,  of  the  tares  from  the  wheat,  the  burning  of  the  tares,  and  the 
gathering  of  the  wheat  into  the  barn,  are  all  main  incidents  in  its  spiritual 
application.  Not  so  in  the  parable  of  the  ten  virgins  (Matt,  25  :1-13),  of 
which  our  Lord  himself  has  given  the  scope,  and,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  the 
only  scope  :  *' Watch,  therefore,  for  ye  know  neither  the  day  nor  the  hour 
wherein  the  Son  of  man  cometh."  If  we  go  farther,  and  inquire  what  is 
the  sj)iritaal  meaning  of  the  lamps  and  oil-vessels,  of  the  equal  division  of 
the  virgins  into  five  wise  and  five  foolish,  of  the  request  of  the  foolish  vir- 
gins that  the  wise  would  give  them  oil,  and  the  answer  of  the  wise  virgins, 
we  run  into  useless  speculations.  All  these  particulars  belong  to  the  dra- 
l^eiy  of  the  j^arable,  and  are  intended  to  make  the  story  natural  and  prob- 
able. 

In  the  pure  form  of  the  parable,  the  personages  introduced  to  illustrate 
God's  ways  of  providence  and  grace  do  not,  as  in  the  allegory,  directly 
represent  God  himself.  It  is  not  necessary,  therefore,  that  there  be  in  all 
cases  a  correspondence  between  their  character  and  that  of  the  holy  God. 
It  is  sufficient  if  the  words  and  deeds  ascribed  to  them  truly  illustrate  the 
sph'itual  principle  in  question.  In  the  parable  of  the  unforgiving  servant 
(Matt.  18  : 23-35),  his  lord  "commanded  him  to  be  sold,  and  his  wife  and 
children,  and  all  that  he  had,  and  x^ayment  to  be  made  "  (ver.  25)  ;  and  after- 
wards'he  "was  wroth,  and  delivered  him  to  the  tormentors,  tiU  he  should 
pay  all  that  was  due  unto  him"  (ver.  34).  We  need  not  trouble  ourselves 
about  the  reasonableness  of  these  acts  on  the  part  of  cm  earthly  lord.  It  is 
sufficient  for  the  end  of  the  j^arable  that  they  were  in  accordance  with  the 
usages  of  the  age,  aud  thus  illustrated  the  great  truth  which  the  parable 
was  intended  to  enforce  :  "So  likewise  shall  my  heavenly  Father  do  also 
unto  you,  if  ye  from  your  hearts  forgive  not  every  one  his  brother  their 
trespasses  "  (ver.  35).  We  have  still  more  forcible  illustrations  of  this  prin- 
ciple in  such  i^arables  as  those  of  the  importunate  friend  (Luke  11 : 5-8), 
the  unjust  judge  (Luke  18  : 1-8),  and  the  unfaithful  steward  (Luke  16  : 1-9). 
The  Saviour  does  not  compare  God  to  an  indolent  friend,  w  ho  will  not 
arise  to  accommodate  his  neighbor  with  bread  till  he  is  forced  to  do  so  by 
his  importunity  ;  nor  to  an  unjust  judge,  who  fears  not  God  nor  regards 
men.  But  he  clraivs  illustrations  from  their  conduct  of  the  efficacy  of  im- 
portunate prayer ;  adding,  at  the  conclusion  of  each  jjarable,  its  scope  : 
"And  I  say  unto  you,  Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you;  seek,  and  ye  shall 
find  ;  knock,  and  it  shall  be  oi^encd  unto  you"  (Luke  11 :9) ;  "And  shall 
not  God  avenge  his  own  elect,  which  cry  day  and  night  unto  him,  though 
he  bear  long  with  them  ?"  Luke  18  :  7.  In  the  parable  of  the  unfaithful 
steward,  our  Lord  introduces  a  fraudulent  transaction — a  transaction  so 

24* 


562  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

manifestly  fraudulent  that  there  is  no  danger  of  our  thinking  that  it  could 
have  his  approbation — that  he  may  thus  illustrate  the  importance  of  pru- 
dent provision  for  the  future.  By  allowing  each  of  his  lord's  debtors  to 
diminish  the  amount  due  from  him,  he  gains  their  favor,  that  in  time  of 
need  he  may  be  received  into  their  houses.  For  the  right  apjirehension  of 
the  parable,  the  words  of  the  eighth  verse  are  of  primary  importance : 
"And  the  lord  [the  master  of  the  steward]  commended  the  unjust  stew- 
ard, because  he  had  done  wisely"  [prudently,  as  the  Greek  word  means]. 
Unjust  as  the  steward's  conduct  was,  he  could  not  but  commend  it  as  a 
l)rudent  transaction  for  the  end  which  he  had  in  view.  Our  Saviour  adds  : 
"For  the  children  of  this  world  are  in  their  generation  [more  exactly, 
towards  or  in  respect  to  their  own  generation  ;  that  is,  in  dealing  with  men 
of  their  own  sort]  wiser  than  the  children  of  light."  The  steward  and  his 
lord's  debtors  were  all  "children  of  this  world,"  and  the  transaction  be- 
tween them  was  conducted  upon  worldly  principles.  Our  Saviour  would 
have  "  the  children  of  light " — God's  holy  children,  who  live  and  act  in  the 
sphere  of  heavenly  light — provident  of  their  everlasting  welfare  in  the  use 
which  they  make  of  this  world's  goods,  as  this  steward  was  of  his  earthly 
welfare  when  he  should  be  put  out  of  his  stewardship.  He  accordingly 
adds,  as  the  scope  of  the  parable  (ver.  9)  :  "Make  to  yourselves  friends  of 
[by  the  right  use  of]  the  mammon  of  unrighteousness  [so  called  as  being 
with  unrighteous  men  the  great  object  of  pursuit,  and  too  commonly 
sought,  moreover,  by  unrighteous  means]  ;  that  Avhen  ye  fail  [are  discharged 
from  your  stewardship  by  death] ,  they  may  receive  you  [that  is,  the  friends 
whom  ye  have  made  by  bestowing  your  earthly  riches  in  deeds  of  love  and 
mercy]  into  everlasting  habitations."  Our  Lord  uses  the  words,  "they 
may  receive  you, "  in  allusion  to  the  steward's  language  :  ' '  they  may  receive 
me  into  their  houses. "  They  do  not  receive  us  by  any  right  or  authority 
of  their  own,  for  this  belongs  to  Christ  alone  ;  but  they  receive  us  in  the 
sense  that  they  bear  witness  before  the  throne  of  Christ  to  our  deeds  of 
love  and  mercy,  by  which  is  manifested  the  reality  of  our  faith,  and  thus 
our  title,  through  grace,  to  everlasting  habitations.  Compare  the  remark- 
able passage  in  Matt.  25  :  34^6,  which  furnishes  a  true  key  to  the  present 
parable. 

8.  To  determine  whether  a  symbol  is  a  real  transaction  or  seen 
only  in  vision,  we  must  consider  both  its  nature  and  the  context. 
When  Ezekiel,  at  God's  command,  visits  the  temple-court,  digs 
in  its  wall,  and  sees  the  abominations  practised  there  (chap.  8), 
we  know  from  his  own  words  (ver.  3)  that  the  whole  transaction 
was  "in  the  visions  of  God."  So  also  the  remarkable  vision  of 
dry  bones.     Chap.  37:1-14.     But  the  symbolical  action  that 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  5G3 

follows — tlie  joining  of  two  sticks  into  one — seems  to  be  repre- 
sented as  real;  for  the  people  ask  concerning  it:  "Wilt  thou 
not  tell  us  what  thou  meanest  by  these?"  (ver.  18),  and  the  two 
sticks  are  in  the  prophet's  hand  "before  their  eyes"  (ver.  20). 
The  nature  of  the  S3'mbolical  transaction  recorded  in  Jer. 
32  :  6-12 — the  purchase  of  Ilanameel's  field — with  the  accom- 
panying historical  circumstances,  shows  that  it  was  real.  From 
the  nature  of  the  vision  of  the  chariot  of  God,  on  the  contrary, 
which  Ezekiel  saw  (chap.  1 :  10),  as  well  as  from  the  accompa- 
nying notices  (chaps.  1  : 1 ;  8  : 1-4),  we  know  that  it  was  repre- 
sented to  the  prophet's  inner  sense,  not  seen  with  his  outward 
eyes.  The  moral  character  of  the  transactions  recorded  by 
Hosea  (chaps.  1-3)  has  led  commentators  to  decide  against 
their  literal  occurrence. 

In  some  cases  we  must  remain  in  doubt  whether  the  symboHcal  trans- 
actions are  real  or  seen  in  vision.  How  are  we  to  understand,  for  example, 
the  transactions  recorded  in  Isa.  chap.  20  ;  in  Jer.  chaj).  13  : 1-11 ;  in 
Ezek,  chap.  4  ?  Concerning  such  examples  expositors  will  judge  differ- 
ently ;  but  in  either  way  of  understanding  them,  their  meaning  and  the 
instructions  which  they  furnish  are  the  same. 

The  subject  of  symbols  will  come  up  again  in  connection 
with  that  of  prophecy.  At  present  we  consider  simply  the 
general  principles  upon  which  they  are  to  be  interioreted.  Here 
we  are  to  be  guided  first  of  all  by  the  writer's  own  explanations. 
Where  these  are  wanting  we  must  carefully  study  the  nature  of 
the  figures  used,  and  the  connections  in  which  they  occur. 

The  sacred  writers  very  commonly  indicate  the  meaning  of  the  symbols 
which  they  employ.  Thus  the  prophet  Isaiah  is  directed  to  loose  the  sack- 
cloth from  his  loins,  and  put  off  his  shoe  from  his  foot,  walking  naked  and 
barefoot.  Chap.  20  : 2.  Then  follows  the  explanation  of  this  symbolical 
transaction  :  "Like  as  my  servant  Isaiah  hath  walked  naked  and  barefoot 
three  years  for  a  sign  and  wonder  upon  Egypt  and  Ethiopia ;  so  shall  the 
king  of  Assyria  lead  away  the  Egyptians  prisoners,  and  the  Ethiopians 
captives,  young  and  old,  naked  and  barefoot,"  etc.  (ver.  3,  4).  For  other 
examples  see  the  symbol  of  the  girdle  (Jer.  13 : 1-7  compared  with  ver. 
8-11)  ;  of  the  purchase  of  Hanameel's  field  (Jer.  32  :  6-12  compared  witli 
ver.  13-15)  ;  of  the  removal  of  household  stuff  (Ezek.  12  : 3-7  compared 


564  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

with  ver.  8-12) ;  of  tlie  ijliimb-line  (Amos  7  :  7,  8)  ;  of  the  four  horns  and 
four  "smiths  (Zech,  1:18-21);  and  many  other  symbolical  transactions 
which  will  readily  occur  to  the  student  of  Scripture. 

But  sometimes  the  symbol  is  given  without  an  explanation,  or  with 
only  an  obscure  intimation  of  its  meaning.  The  prophet  Amos  has  a  vis- 
ion of  grasshoppers,  and  afterwards  of  a  devouring  fire,  with  only  a  gen- 
eral intimation  that  they  denote  heavy  calamities,  which  the  Lord  in  his 
pity  will  avert  in  answer  to  prayer.  Amos  7  : 1-6.  Here  the  nature  of  the 
symbols,  in  connection  with  the  known  situation  of  the  Israelitish  people, 
shows  that  they  represent  the  general  desolation  of  the  land  by  foreign 
enemies.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  adds  no  interpretation  to  his  vision  of  the 
Lord  enthroned  in  glory  upon  the  firmament  above  the  chariot  with  four 
cherubim  and  four  living  wheels  full  of  eyes,  in  the  midst  of  which  a  bright 
fire  glows  and  Ughtnings  blaze.  Chaps.  1,  10.  From  a  careful  study  of 
the  nature  of  this  magnificent  imagery  we  may  infer  with  probability  that 
tlie  cherubim  with  their  Avheels,  moving  every  way  with  the  rapidity  of 
a  flash  of  lightning,  denote  all  the  agencies  and  instrumentalities  by  which 
God  administers  his  government  over  the  world,  which  are  absolutely  at 
his  command,  and  execute  with  unerring  certainty  all  his  high  purposes. 
The  four  faces  of  the  cherubim,  moreover,  which  answer  to  the  four  prin- 
cipal divisions  of  hving  beings  among  the  Hebrews,  seem  to  represent  tlie 
fulness  of  their  endowments.  The  meaning  of  Ezekiel's  vision  of  a  New 
Jerusalem,  mth  its  temple  and  altar,  comes  more  properly  under  the  head 
of  prophecy.  Some  of  the  symbols  in  the  book  of  Zechariah  are  expound- 
ed with  beautiful  clearness,  as  that  of  the  two  ohve-trees.  Chap.  4  : 1-10. 
Of  others  the  meaning  is  only  hinted  at  in  an  enigmatical  way ;  so  that 
their  interx)retation  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  and  uncertainty.  As 
examples  we  may  refer  to  the  symbol  of  the  ephah  (chap.  5  :5-ll) ;  of  the 
four  chariots  coming  out  from  between  two  mountains  of  brass  with  horses 
of  different  colors  (chap.  6  : 1-9  ;  of  the  two  staves.  Beauty  and  Bands,  with 
which  the  jDrophet  in  vision  is  commanded  to  feed  "the  flock  of  the  slaugh- 
ter," and  which  he  is  afterwards  to  break  (chap.  11  :4-14).  For  the  de- 
tails in  the  interpretation  of  these  and  other  difficult  symbols  the  reader 
must  be  referred  to  the  commentaries.  Our  limits  will  only  allow  us  to 
indicate  the  general  i3rinciples  upon  which  the  expositor  must  proceed. 

9.  There  is  a  class  of  scriptural  symbols  which  may  be 
called  numerical.  Thus  seven  is  the  well-kuown  symbol  of  com- 
pleteness, four  of  universality,  tivelve  of  God's  people.  See 
Chap.  32i,  No.  5.  Under  this  head  fall  also  those  passages  in 
which  a  day  is  put  for  a  year,  or  for  an  indefinitely  long  period 
of  time.     One  of  the  most  certain  examples  is  Daniel's  proph-v 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  535 

ecy  of  tlie  seventy  iveeks  that  were  to  precede  the  death  of  the 
Messiah  (chap.  9 :  24-27),  for  the  details  of  which  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  commentators.  Upon  the  same  principle  we 
mnst,  in  all  probability,  interpret  the  "  time  and  times  and  divi- 
ding of  time,"  that  is,  three  and  a  half  years  (Dan.  7  :  25) ;  the 
"forty  and  two  months"  (Kev.  11:2;  13:5);  and  the  "thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  threescore  days"  (Rev.  11:3;  12:6). 
Compare  Ezekiel  4 :  4-8,  in  which  symbolical  transaction  a  day 
is  expressly  put  as  the  symbol  of  a  year.  On  the  symbolical 
interpretation  of  the  six  days  of  creation,  see  in  Chap.  19, 
No.  6. 


566  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

SECOND  DIVISION. 
INTERPRETATION  VIEWED  ON  THE  DIVJNE  SIDE. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

The   Unity  of   Revelation. 

1.  "  Known  unto  God  are  all  his  works  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world;"  and  therefore  they  constitute  together  a  self- 
consistent  whole.  To  receive  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  contain- 
ing a  revelation  from  God  is  to  acknowledge  that  they  possess 
an  essential  and  all-pervading  unity.  Whoever  speaks  timidly 
and  hesitatingly  of  the  essential  harmony  between  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New,  either  refuses  to  acknowledge  both  as 
given  by  inspiration  of  God,  or  he  apprehends  this  great  fun- 
damental truth  only  in  a  confused  and  imperfect  manner.  If 
God  spake  by  Moses  and  the  prophets,  as  well  as  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles,  it  is  vain  to  allege  any  contradiction  in  doc- 
trine or  spirit  between  the  former  and  the  latter.  So  abso- 
lutely certain  is  it  that  the  Saviour  and  his  apostles  built  on 
the  foundation  of  the  Old  Testament,  that  to  deny  its  divine 
authority  is  to  deny  that  of  the  New  Testament  also. 

2.  But  the  unity  of  revelation,  like  that  which  pervades  all 
the  other  works  of  God,  is  a  unity  in  the  midst  of  diversity — di- 
versity in  its  contemporaneous  parts,  but  especially  in  its  prog- 
ress. Illustrations  without  number  are  at  hand.  The  history 
of  a  plant  of  wheat,  from  the  time  when  the  kernel  is  sown  in 
the  earth  to  the  harvest,  has  perfect  unity  of  plan.  But  how 
unlike  in  outward  form  are  the  tender  blade,  the  green  stalk, 
and  the  ripened  ear  !  The  year  constitutes  a  self-consistent 
whole.     But  can  any  thing  be  more  dissimilar  in  form  than 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION".  567 

spring  and  autumn?  Yet  no  one  thinks  of  finding  a  want  of 
harmony  between  the  fragrant  blossoms  of  the  former,  and  the 
ripened  fruit  of  the  latter.  The  path  to  the  harvest  lies  through 
the  blossoms.  Geologists  dwell  at  great  length  on  the  varied 
conditions  through  which  our  planet  has  passed,  and  the  won- 
derfully diversified  forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  corre- 
sponding to  these  several  conditions.  Yet  in  this  endless 
diversity  of  outward  form  they  recognize  from  first  to  last  a 
deep  underlying  unity  of  plan.  We  might,  then,  reasonably 
infer  beforehand  that  if  God  should  make  a  revelation  of  him- 
self to  men,  it  would  have  not  only  unity  but  diversity  of  out- 
ivard  form,  especially  diversity  of  i^rogress.  The  fact  that  the 
revelation  contained  in  the  Bible  has  such  diversity  is  one  of 
the  seals  of  its  genuineness. 

•  3.  We  may  considei'  this  unity  in  diversity  in  respect  to  the 
form  of  God's  kingdom.  From  Adam  to  Abraham  God  admin- 
istered the  affairs  of  the  human  family  as  a  whole,  without  any 
visible  organization  of  a  church  as  distinct  from  the  world  at 
large.  From  Abraham  to  Moses  his  church — using  the  term 
church  in  a  general  sense — existed  in  a  patriarchal  form.  With 
tlie  beginning  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation  he  put  it  into  the 
form  of  a  state,  of  which  he  was  the  supreme  head  and  law- 
giver, while  its  earthly  rulers  exercised  under  him  all  the  func- 
tions of  civil  offices,  the  bearing  of  the  sword  included.  When 
Christ  came,  he  separated  the  church  from  the  state,  and  gave 
it  its  present  spiritual  and  universal  organization.  In  all  this 
diversity  of  outward  form  we  recognize  the  progress  of  one 
grand  self-consistent  plan. 

4.  We  may  now  go  back  again  to  the  beginning,  and  consider 
the  diversity  in  the  forms  of  public  loorship — the  simple  offer- 
ing of  Abel,  who  "brought  of  the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  and  of 
the  fat  thereof,"  the  altars  of  the  patriarchs,  the  gorgeous  cer- 
emonial of  the  Mosaic  economy  with  its  priesthood  and  sacrifi- 
ces, "  the  service  of  song  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  "  added  by 
David,  the  synagogue  service  of  later  times,  and,  finally,  the 
spiritual  priesthood  of  believers  under  the  New  Testament, 


56S  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

whose  office  is  "to  offer  up  spiritual  sacrifices  acceptable  to 
God  b}^  Jesus  Christ "  (1  Pet.  2:5);  and  show  that  through  all 
this  variety  of  outward  form  the  essence  of  God's  service  has 
ever  remained  unchanged,  so  that  the  example  of  primitive 
believers  is  a  model  for  our  imitation.     Heb.  chap.  11. 

5.  We  may  show,  again,  that  the  same  manifoldness  belongs 
to  i\\Q  forms  of  labor  devolved  on  God's  servants  in  different  ages. 
The  work  assigned  to  Noah  was  not  that  of  Abraham ;  nor  was 
Abraham's  work  that  of  Moses ;  nor  the  work  of  Moses  that  of 
David;  nor  David's  work  that  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Eze- 
kiel ;  nor  did  any  one  of  the  Old  Testament  believers  receive 
the  broad  commission :  "  Go  ye  into  all  the  world,  and  preach 
the  gospel  to  every  creature."  They  could  not  receive  such  a 
commission,  for  the  way  was  not  yet  prepared.  Abraham  must 
sojourn  in  the  land  of  j)romise  "  as  in  a  strange  country,  dwell- 
ing in  tabernacles  with  Isaac  and  Jacob"  (Heb.  11 : 9) ;  Moses 
must  lead  Israel  out  of  Egypt,  and  be  God's  mediator  for  the 
law  given  on  Sinai ;  Joshua  must  take  possession  of  the  land  of 
promise  and  David  maintain  it,  sword  in  hand;  the  prophets 
must  foretell  the  future  glories  of  Christ's  kingdom,  not  preach 
it,  as  did  the  apostles,  to  all  nations.  But  in  the  divine  plan 
this  manifoldness  of  service  constitutes  a  self-consistent  and 
harmonious  Avhole. 

6.  The  same  unity  in  cfiversity  belongs  to  ihe  sinrit  of  revela- 
tion. Failing  to  apprehend  the  character  of  God  in  its  entire- 
ness,  Marcion  rent  the  seamless  garment  of  divine  perfection 
into  two  parts,  the  one  consisting  of  justice^  which  he  assigned 
to  the  "  Demiurge  "  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  other  of  goodness y 
as  the  attribute  of  the  supreme  God  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  did  not  see  that  God's  character  is  alike  infinite  on  both 
sides ;  that  his  justice  is  a  justice  of  infinite  goodness,  and  his 
goodness  a  goodness  of  infinite  justice.  Hence  he  arrayed  in 
opposition  to  each  other  two  caricatures  of  deity,  the  one  drawn 
from  the  Old  Testament,  the  other  from  the  New ;  an  error  in 
which  he  has  had  too  many  imitators  in  modern  times.  To  see 
the  harmony  of  the  spirit  that  pervades  the  Holy  Scriptures 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  569 

from  beginning  to  end  in  respect  to  the  Divine  cJiaracter,  we 
sliQulcl  take  a  eomprehensive  instead  of  a  partial  view  of  their 
representations.  It  is  true  tkat  the  Old  Testament  describes 
God  as  infinite  in  holiness  and  inflexibly  just.  But  it  also 
describes  him  as  "  the  Lord  God,  merciful  and  gracious,  long- 
suffering;  and  abundant  in  goodness  and  truth,  keeping  mercy 
for  thousands,  forgiving  iniquity  and  transgression  and  sin.'* 
It  is  true  that  God's  covenant  under  the  Old  Testament  was 
restricted  to  a  single  nation ;  but  this  was,  as  has  been  hereto- 
fore shown,  preparatory  to  a  universal  dispensation  of  mercy, 
as  when  a  general  seizes  one  strong  position  with  a  view  to 
the  conquest  of  an  entire  region.  Chap.  18.  It  is  true,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  New  Testament  is,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  a 
revelation  of  God's  mercy  through  Jesus  Christ.  But  it  is  a 
discriminating  mercy,  through  which  God's  awful  hohness  and 
justice  shine  with  dazzling  brightness.  It  is  a  mercy  shown 
not  at  the  expense  of  justice,  but  in  perfect  harmony  with  it ; 
a  mercy  sternly  restricted,  moreover,  to  those  who  comply  with 
the  conditions  on  which  it  is  offered.  The  gospel  is  a  plan' of 
salvation,  not  of  condemnation ;  "  for  God  sent  not  his  Son 
into  the  world  to  condemn  the  world,  but  that  the  world  through 
him  might  be  saved."  John  3  :  17.  Yet  it  brings  condemna- 
tion to  those  who  reject  it ;  for  the  Saviour  immediately  adds 
(ver.  18) :  "  He  that  belie veth  on  him,  is  not  condemned ;  but 
he  that  believeth  not  is  condemned  already,  because  he  hath 
not  believed  in  the  name  of  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God." 
It  is  in  the  New  Testament,  not  in  the  Old,  that  we  find  the 
most  awful  declarations  of  God's  wrath  against  the  finally  im- 
penitent, some  of  them  proceeding,  too,  from  the  lips  of  the 
compassionate  Saviour :  "  The  Lord  Jesus  shall  be  revealed 
from  heaven,  with  his  mighty  angels,  in  flaming  fire,  taking 
vengeance  on  them  that  know  not  God,  and  that  obey  not  the 
gospel  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ:  who  shall  be  punished  with 
everlasting  destruction  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and 
from  the  glory  of  his  power"  (2  Thess.  1 : 7,  9) ;  "He  that  be- 
lieveth not  the  Son,  shall  not  see  life;  but  the  wrath  of  God 


570  COMPA.NION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

abideth  on  liim  "  (John  3  :  36) ;  "  These  shall  go  away  into  ever- 
lasting punishment,  but  the  righteous  into  life  eternal"  (Matt. 
25 :  46). 

7.  The  same  harmony  of  spirit  pervades  both  Testaments 
in  respect  to  the  ivay  of  salvation.  On  this  momentous  ques- 
tion the  teachings  of  the  New  Testament  are  fuller  than  those 
of  the  Old,  but  never  in  contradiction  with  them.  The  Old 
Testament  teaches  that  men  are  saved,  not  from  the  merit  of 
their  good  works,  but  from  God's  mercy :  the  New  Testament 
adds  a  glorious  revelation  respecting  the  ground  of  this  mercy 
in  Jesus  Christ.  To  exhibit  in  a  clear  light  the  reality  of  this 
harmony,  let  us  take  a  passage  of  the  New  Testament  which 
embodies  in  itself  the  substance  of  the  way  of  salvation,  and 
compare  with  it  the  declarations  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
following  will  be  appropriate  :  "  Not  by  works  of  righteousness 
which  we  have  done,  but  according  to  his  mercy  he  saved  us, 
by  the  washing  of  regeneration,  and  renewing  of  the  Holy 
Ghost."     Titus  3  :  5. 

'  Not  by  ivorks  of  righteousness  tvhich  ive  have  done,  hut  accord- 
ing to  his  mercy  he  saved  us.  "  The  Lord  did  not  set  his  love 
upon  you,  nor  choose  you,  because  ye  were  more  in  number 
than  any  people ;  for  ye  were  the  fewest  of  all  people :  but 
because  the  Lord  loved  you,  and  because  he  would  keep  the 
oath  which  he  had  sworn  unto  your  fathers,  hath  the  Lord 
brought  you  out  with  a  mighty  hand,  and  redeemed  you  out 
of  the  house  of  bondmen,  from  the  hand  of  Pharaoh  king  of 
Egypt"  (Deut.  7:7,  8);  "For  thy  name's  sake,  O  Lord,  pardon 
mine  iniquity,  for  it  is  great "  (Psa.  25  :  11) ;  "  Have  mercy 
upon  me,  O  God,  according  to  thy  loving- kindness;  according 
unto  the  multitude  of  thy  tender  mercies  blot  out  my  trans- 
gressions" (Psa.  51 : 1) ;  "I  do  not  this  for  your  sakes,  O  house 
of  Israel,  but  for  my  holy  name's  sake,  which  ye  have  pro- 
faned among  the  heathen  whither  ye  went"  (Ezek.  36:22); 
"We  do  not  present  our  supplications  before  thee  for  our  right- 
eousness, but  for  thy  great  mercies"  (Dan.  9  :  18). 

By  the  washing  of  regeneration,  and  reneiving  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPEETATION.  571 

"  Behold  thou  desirest  truth  in  the  inward  parts ;  and  in  the 
hidden  part  thou  shalt  make  me  to  know  wisdom.  Purge  me 
with  hyssop  and  I  shall  be  clean;  wash  me,  and  I  shall  be 
whiter  than  snow."  "  Create  in  me  a  clean  heart,  O  God ;  and 
renew  a  right  spirit  within  me.  Cast  me  not  away  from  thy 
presence  ;  and  take  not  thy  Holy  Spirit  from  me  "  (Psa.  51 :  6, 
7,  10,  11) ;  "  I  will  put  my  law  in  their  inward  parts,  and 
write  it  in  their  hearts ;  and  wdll  be  their  God,  and  they  shall 
be  my  people"  (Jer.  31 :  33) ;  "  Then  will  I  sprinkle  clean  water 
upon  you,  and  ye  shall  be  clean :  from  all  your  filthiness,  and 
from  all  your  idols,  will  I  cleanse  you.  A  new  heart  also  will 
I  give  you,  and  a  new  spirit  will  I  put  within  you :  and  I  will 
take  away  the  stony  heart  out  of  your  flesh,  and  I  will  give 
you  a  heart  of  flesh.  And  I  will  put  my  Spirit  within  you,  and 
cause  you  to  walk  in  my  statutes,  and  ye  shall  keep  my  judg- 
ments, and  do  them  "  (Ezek.  36  :  25-27). 

8.  The  stern  character  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation  is  freely 
admitted.  As  a  preparatory  dispensation,  severity  belonged 
appropriately  to  it.  "  The  law,"  says  Paul,  "  was  our  school- 
master to  bring  us  unto  Christ,  that  we  might  be  justified  by 
faith."  Gal.  3  :  24.  Its  office  was  to  educate  the  human  con- 
science to  such  a  point  that  it  should  be  prepared  for  the  full 
revelation  of  God's  mercy  in  Christ.  We  may  concede  the 
prominence  of  God's  justice  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  his 
mercy  in  the  New ;  but  we  must  never  forget  that  neither  part 
of  divine  revelation  is  complete  in  itself.  It  is  only  when  we 
view  them  in  their  connection  with  each  other,  as  parts  of  one 
great  whole,  that  we  discern  in  them  an  all-pervading  unity 
and  harmony  of  spirit. 

From  the  unity  of  revelation  some  inferences  may  be  drawn 
of  a  very  practical  character,  especially  in  reference  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament. 

9.  Each  particular  communication  from  God  to  man  must  he, 
in  Us  "place  and  measure,  'perfect.    For  it  proceeded  from  the  infi- 


572  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

nite  mind  of  God,  who  understood  at  the  beginning  the  whole 
plan  of  redemption,  and  who,  when  he  made  the  first  revela- 
tion concerning  it,  knew  all  that  w^as  afterwards  to  follow,  and 
said  and  did,  in  the  most  perfect  way,  what  was  proper  to  be 
said  and  done  at  the  time.  The  revelations  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
therefore,  admit  of  a  stupendous  development,  but  no  rectifica- 
tion or  improvement.  The  very  earliest  of  them  contain  the 
germs  of  all  that  is  to  follow  without  any  admixture  of  false- 
hood. There  is  a  holding  back  of  the  full  light  reserved  for 
future  ages,  but  no  mist  of  error — nothing  which,  fairly  inter- 
preted, will  ever  need  to  be  retracted.  For  this  reason  the 
very  earliest  of  God's  communications  to  men  retain  for  us, 
who  live  in  these  latter  days,  their  pristine  freshness  and  power. 
Take,  for  example,  the  great  primitive  prophecy :  '''  I  will  put 
enmity  between  thee  and  the  woman,  and  between  thy  seed  and 
her  seed;  it  shall  bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  slialt  bruise  his  heel." 
Gen.  3  :  15.  We  can  find  no  words  more  pertinent  to  describe 
the  mighty  conflict  now  going  on  between  the  kingdom  of  God 
and  that  of  Satan.  What  are  they  but  a  condensation  into  one 
sentence  of  the  history  of  redemption — a  flash  of  light  from  the 
third  heavens,  w^hich  discloses  at  a  glance  man's  destiny  from 
Eden  to  the  trump  of  the  archangel  ?  And  so  is  it  also  with 
the  later  prophecies  concerning  Christ  and  his  kingdom.  What 
is  true  of  the  revelations  of  the  Old  Testament  holds  good  of 
all  its  institutions.  In  their  place,  and  with  reference  to  the  end 
which  they  proposed  to  accomplish,  they  Avere  all  perfect ;  were 
the  best  that  could  be  given  under  existing  circumstances.  At 
the  foundation  of  all  our  reasonings  concerning  the  appoint- 
ments of  the  Old  Testament  must  lie  the  axiom :  "  As  for  God 
his  way  is  perfect." 

10.  The  later  revelations  must  he  taken  as  the  true  exponents  of 
the  earlier.  This  is  but  saying  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  true 
and  proper  expositor  of  his  own  communications  to  men. 
Since,  as  we  liave  seen,  the  first  revelations  were  made  in  full 
view  of  all  that  was  to  follow,  the  later  revelations  must  be 
considered  not  as  a  mass  of  foreign  and  heterogeneous  tiiateri- 


BIBLICAL  INTEEPEETATION.  573 

als  superadded  to  the  original  prophecies,  but  as  a  true  expan- 
sion of  the  earher  prophecies  out  of  their  own  proper  sub- 
stance. For  example,  the  promise  made  to  Abraham :  "  In  thy 
seed  shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be  blessed"  (Geii.  22 :  18), 
is  not  so  much  a  new  promise  as  a  further  unfolding  of  the 
original  one :  "  It  shall  bruise  thy  head."  A  further  develop- 
ment of  the  same  promise  we  have  in  Nathan's  words  to  David : 
"  Thine  house  and  thy  kingdom  shall  be  established  for  ever 
before  thee,  thy  throne  shall  be  established  for  ever;"  and  in 
alb  the  bright  train  of  prophecies  in  which  the  glory  and  uni- 
versal dominion  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom  are  foretold  down  to 
the  day  of  Gabriel's  announcement  to  Mary  :  "  He  shall  be 
great,  and  shall  be  called  the  Son  of  the  Highest;  and  the 
Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the  throne  of  his  father  David. 
And  he  shall  reign  over  the  house  of  Jacob  for  ever;  and  of 
his  kingdom  there  shall  be  no  end."     Luke  1 :  32,  33. 

And  since  the  manifestation  of  God  in  the  flesh  is  the  cul- 
minating point  of  revelation,  it  follows  that  the  Lord  Jesus  and 
his  apostles,  whom  he  authoritatively  commissioned  to  unfold 
the  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  must  be,  in  a  special  sense,  the 
expositors  of  the  Old  Testament,  from  w^hose  interpretations, 
when  once  fairly  ascertained,  there  is  no  appeal.  The  attempt 
of  some  to  make  a  distinction  between  Christ's  authorit}^  and 
that  of  his  apostles  is  nugatory.  As  it  is  certain  that  our  Lord 
himself  could  not  have  been  in  error,  so  it  is  certain  also  tl^at 
he  would  not  have  commanded  his  apostles  to  teach  all  nations 
concerning  himself  and  his  doctrines,  and  have  further  given 
them,  in  the  possession  of  miraculous  powers,  the  broad  seal 
of  their  commission,  only  to  leave  them  subject  to  the  common 
prejudices  and  errors  of  their  age.  See  further  in  Chap.  7, 
Nos.  3,  4. 

11.  The  extent  of  meaning  contciined  in  a  given  revelation  must 
he  that  icliich  the  Holy  Spirit  intended.  It  is  not  to  be  limited, 
then,  by  the  apprehension  of  those  to  whom  it  w^as  originally 
made.  Earlier  prophecy  is,  at  least  in  many  cases,  framed  with 
a  view  to  the  subsequent  develoi^ment  of  ils  meaning.     Until 


574  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

such  development  is  made  by  God  himself,  either  in  the  way 
of  further  revelations,  or  indirectly  by  the  course  of  his  provi- 
dence, men's  apprehension  of  its  meaning,  though  it  may  be 
true  as  far  as  it  goes,  must  yet  be  inadequate.  To  cite  a  sin- 
gle passage  from  one  of  the  Old  Testament  prophecies:  "It 
hath  pleased  the  Lord  to  bruise  him ;  he  hath  put  him  to  grief ; 
when  thou  shalt  make  his  soul  an  offering  for  sin,  he  shall  see 
his  seed,  he  shall  prolong  his  days,  and  the  pleasure  of  the 
Lord  shall  prosper  in  his  hand."  Isa.  53  :  10.  No  one  will 
maintain  that  the  Jews  before  our  Lord's  advent  (all  carnal 
prejudices  aside)  could  have  had  that  apprehension  of  its  deep 
meaning  which  it  is  our  privilege  to  enjoy.  This  meaning  was 
contained  in  the  promise  from  the  first,  but  in  an  undeveloped 
form.  Accordingly  the  prophets  themselves  "inquired  and 
searched  diligently  "  concerning  the  import  of  their  utterances 
and  the  time  of  their  fulfilment.  1  Pet.  1 :  11.  They  who  deny 
the  reality  of  prophetic  inspiration  are  necessitated,  for  consis- 
tency's sake,  to  deny  also  the  principle  now  laid  down.  But  if 
revelation  be  a  true  communication  from  God  to  men,  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  believe  that  it  should  have  contained  from  the 
beginning  the  germs  of  mighty  events  in  the  distant  future,  the 
realization  of  which  in  -history  should  be,  in  connection  with 
further  revelations  from  God,  its  true  expositor. 

12.  The  more  obscure  dedaratioiis  of  Scripture  are  to  he  inter- 
prded  from  the  clearer.  A  single  passage  of  God's  word  occa- 
sionally gives  us  a  glimpse  of  some  great  truth  nowhere  else 
referred  to  in  Scripture.  Of  this  we  have  a  remarkable  exam- 
ple in  what  the  apostle  says  of  Christ's  delivering  up  the  king- 
dom to  the  Father  upon  the  completion  of  the  work  of  redemp- 
tion. 1  Cor.  15:24-28.  But  no  great  truth  relating  to  the 
way  qf  salvation  through  Christ  is  thus  taught  obscurely  and 
in  some  single  passage  of  Scripture.  Every  such  truth  per- 
vades the  broad  current  of  revelation,  and  shines  forth  from  its 
pages  so  clearly  that  no  candid  inquirer  can  fail  to  apprehend 
its  true  meaning.  If,  then,  wc  find  in  the  Bible  dark  and  diffi- 
cult passages,  they  must,  if  interpreted  at  all,  be  explained,  not 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  575 

in  contradiction  with  what  is  clearly  and  fully  taught,  but  in 
harmony  with  it.  This  is  but  saying  that,  instead  of  using 
what  is  obscure  to  darken  what  is  clearly  revealed,  we  should, 
as  far  as  possible,  illustrate  that  which  is  dark  by  that  which 
is  clear. 

The  Scriptures  teach,  for  example,  with  abundant  clearness,  that  Christ 
is  the  only  foundation  on  which  the  church  can  rest.  Isa.  28  :  16  ;  1  Cor. 
3:11;  Ephes.  2  :  20  ;  1  Pet.  2  : 6.  This  is,  indeed,  an  office  which  plainly 
requires  for  its  exercise  that  omnipotence,  and  that  supreme  power  in 
heaven  and  earth  which  are  expressly  ascribed  to  him.  Matt.  11  :  27  ; 
28  :  18  ;  John  5  :  19-30  ;  17  :  2  :  1  Cor.  15  ;  24-28  ;  Ephes.  1 :  20-23  ;  Phil. 
2  :  9-11 ;  Col.  1 :  15-19  ;  Heb.  1 :  3.  When,  therefore,  our  Lord  says  to 
Peter  :  "Thou  art  Peter  [that  is,  as  the  word  Peter  means  in  the  original, 
Thou  art  RocJc],  and  upon  this  rock  wiU  I  build  my  church  "  (Matt.  16  :  18), 
to  understand  Peter,  or  any  pretended  successor  of  Peter,  as  a  rock  in  any 
other  sense  than  as  an  eminent  instrument  in  Christ's  hand  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  his  church,  is  absurd  and  blasphemous. 

Again  :  Christ  gives  to  Peter  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  with 
power  to  bind  and  loose  (Matt.  16  :19),  and  elsewhere  the  same  power  is 
conferred  upon  all  the  apostles  (Matt.  18  :  18).  That  Peter  and  his  associ- 
ates in  the  apostleship  had  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  in  any  such 
sense  as  that  in  which  Christ  has  them  (Rev.  3:7);  that  is,  that  they  had 
authoritative  power  to  admit  their  fellow-sinners  to  heaven,  or  exclude 
them  from  heaven,  is  contrary  to  the  whole  tenor  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  everywhere  represents  Christ  as  the  supreme  Judge,  upon  whose 
decision  depends  the  everlasting  destiny  of  every  child  of  Adam.  Matt. 
7  :  21,  22  ;  16  :  27  ;  25  :  31-46  ;  John  17  :  2  ;  Acts  17  :  31 ;  2  Cor.  5  :  10). 
Christ's  words  concerning  the  keys  may  be  best  understood  of  the  special 
authority  which  he  bestowed  on  the  apostles,  as  inspired  teachers  and 
guides  of  his  primitive  church,  to  settle  all  questions  respecting  her.  For 
eminent  examples  of  the  exercise  of  this  power,  see  the  decisions  concern- 
ing Gentile  converts.  Acts  11  : 1-18  ;  15  : 1-29.  In  this  sense  the  gift  of  the 
keys  ceased  with  that  of  inspiration.  But  if,  as  some  think,  the  words 
may  be  understood  of  the  common  power  conferred  by  Christ  on  his 
churches  to  regulate  their  own  affairs,  to  administer  discipline,  and  to 
admit  or  exclude  from  their  communion,  the  power  continues  in  this  sense 
in  the  visible  church,  and  is  "valid  so  far  as  it  is  exercised  in  accordance 
with  God's  word. 

So  also  must  we  interpret  the  words  of  Christ  recorded  by  the  apostle 
John  :  "And  when  he  had  said  this,  he  breathed  on  them,  and  said  unto 
them,  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost ;  whosesoever  sins  ye  remit,  they  are 
remitted  unto  them;  and  whosesoever  sins  ye  retain,  they  are  retained." 


576  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Chap.  20  :  22,  23.  The  authoritative  forgiveness  of  sin  is  a  prerogative  of 
God  alone,  the  exercise  of  which  implies  omniscience  as  well  as  supreme 
authority  in  heaven  and  earth.  The  prerogative  of  remitting  and  retain- 
ing men's  sins  here  conferred  on  the  apostles  is  part  of  the  general  power 
of  binding  and  loosing  already  considered.  It  was  exercised  in  the  sphere 
of  the  visible  church  on  earth.  As  it  respects  the  actual  forgiveness  of  sin 
and  consequent  admission  of  the  soul  to  communion  with  God  here  and 
eternal  life  hereafter,  God's  ministers  can  only  declare  the  terms  of  salva- 
tion as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  gospel. 

The  same  general  principle  is  applicable  to  the  interpretation  of  all 
l^assages  containing  "things  hard  to  be  understood."  The  "unlearned 
and  unstable"  wrest  them,  by  taking  them  out  of  their  connection  and  in 
contradiction  to  the  general  tenor  of  God's  word.  But  the  candid  student 
of  Scripture  never  uses  that  which  is  difficult  in  revelation  to  obscure  that 
which  is  plain.  He  seeks,  on  the  contrary,  to  illumine  what  is  dark  by 
that  which  shines  with  a  clear  and  steady  light. 

13.  As  a  fitting  close  to  this  part  of  our  subject  we  add 
some  remarks  on  the  analogy  of  faith.  "  We  may  define  it  to 
be  that  general  rule  of  doctrine  which  is  deduced,  not  from  two 
or  three  parallel  passages,  but  from  the  harmony  of  all  parts  of 
Scripture  in  the  fundamental  points  of  faith  and  practice." 
Home's  Introduct.,  vol.  1.  p.  269,  edit.  1860.  It  is  based  on 
two  fundamental  principles ;  first,  that  "  all  Scripture  is  given 
by  inspiration  of  God,"  and  therefore  constitutes  a  self-consist- 
ent whole,  no  part  of  which  may  be  interpreted  in  contradiction 
with  the  rest ;  secondly,  that  the  truths  to  which  God's  word 
gives  the  greatest  prominence,  and  which  it  inculcates  in  the 
greatest  variety  of  forms,  must  be  those  of  primary  importance. 
Thus  understood,  the  analogy  of  faith  is  a  sure  guide  to  the 
meaning  of  the  inspired  volume.  He  who  follows  it  will  dili- 
gently and  prayerfully  study  the  tvhole  ivord  of  God,  not  certain 
selected  parts  of  it;  since  it  is  from  the  whole  Bible  that  we 
gather  the  system  of  divine  revelation  in  its  fulness  and  just  pro- 
portions. "  If  we  come  to  the  Scriptures  with  any  preconceived 
of)inions,  and  are  more  desirous  to  put  that  sense  upon  the 
text  which  coincides  with  our  sentiments  rather  than  with  the 
truth,  it  then  becomes  the  analogy  of  our  faith  rather  than  that 
of  the  whole  system."     Home,  tibi  supra.     In  this  substitution 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  577 

of  "the  analogy  of  our  faith"  for  the  analogy  of  Scripture  lies 
the  foundation  of  sectarian  controversy. 

Again ;  he  who  follows  the  true  analogy  of  faith  will  not 
allow  a  doctrine  which  runs  through  the  whole  tenor  of  divine 
revelation  to  be  weakened  or  set  aside  in  the  interest  of  some 
other  scriptural  doctrine. 

The  Scriptures  teach,  for  example,  with  great  frequency  and  clearness, 
that  men  are  saved,  not  from  the  merit  of  their  good  works,  but  solely  by 
God's  free  grace  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  They  teacii  also  with 
equal  frequency  and  clearness  that  without  repentance  and  obedience  to 
the  divine  law  there  is  no  salvation.  These  two  deductions  are  not  contra- 
dictory, but  supplementary  to  each  other.  They  present  two  sides  of  one 
and  the  same  way  of  salvation.  Yet  it  may  happen  that  a  Biblical  student 
will  find  himself  unable  to  reconcile  in  a  logical  way  two  such  deductions 
as  the  following  :  "Therefore  we  conclude  that  a  man  is  justified  by  faith 
without  the  deeds  of  the  law  "  (Rom.  3  :  28)  ;  "  Not  every  one  that  saith 
unto  me,  Lord,  Lord,  shall  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven  ;  but  he  that 
doeth  the  will  of  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven  "  (Matt.  7  :  21).  What  then 
shall  we  counsel  him  to  do  ?  Plainly  it  is  his  duty,  first  of  all,  to  receive 
and  hold  both  doctrines.  Afterwards  he  may  properly  seek  to  reconcile 
them  with  each  other  in  a  logical  way  ;  but  if  he  fails  to  accomplish  this 
task  to  his  satisfaction,  he  must  not  deny  one  truth,  or  sink  its  importance, 
in  the  interest  of  the  other.  The  same  general  principle  applies  to  various 
other  doctrinal  difficulties,  Avliich  need  not  be  here  specified. 

Finally,  a  true  regard  to  the  analogy  of  faith  will  make  our 
system  of  belief  and  practice  entire  and  loell  proportioned  in  all 
its  parts.  Every  declaration  of  God's  word  is  to  be  received 
in  a  reverent  and  obedient  spirit.  But  inasmuch  as  the  Scrip- 
tures insist  much  more  earnestly  and  fully  on  some  things  than 
on  others,  it  is  our  wisdom  to  follow,  in  this  respect,  the  lead- 
ings of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  will  be  the  aim  of  the  enlightened 
believer  to  give  to  each  doctrine  and  precept  of  revelation  the 
place  and  prominence  assigned  to  it  in  the  Bible.  Especially 
will  he  be  careful  that  no  obscure  or  doubtful  passage  of  Scrip  • 
ture  be  allowed  to  contradict  the  plain  teachings  of  inspiration. 

The  practical  study  of  the  Bible,  that  is,  the  study  of  it  as  "profitable 
for  doctrine,  for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  instruction  in  righteousness," 
resolves  itself  in  a  great  measure  into  the  comparison  of  Scripture  with 

Comp.  to  Bible.  25 


578  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

Scripture,  especially  the  comparison  of  docirmal  parallelisms.  All  that 
the  Bible  teaches  from  Genesis  to  Eevelation  concerning  God's  being  and 
attributes,  his  providential  government  over  man,  the  person  and  offices  of 
Christ  and  the  way  of  salvation  through  him,  and  the  final  destiny  of  the 
righteous  and  the  wicked,  should  be  diligently  compared,  that  from  the 
whole  we  may  gather  a  full  and  well-proportioned  system  of  faitii  and  prac- 
tice as  it  is  contained  in  the  pages  of  inspiration.  So  far  as  v.  e  fail  to  do 
this  our  view  of  divine  truth  is  defective  and  disproportioned.  The  sol- 
emn warning  in  respect  to  the  last  book  of  revelation  applies  with  equal 
force  to  revelation  as  a  whole  :  "If  any  man  shall  add  unto  these  things, 
God  shall  add  unto  him  the  plagues  that  are  written  in  this  book  :  and  if 
any  man  shall  take  away  from  the  words  of  the  book  of  this  prophecy, 
God  shall  take  away  his  part  out  of  the  book  of  life,  and  out  of  the  holy 
city,  and  from  the  things  that  are  written  in  this  book."    Eev.  22  :  18.  19. 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  579 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

Scriptural  Types. 

1.  The  material  ivorld  is  full  of  analogies  adapted  to  the 
fllustration  of  spiritual  things.  No  teacher  ever  drew  from 
this  inexhaustible  storehouse  such  a  rich  variety  of  examples 
as  our  Saviour.  His  disciples  are  the  salt  of  the  earth,  the 
light  of  the  world,  and  a  city  set  on  a  hill.  From  the  ravens 
which  God  feeds  and  the  lilies  which  God  clothes,  he  teaches 
the  unreasonableness  of  worldly  anxiety.  The  kingdom  of 
heaven  is  like  seed  sown  in  different  soils,  like  a  field  of  wheat 
and  tares  growing  together,  and  like  seed  that  springs  up  and 
grows  the  sower  knows  not  how.  Again  it  is  like  a  net  cast 
into  the  sea,  like  a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  and  like  leaven  hid 
in  three  measures  of  meal.  When  the  Saviour  opens  his  lips 
the  whole  world  of  nature  stands  ready  to  furnish  him  with 
arguments  and  illustrations;  as  well  it  may,  since  the  God  of 
nature  is  also  the  God  of  revelation.  The  loorld  of  secular 
activity  abounds  in  like  analogies,  on  which  another  class  of 
our  Lord's  parables  is  based ;  like  that  of  the  vineyard  let  out 
to  husbandmen,  the  servants  intrusted  with  different  talents, 
the  ten  virgins,  the  importunate  friend,  the  unjust  judge,  the 
unfaithful  steward,  the  prodigal  son,  and  others  that  need  not 
be  enumerated.  Analogies  like  these,  however,  do  not  prop- 
erly constitute  types.  Types  rest  on  a  foundation  of  analogy, 
but  do  not  consist  in  analogy  alone. 

2.  In  the  history  of  God's  people,  moreover,  as  well  as  of 
the  world  which  he  governs  with  reference  to  them,  the  present 
is  continually  foreshadowing  something  higher  in  the  future.  This 
must  be  so,  because  the  train  of  events  in  their  history  consti- 
tutes, in  the  plan  of  God,  neither  a  loose  and  disconnected 
series  nor  a  confused  jumble  of  incidents,  like  a  heap  of  stones 
thrown  together  without  order  or  design,  but  a  well-ordered 


580  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

whole.  It  is  a  building,  in  which  the  parts  now  in  progress 
indicate  what  is  to  follow.  It  is  the  development  of  a  plant,  in 
which  "the  blade"  foreshadows  "the  ear,"  and  the  ear,  "the 
full  corn  in  the  ear."  The  primal  murder,  when  "  Cain  rose  up 
against  Abel  his  brother,  and  slew  him,"  "because  his  own 
works  were  evil  and  his  brother's  righteous,"  was  the  inaugu- 
ration of  the  great  conflict  between  the  seed  of  the  woman  and 
the  seed  of  the  serpent — the  forerunner  of  the  higher  struggle 
in  Egypt  between  Pharaoh  on  the  side  of  the  devil,  and  the 
covenant  people  on  the  side  of  the  seed  of  the  woman.  This 
struggle  in  Egypt,  again,  foreshadowed  the  still  higher  contest 
between  truth  and  error  in  the  land  of  Canaan — a  contest  which 
endured  through  so  many  centuries,  and  enlisted  on  both  sides 
so  many  kings  and  mighty  men  ;  and  which,  in  its  turn,  ushered 
in  the  grand  conflict  between  the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  that 
of  Satan,  a  conflict  that  began  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  is 
yet  in  progress.  This  continual  foreshadowing  of  the  future 
by  the  present  is  essentially  of  a  typical  nature,  yet  it  does  not 
constitute,  in  and  of  itself,  what  we  understand  by  a  type  in  the 
ordinary  usage  of  the  term. 

3.  A  type  is  a  symhol  appointed  hy  God  to  adumbrate  some- 
thing higher  in  the  future,  which  is  called  the  antitype.  This  def- 
inition includes  three  particulars  :  (1.)  The  type  must  be  a  true 
adumbration  of  the  thing  typified,  though,  from  the  very  nature 
of  the  case,  the  adumbration  must  be  inadequate — a  shadoiu 
only  of  the  antitype,  and  not  its  substance.  Thus  the  paschal 
lamb  was  a  type  of  Christ,  though  there  is  infinitely  more  in 
the  antitype  'than  in  the  type.  (2.)  The  symbol  must  be  o/ 
divine  appohitment,  and  as  such,  designed  by  God  to  represent 
the  antitype.  We  must  carefully  remember,  however,  that, 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  the  divine  intention  cannot 
be  clearly  announced  when  the  type  is  instituted.  The  paschal 
lamb  typified  "  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin 
of  the  world ;"  but  it  was  not  till  centuries  after  the  institution 
of  the  passover  that  God  began  to  intimate  by  the  prophets 
the  approaching  sacrifice  of  the  great  Antitype  (Isa.  chap.  53 ; 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPRETATION.  531 

Zecli.  13 : 7),  and  the  full  import  of  the  type  was  revealed  only 
when  the  sacrifice  of  "Christ  our  passover*'  had  been  accom- 
plished on  Calvary.  (3.)  Since  the  type  is  "  a  shadow  of  good 
things  to  come,"  it  follows  that  the  antitype  must  belong  to  the 
future.  A  pure  symbol  may  belong  to  the  present  or  the  near 
future.  It  may  represent  something  that  now  exists,  or  is  com- 
ing into  existence,  in  respect  to  which  concealment  is  not  neces- 
sary. Hence  we  find  the  sacred  writers  freely  explaining  the 
meaning  of  the  symbols  which  they  employ  (Numb.  chap.  17 ; 
Josh.  4:1-7;  1  Sam.  7:12;  10:1,  and  the  same  symbol  of 
anointing  often  elsewhere ;  1  Kings  11 :  29-39 ;  22 :  11,  where  a 
false  prophet  uses  a  symbol;  Isa.  chap.  20;  Jer.  1:11-14; 
13:1-11,  and  elsewhere;  Ezek.  chap.  3,  and  in  many  other  - 
passages ;  Amos  7 : 1-9 ;  8 : 1-3  ;  Zech.  1 : 8-11,  and  elsewhere). 
The  true  type,  on  the  contrary,  reckoned  from  the  time  of  its 
institution,  looks  forward  to  the  distant  future.  The  high  real- 
ity which  it  foreshadows  may  be  intimated  by  the  prophets 
"  as  in  a  glass  darkly,"  but  the  appearance  of  the  antitype  can 
alone  furnish  a  full  explanation  of  its  meaning. 

The  types  of  the  Old  Testament  have  been  variously  classi- 
fied. We  propose  to  consider  them  under  the  two  divisions  of 
historical  and  ritual  types. 

I.     HISTORICAL  TYPES. 

4.  The  extravagance  of  a  class  of  Biblical  expositors  in  con- 
verting the  Old  Testament  history  into  allegory  typical  of  per- 
sons and  events  under  the  gospel  dispensation  has  produced  a 
strong  reaction,  leading  some  to  deny  altogether  the  existence 
of  historical  tj^pes.  But  this  is  going  to  the  other  extreme  of 
error.  No  man  who  acknowledges  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  to  be  true  expositors  of  the  meaning  of  the  Old  can 
consistently  deny  the  existence  in  the  Old  Testament  of  such 
types,  for  they  interpret  portions  of  its  history  in  a  typical  way. 
But  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  we  understand,  in 
respect  to  such  history,  that  it  has  a  true  and  proper  significance 
of  its  own,  without  respect  to  its  typical  import.     It  is  not  alle- 


582  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

gory,  wliich  lias,  literally  taken,  no  substance.  It  is  not  mere 
type,  like  the  rites  of  the  Mosaic  law,  the  meaning  of  which  is 
exhausted  in  their  office  of  foreshadowing  the  antitype.  It  is 
veritable  history,  valid  for  the  men  of  its  own  day,  fulfilling  its 
office  in  the  plan  of  God's  providence,  and  containing,  when 
we  look  at  it  simply  as  history,  its  own  lessons  of  instruction. 
We  call  it  typical  history  because,  following  the  guidance  of 
the  New  Testament  writers,  we  are  constrained  to  regard  it  as 
so  ordered  and  shaped  by  God's  providence  as  to  prefigure 
something  higher  in  the  Christian  dispensation. 

No  careful  student  of  the  New  Testament  can  for  a  moment  doubt  that 
David's  kingdom  typified  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  Tliere  is,  indeed,  a  very 
important  sense  in  which  David's  kingdom  was  identical  with  that  of 
Christ ;  for  its  main  element  was  the  visible  church  of  God,  founded  on 
the  covenant  made  with  Abraham,  and  therefore  in  aU  ages  one  and  indi- 
visible. Eom.  11  :  17-24  ;  Gal.  3  :  14-18  ;  Ephes.  2  :  20.  But  we  now 
speak  of  David's  kingdom  in  its  outward  form,  which  was  temporary  and 
typical  of  something  higher.  In  this  sense  it  is  manifest  that  God  ap- 
pointed it  to  foreshadow  that  of  the  Messiah,  David's  headship  adum- 
brated the  higher  headship  of  the  Redeemer ;  his  conflicts  with  the  ene- 
mies of  God's  people  and  his  final  triumph  over  them,  Christ's  conflicts  and 
victories.  The  same  thing  was  true  of  Solomon,  and  in  a  measure  of  all 
the  kings  of  David's  line,  so  far  as  they  were  true  to  their  office  as  the 
divinely  appointed  leaders  of  the  covenant  people.  Unless  we  adopt  this 
principle,  the  view  which  the  New  Testament  takes  of  a  large  number  of 
Psalms — the  so-called  Messianic  psalms — becomes  utterly  visionary. 

But  neither  David's  kingdom  nor  his  headship  over  it  was  mere  type. 
The  nation  over  wliich  he  presided  was  a  historic  reality,  a  true  power 
among  the  other  nations  of  the  earth.  His  leadership  also,  with  its  con- 
flicts and  triumphs,  belongs  to  true  history.  It  brought  to  the  people  of 
his  own  day  true  deliverance  from  the  power  of  their  enemies  ;  and  it  con- 
tains, when  we  study  it  without  reference  to  its  typical  character,  true  les- 
sons of  instruction  for  all  ages. 

The  declarations  of  Scripture  in  respect  to  the  typical  nature  of  the 
prophetical  office  are  not^o  numerous  and  decisive  as  those  which  relate  to 
the  kingly  office.  There  is,  however,  a  remarkable  passage  in  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy,  from  which  w^e  may  legitimately  infer  that  it  was  truly  typ- 
ical of  Christ.  When  God  had  addressed  the  people  directly  from  the 
midst  of  the  cloud  and  fire  on  Sinai,  unable  to  endure  this  mode  of  com- 
munication between  God  and  man,  they  besought  God  that  he  would 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  583 

henceforth  address  them  through  the  ministry  of  Moses:  "Speak  thou 
"with  us,  and  we  will  hear  :  but  let  not  God  speak  with  us,  lest  we  die." 
Exod.  20  :  19.  With  reference  to  this  request,  God  said  to  Moses  :  "  They 
have  weU  spoken  that  which  they  have  spoken.  I  will  raise  them  up  a 
prophet  from  among  their  brethren,  Hke  unto  thee,  and  will  put  my  words 
in  his  mouth  :  and  he  shall  speak  unto  them  all  that  I  shall  command  him. 
And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  whosoever  will  not  hearken  unto  my  words 
which  he  shall  speak  in  my  name,  I  will  require  it  of  him."  Deut.  18  :  17- 
19.  The  essential  points  of  this  promise  are,  that  the  promised  projDhet 
shall  be  like  Moses,  one  whose  words  shall  be  invested  with  supreme  author- 
ity ;  and,  especially,  that  he  shall  be  raised  up  from  among  their  brethren, 
and  shall  therefore  be  a  man  like  themselves.  The  promise  was  manifestly 
intended  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  covenant  people  from  tliat  day  and  on- 
ward. Yet  the  great  Prophet  in  whom  it  was  fulfilled  did  not  appear  till 
after  the  lapse  of  fifteen  centuries  or  more.  But  in  the  mean  time  the 
promise  was  truly  fulfilled  to  God's  people  in  a  typical  wsij  through  the 
succession  of  prophets,  who  spake  in  God's  name,  and  who  were  men  like 
their  brethren  to  whom  they  were  sent.  In  these  two  essential  particulars 
the  prophetical  office  truly  prefigured  Christ,  its  gi*eat  Antitype. 

The  Old  Testament  contains  not  only  typical  orders  of  men,  but  typical 
transactions  also ;  that  is,  transactions  which,  while  they  had  their  own 
proper  significance  as  a  part  of  the  history  of  God's  church,  were  yet  so 
ordered  by  God  as  to  shadow  forth  with  remarkable  clearness  and  force 
the  higher  truths  of  Christ's  kingdom.  Such  are  the  transactions  between 
Melcliizedek  and  Abraham  recorded  in  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Genesis. 
Considered  simjjly  in  itself,  Melchizedek's  priesthood  belongs  to  the  class 
of  ritual  types.  But  in  the  record  of  his  intercourse  with  Abraham  there 
is  an  accumulation  of  historic  circumstances  arranged  by  God's  providence 
to  shadow  forth  the  higher  priesthood  of  Christ.  (1.)  He  united  in  his 
person  the  kingly  and  priestly  offices,  as  does  the  Messiah.  In  the  hundred 
and  tenth  Psalm  it  is,  in  like  manner,  a  king  invested  by  God  "vvith  univer- 
sal sovereignty,  to  whom  the  declaration  is  made  :.  "The  Lord  hath  sworn, 
and  will  not  repent,  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever,  after  the  order  of  Melchiz- 
edek."  (2.)  In  official  dignity  he  was  higher  than  Abraham,  -and  thus 
higher  than  any  of  Abraham's  descendants  by  natural  generation ;  for 
Abraham  paid  tithes  to  him,  and  received  from  him  the  priestly  blessing 
(Gen.  14  :  19,  20)  ;  "And  without  all  contradiction  the  less  is  blessed  of  the 
better."  Heb.  7  :  7.  (3.)  His  priesthood  teas  without  limitation,  and  had 
thus  the  attribute  of  universality.  It  was  not  restricted  in  its  exercise  by 
nationality,  for  Abraham  was  not  one  of  his  people.  (4.)  He  did  not  be- 
long to  a  line  of  priests,  who  transmitted  their  office  from  father  to  son. 
He  was,  so  far  as  we  know  from  the  record,  without  predecessors,  and  had 
no  successor  in  his  priesthood.     The  author  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews 


581  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

describes  him  as  one  wlio  is  "without  father,  without  mother,  without 
pedigree"  (marginal  rendering),  "having  neither  beginning  of  days  nor 
end  of  life  :  but  made  like  unto  the  Son  of  God  ;  abideth  a  i)riest  contin- 
ually." Heb.  7:3.  In  the  interjDretation  of  this  difficult  passage,  we  must 
begin  with  the  axiomatic  j)i*inciple  that  Melchizedek  was  a  human  being. 
He  could  not  have  been,  as  some  have  thought,  the  Son  of  God  himself ; 
for  how  could  the-  Son  of  God  be  "  made  like  unto  the  Son  of  God  ?"  Nor 
could  he  have  been  an  angel ;  for  angels  are  not  partakers  of  human  nature, 
and  cannot  therefore  typify  him  who  came  in  human  nature  to  deliver  those 
who  are  "partakers  of  flesh  and  blood."  Heb.  2  :  14-18  ;  4  :  15  ;  5  : 1,  2. 
And  if  he  was  a  proper  man,  then  he  was  "without  father,  without  mother, 
without  pedigree, "  not  in  an  absolute  sense,  but  with  reference  to  his  priest- 
hood. He  was  a  priest  wliose  genealogy  is  not  mentioned,  because  his 
priesthood  was  not  restricted,  like  that  of  the  Levitical  priests,  to  any  partic- 
ular line  of  descent.  He  held  his  priesthood  from  God,  without  predeces- 
sors or  successors.  The  words  that  follow — "having  neither  beginning  of 
days  nor  end  of  life  :  but  made  like  unto  the  Son  of  God  ;  abideth  a  priest 
continually  " — are  more  difficult.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  they  cannot 
be  understood  absolutely.  They  are  commonly  inter j)reted  upon  the  same 
principle  as  the  preceding  words ;  namely,  that  in  omitting  from  the  in- 
spired record  every  limitation  of  Melchizedek's  life  as  well  as  descent,  it 
was  God's  purpose  to  shadow  forth  the  imhmited  nature  of  Christ's  priest- 
hood ;  that,  in  truth,  the  apostle  describes  Melchizedek,  the  type,  in  terms 
which  hold  good  in  their  full  meaning  only  of  Christ  the  great  Antitype. 
They  who,  admitting  that  Melchizedek  was  a  human  being,  find  the  inter- 
pretation unsatisfactory,  must  leave  the  apostle's  words  shrouded  in  mys- 
tery. 

But  whatever  obscurity  there  is  in  the  scriptural  notices  of  Melchizedek, 
they  abundantly  affirm  the  typical  nature  of  his  priesthood  as  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  Levitical  priests.  He  was  a  type  of  Christ  not  simply  as 
a  priest,  but  also  in  the  peculiar  character  of  his  priesthood.  He  united 
with  his  priesthood  the  kingly  office  ;  was  superior  in  dignity  to  Abraham 
himself,  and  thus  to  the  Levitical  priests  ;  and  his  priesthood  had  the  attri- 
bute of  universality.  Here,  then,  we  have  an  undoubted  examj)le  of  a  his- 
toric type. 

It  is  not  without  reason  that  the  deliverance  of  the  covenant  people 
from  Egypt,  their  journey  through  the  wilderness  of  Arabia  under  God's 
guidance,  and  their  final  settlement  in  the  land  of  promise,  have  been 
regarded  as  typical  of  the  higher  redemption,  guidance,  and  salvation 
received  through  Christ.  From  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Christian  church 
this  wonderful  history  has  been  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  analogies 
for  the  illustration  of  Christian  experience.  In  his  pilgrimage  through 
this  vale  of  tears,  the  believer  instinctively  turns  to  it  for  instruction  and 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPEETATION.  585 

encouragement.  The  mighty  interposition  of  God  when  the  Israelites 
were  "yet  without  strength"  in  their  bondage  ;  their  protection  through 
the  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb  sprinkled  on  the  doors  of  their  houses  when 
the  destroyer  passed  through  Egypt ;  the  opening  of  a  way  through  the 
Red  sea  when  all  human  means  of  escape  failed  them ;  the  journey  through 
the  wdlderness ;  the  pillar  of  cloud  by  day  and  of  fire  by  night  to  guide, 
the  water  from  the  rock  to  refresh,  the  manna  from  heaven  morning  by 
morning  to  feed  them ;  God's  faithful  discipline  in  contrast  with  human 
unbelief,  waywardness,  and  folly ;  the  final  preparation  for  the  conquest 
of  Canaan  and  its  successful  accomplishment — this  whole  series  of  events 
is  wonderfully  adapted  to  illustrate  the  course  of  Christian  experience,  and 
who  shall  say  that  God  did  not  order  it  with  a  view  to  this  end  ?  We  do 
not  resolve  it  into  mere  type.  We  acknowledge  it  to  be  true  history,  valid 
to  the  men  of  that  age — a  true  earthly  deliverance,  guidance,  and  suste- 
nance in  the  wilderness,  conducting  to  the  possession  of  a  true  earthly 
inheritance.  But  we  say  that  it  is  a  history  so  ordered  by  God  as  to  typ- 
ify the  higher  jDilgrimage  of  the  believer  to  the  heavenly  Canaan.  It  is 
undeniable  that  the  AVTiter  to  the  Hebrews  regards  the  rest  of  the  covenant 
people  in  the  land  of  promise  as  a  type  of  the  rest  of  heaven.  Heb.  3  :  7 — 
4  :  11.  And  if  that  part  of  the  history  was  typical,  it  is  reasonable  to  infer 
that  the  whole  was  typical.  It  belongs  to  the  nature  of  a  type  that  it 
should,  on  the  one  hand,  come  short  of  the  fulness  of  meaning  that  belongs 
to  the  antitype,  and,  on  the  other,  should  contain  some  things  wliich  find 
no  correspondence  in  that  which  it  adumbrates.  The  j^riesthood  of  the 
sons  of  Aaron,  as  we  shall  see,  typified  Christ's  priesthood,  but  only  inad- 
equately, as  a  shadow  represents  the  substance ;  while  sinfulness,  which 
belonged  to  all  the  priests  of  Aaron's  line,  not  only  did  not  correspond  to 
the  character  of  the  Antitype,  but  was  in  contradiction  witli  it.  So  is  it 
also  with  the  historical  types  that  have  been  under  consideration.  They 
represent  the  antitype  inadequately,  and  only  in  certain  respects. 

II.     RITUAL  TYPES. 

5.  The  sacrifices  were  the  central  part  of  the  Jewish  ritual. 
But  sacrifices  imply  offerers,  a  personal  God  to  whom  the  offer- 
ing is  made,  and  a  priestJiood  through  which  it  is  presented. 
In  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world,  men  offered  sacrifices  in 
their  own  behalf  and  that  of  their  household  in  whatever  place 
it  was  their  chance  to  sojourn.  Gen.  4 : 4 ;  8  :  20 ;  12 : 7,  8 ;  31 :  54; 
33:20;  35:1,  7;  46:1;  Job  1:5;  42:8.  But  upon  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Mosaic  economy,  the  priestly  ofiice  was  restrict- 
ed to  the  family  of  Aaron.     Thenceforward  all  who  wiiehed  to 

25* 


586  COMPANION  TO   THE  BIBLE. 

offer  sacrifices  must  bring  tliem  through  the  mediation  of  the 
priests  of  Aaron's  Hne.  It  belonged  to  the  nature  of  the  Mos.aic 
economy,  that  God  should  have  a  visible  dwelling-place  among 
the  Israelites.  The  directions  for  the  construction  of  the  tab- 
ernacle with  its  furniture  are  introduced  by  the  words:  "Let 
them  make  me  a  sanctuary ;  that  I  may  dwell  among  them." 
Exod.  25  : 8.  The  material  sanctuary,  then,  was  God's  visible 
dwelling-place,  where  he  manifested  himself  to  his  people,  and 
received  their  worship  according  to  the  rites  of  his  own  appoint- 
ment; the  whole  being,  as  we  shall  see,  typical  of  higher  real- 
ities pertaining  to  our  redemption  through  Christ.  And  as 
this  earthly  sanctuary  was  God's  chosen  dwelling-place,  it  fol- 
lowed, as  a  necessary  consequence,  that  after  its  erection  all 
the  sacrifices  must  be  brought  to  its  altar,  and  presented  there 
to  God  through  the  priesthood  of  his  appointment. 

6.  The  Mosaic  idbernade  was  a  movable  structure  very  sim- 
ple in  its  plan.  Its  frame-work  on  three  sides  consisted  of 
upright  boards,  or  rather  timbers  (for,  according  to  the  unani- 
mous representation  of  the  Jewish  rabbins,  they  were  a  cubit 
in  thickness),  standing  side  by  side,  and  kept  in  position  by 
transverse  bars  passing  through  golden  rings.  Thus  was  formed 
an  enclosure  ten  cubits  in  height,  thirty  cubits  in  length  from 
east  to  west,  and  ten  cubits  in  width ;  the  eastern  end,  which 
constituted  the  front,  having  only  a  vail  suspended  from  five 
pillars  of  shittim-wood.  Over  this  enclosure,  and  hanging 
down  on  either  side,  was  spread  a  rich  covering  formed  by 
coupling  together  eleven  curtains  of  "fine-twined  linen,  and 
blue,  and  purple,  and  scarlet,  with  cherubim  of  cunning  work." 
Over  this  was  another  covering,  formed  from  the  union  of  ten 
curtains  of  goats'  hair ;  and  above  two  other  coverings,  the  one 
of  rams'  skins  dyed  red,  and  the  other,  or  outermost,  of  bad- 
gers' skins.  Surrounding  the  tabernacle  was  a  court  one  hun- 
dred cubits  long  and  fifty  wide,  enclosed  by  curtains  of  fine- 
twined  linen  supported  on  pillars  five  cubits  high.  The  taber- 
nacle itself  was  divided  by  a  vail  supported  on  four  pillars  into 
two  parts;  the  inner  sanctuarj^,  or  "holy  of  holies,"  ten  cubits 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPRETATION.  587 

every  way,  and  the  outer,  or  "lioly  place,"  twenty  cubits  long 
by  ten  in  breadth  and  height. 

In  a  wider  sense  the  whole  movable  structure  within  the  court  is  called 
the  tabernacle.  But  in  a  stricter  sense  the  rich  inner  curtain  is  distin- 
guished in  the  Mosaic  description  as  the  tabernacle,  while  the  curtain  of 
goats'  hair  is  called  the  tent.  Exod.  26  : 1 ;  7 ;  36  :  8,  14,  19.  The  true 
meaning  of  the  word  rendered  in  our  version  badgers  is  uncertain.  Some 
think  that  the  seal  is  referred  to. 

7.  We  have  seen  that  the  tabernacle  was  God's  visible  dwell- 
ing-place. But  the  palace  of  a  king  has  its  audience-rooms , 
where  he  receives  his  subjects  and  attends  to  their  petitions. 
In  like  manner  the  Mosaic  tabernacle,  and  afterwards  the  tem- 
ple, had  its  "holy  of  holies"  and  its  "holy  place,"  the  former 
being  in  a  special  sense  the  abode  of  Israel's  God.  The  taber- 
nacle, with  its  furniture,  priesthood,  and  services,  is  declared 
in  the  New  Testament  to  have  been  "  a  shadow  of  good  things 
to  come."  Heb.  10: 1,  and  elsewhere.  Unless  we  understand 
this  its  typical  character,  we  fail  to  gain  any  true  apprehension 
of  its  meaning. 

8.  In  contemplating  the  truths  which  the  Mosaic  taberna- 
cle shadowed  forth,  we  begin  with  the  materials  used  in  its  con- 
struction. Here  we  notice  two  things;  ih.Q\Y  lyreciousness,  and 
the  gradation  observed  in  this  respect. 

(1.)  lL\ie\Y preciousness.  All  the  materials  were  of  the  most 
durable  and  costly  character — gold,  silver,  fine-twined  linen  of 
blue  and  purple  and  scarlet,  acacia-wood  (the  shittim-wood  of 
our  version),  brass  being  allowed  only  in  the  external  appoint- 
ments. This  obviously  represented  the  glory  and  excellence  of 
God's  service,  and  the  corresponding  obligation  on  the  part  of 
the  worshippers  to  give  to  God  the  best  of  all  that  they  had. 

(2.)  The  gradation  in  the  preciousness  of  the  materials  had 
reference  to  the  inner  sanctuary,  where,  as  will  presently  be 
shown,  God  dwelt  between  the  cherubim  that  overshadowed 
the  mercy-seat.  The  rule  of  gradation  was  this  :  the  nearer  to 
God's  dwelling-place  the  greater  the  glory;  and  hence,  as 
shadowing  forth  this  glory,  the  more  precious  the  materials. 


588  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  mercy-seat,  where  God  dwelt  between  the  cherubim,  was 
accordmglj  of  pure  gold.  All  the  woodwork  pertaining  to  the 
tabernacle  and  its  furniture  was  overlaid  with  gold.  The  inner 
or  proper  covering  of  the  tabernacle,  as  also  the  vail  that  hung 
before  the  ark,  seijarating  the  holy  from  the  most  holy  place, 
was  of  "fine-twined  linen,  and  blue,  and  purple,  and  scarlet, 
with  cherubim  of  cunning  work."  The  outer  vail,  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  outer  sanctuary,  was  of  the  same  materials,  but 
without  the  cherubim ;  while  the  curtains  of  the  court  were 
made  simply  of  fine-twined  linen,  suspended  from  pillars  of 
shittim-wood  not  overlaid  with  gold.  The  sockets,  again,  that 
supported  the  timbers  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  inner  row  of 
pillars  before  the  ark  were  of  silver;  but  those  beneath  the 
outer  pillars  of  the  sanctuary,  and  all  the  pillars  of  the  court, 
were  of  brass. 

9.  Passing  to  the  appointments  of  the  tabernacle,  we  natu- 
rally begin  with  the  inner  sanctuary.  Here  between  the  wings 
of  the  cherubim  that  overshadowed  the  mercy-seat,  or  lid  of 
the  ark,  was  the  SJiehinah,  or  visible  dwelling-place  of  Jehovah. 
In  the  ark  beneath  the  mercy-seat  were  placed,  by  God's  direc- 
tion, the  two  tables  of  the  law.  Exod.  25  :  16  compared  with 
1  Kings  8  :  9.  This  was  their  appropriate  place.  It  shadowed 
.forth  the  great  truth  that  God  is  the  fountain  of  law,  and  that 
they  who  approach  him  must  come  in  the  spirit  of  true  obe- 
dience. 

.  That  God's  dwelling-place  was  between  the  cherubim  we  learn  from  the 
original  direction  for  the  construction  of  the  ark  :  ' '  And  thou  shalt  put 
the  mercy-seat  above  upon  the  ark  ;  and  in  the  ark  thou  shalt  put  the  tes- 
timony that  I  shall  give  thee.  And  there  will  I  meet  with  thee,  and  I  will 
commune  with  thee  from  above  the  mercy-seat,  from  between  the  two 
cherubim  which  are  upon  the  ark  of  the  testimony,  of  all  things  which  I 
will  give  thee  in  commandment  unto  the  children  of  Israel. "  Exod.  25  :  21, 
i2.  In  accordance  with  these  words  God  repeatedly  promised  that  he 
yould  meet  with  Moses  at  the  mercy-seat  (Exod.  30  :  36 ;  Lev.  16 :  2 ; 
STumb.  17  : 4)  ;  and  after  the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle  and  its  altar,  it 
is  recorded  that  "when  Moses  was  gone  into  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre- 
gation to  speak  with  Him,  then  he  heard  the  voice  of  one  speaking  unto 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  589 

him  from  off  the  mercy-seat  that  was  upon  the  ark  of  tesjtimony,  from  be- 
tween the  two  cherubim."  Numb.  7  :  89.  Hence  Jehovah  is  described  in 
the  Old  Testament  as  he  that  dwells  between  the  cherubim.  1  Sam.  4:4; 
2  Sam.  6  :  2  ;  2  Kings  19  :  15  ;  Psa.  80  : 1 ;  99  : 1 ;  Isa.  37  :  16. 

10.  In  the  outer  sanctuary,  before  the  vail  that  separated  it 
from  the  holy  of  holies,  stood,  on  the  south  side,  the  golden  can- 
dlestick, with  its  seven  lamps  burning  always  before  the  Lord 
(Exod.  27 :  20 ;  40  :  24,  25 ;  Lev.  24 :  25),  and  on  the  north  side 
the  table  of  shoiv-hread,  with  its  twelve  loaves  renewed  every 
week  (Exod.  25  :  30 ;  40  :  22,  23  ;  Lev.  24  :  5-9).  These  typified 
the  light  and  the  life  that  come  from  God's  presence  through 
the  ordinances  of  his  appointment ;  and  since  the  end  of  these 
ordinances  is  Jesus  Christ,  they  shadoAved  him  forth  as  the 
light  of  the  world  and  the  bread  of  life.  John  8 :  12 ;  12  :  46  ; 
6 :  35-58 ;  and  especially  John  1 :  4.  Between  the  golden  can- 
dlestick and  the  table  of  show-bread,  consequently  directly  in 
front  of  the  ark,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  inner  vail,  was 
the  golden  altar  of  incense,  on  which  the  priests  burned  sweet 
incense  every  morning  and  evening  before  the  Lord  (Exod. 
30:6-8;  40:26,  27),  whereby  was  shadowed  forth  Christ's 
intercession,  through  which  the  prayers  of  saints  are  made 
acceptable  to  God. 

In  the  book  of  Eevelation  an  angel  is  represented  as  offering  upon  this 
golden  altar  much  incense  with  the  prayers  of  all  saints,  "And  the  smoke 
of  the  incense,  which  came  with  the  prayers  of  the  saints,  ascended  uj) 
before  God  out  of  the  angel's  hand."  Kev.  8  :  3,  4,  This  passage  seems  to 
warrant  the  interpretation  above  given  to  this  symbol ;  not  that  the  ancient 
covenant  peox)le  understood  fully  its  meaning,  or  that  of  the  other  sym- 
bolic rites,  but  that  such  was  the  mind  of  the  Spirit,  to  be  made  manifest 
in  due  time. 

There  is  a  view  of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial,  which  makes  it  simply  a 
scenic  representation  of  a  king's  court ;  in  which  the  tabernacle  represents 
the  royal  palace,  the  incense  the  homage  rendered  to  the  monarch  (com- 
pare Dan.  2  :  46),  the  sacrifices,  show-bread,  and  other  unbloody  offerings 
the  provision  made  for  his  table,  the  priests  his  ministering  servants,  etc.  ; 
by  which  the  whole  is  reduced  to  the  idea  of  service  rendered  to  Jehovah 
as  the  national  monarch,  and  all  typical  representation  of  the  provision 
made  by  God  for  man's  spiritual  wants  is  excluded.      This  interpretation 


590  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  the  Mosaic  ritual  is  as  suiDerficial  as  it  is  false.  In  this  ritual,  service  is 
indeed  rendered  to  God  ;  but  it  is  a  service  which  typically  shadows  forth 
the  pro^dsion  which  God  makes  for  man's  wants  as  a  fallen  being — light 
for  his  darkened  understanding,  life  for  his  spiritual  nature  dead  in  tres- 
passes and  sins,  and  reconciliation  to  God  through  the  blood  of  Christ. 
This  is  the  constant  interpretation  given  in  the  New  Testament  of  the 
*'  carnal  ordinances"  of  the  Old. 

11.  In  the  court  before  the  tabernacle  stood  the  brazen  altar 
with  its  laver.  Here  the  blood  of  the  sacrifices  flowed  from 
age  to  age — a  lamb  every  morning  and  evening,  and  on  the 
Sabbath  day  two  lambs  morning  and  evening,  besides  all  the 
public  sacrifices  connected  with  the  national  festivals,  and  the 
private  sacrifices  of  individuals.  The  New  Testament  teaches 
us  that  the  Levitical  priests  who  ministered  at  the  Jewish  altar 
typified  Christ,  our  great  High  Priest.  In  the  one  hundred  and 
tenth  psalm,  which  the  Saviour  himself  quotes  as  written  by 
David  "  in  spirit,"  and  as  referring  to  himself  (Matt.  22 :  41-45; 
Mark  12  :  35-37)  the  Messiah  is  represented  as  uniting  in 
himself  the  kingly  and  the  priestly  ofiice.  There  is  a  remark- 
able symbolical  transaction  in  Zecliariah  (chap.  6  : 9-14)  which 
contains  the  same  representation.  The  prophet  is  directed,  in 
the  presence  of  competent  witnesses,  to  "take  silver  and  gold, 
and  make  crowns,  and  set  them  upon  the  head  of  Joshua  [the 
Hebrew  word  answering  to  the  Greek  Jesus,  which  stands  in 
the  Septuagint  rendering  of  this  passage]  the  son  of  Josedech, 
the  high  j^nest."  In  his  ofiice  as  high  priest  Joshua  typifies 
Christ  our  great  High  Priest.  By  the  symbolical  act  of  crown- 
ing Joshua  is  typified  the  kingly  office  of  Christ  as  united  tvith 
the  priestly.  Hence  the  prophet  is  directed  by  God  to  add  : 
"  Thus  speaketh  the  Lord  of  hosts,  saying,  Behold  the  man 
whose  name  is  the  BRANCH"  (compare  chap.  3:8,  and  Isa. 
11 : 1 ;  Jer.  23  :  4-6 ;  33 :  15,  16) ;  "  and  he  shall  grow  up  out  of 
his  place,  and  he  shall  build  the  temple  of  the  Lord  :  even  he 
shall  build  the  temple  of  the  Lord;  and  he  shall  bear  the  glory, 
and  shall  sit  and  rule  upon  his  throne  ;  and  he  shall  be  a  priest 
upon  his  throne  :  and  the  counsel  of  peace  shall  be  between 
them  both."     In  accordance  with  these  representations  a  large 


BIBLICAL  INTEEPKETATION.  501 

part  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  occupied  with  a  discus- 
sion of  our  Lord's  priestly  office,  in  which,  beyond  contradic- 
tion, he  is  exhibited  as  the  great  antitype  of  both  Melchizedec 
and  the  Levitical  priests. 

12.  If  the  Levitical  priests  typified  Christ,  it  follows  that 
the  scicrijices  which  they  offered  luere  also  typical  of  Christ's  sac- 
rifice for  the  sins  of  the  world.  So  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
argues  :  "  Every  high  priest  is  ordained  to  offer  gifts  and  sac- 
rifices: wherefore  it  is  of  necessity  that  this  man  have  some- 
what also  to  offer."  Chap.  8:3.  The  Levitical  priests  stood 
"  daily  ministering,  and  offering  oftentimes  the  same  sacrifices, 
which  can  never  take  away  sins."  Chap.  10 :  11.  Their  offer- 
ings were  only  typical  of  expiation,  and  needed  therefore  to  be 
continually  repeated  till  the  Antitype  itself  should  appear.  But 
Christ  offered  his  own  blood  on  Calvary,  by  which  he  obtained 
eternal  redemption  for  us,  so  that  his  sacrifice  needs  no  repeti- 
tion. He  was  "  once  offered  to  bear  the  sins  of  many;"  and  by 
this  "one  offering  he  hath  perfected  for  ever  them  that  are 
sanctified."     Chaps.  9  :  ll-U,  25,  26;  10  :  10-14. 

But  this  doctrine  respecting  the  typical  character  of  the 
Levitical  sacrifices  is  not  restricted  to  the  epistle  to  the  He- 
brews. The  New  Testament  is  full  of  it.  John  the  Baptist, 
the  Saviour's  forerunner,  announced  him  as  "the  Lamb  of  God 
which  taketh  aw^ay  the  sin  of  the  world."  John  1 :  29.  Whether 
we  render,  as  in  the  margin  of  our  version,  "  which  heareth  the 
sin  of  the  world,"  or,  as  in  the  text,  "which  taketJi  aiuay  the  sin 
of  the  world,"  the  words  contain  the  idea  of  a  propitiatory  sac- 
rifice, or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  an  expiatory  sacri- 
fice ;  since  it  is  by  expiating  our  sin  that  Christ  propitiates  the 
Father.  By  bearing  the  sin  of  the  world  Christ  expiates  it, 
and  thus  takes  it  away.  Thus  he  is  "  the  propitiation  for  our 
sins,  and  not  for  ours  only,  but  also  for  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world."     1  John  2:  2. 

The  Saviour  himself  announced  his  purpose  to  die  for  his 
people :  "  I  lay  down  my  life  for  the  sheep."  "  Therefore  doth 
my  Father  love  me  because  I  lay  down  my  life,  that  I  might 


592  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

take  it  again.  No  man  taketli  it  from  me,  but  I  lay  it  down  of 
myself.  I  have  power  to  lay  it  clown,  and  I  have  power  to  take 
it  again.  This  commandment  have  I  received  of  my  Father." 
John  10 :  15,  17,  18.  And  lest  any  should  think  that  he  died 
simply  in  the  character  of  a  martyr,  he  elsewhere  explains  that 
"  the  Son  of  man  came  not  to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to  min- 
ister, and  to  give  his  life  a  ransom  for  many" — more  literally, 
"  a  ransom  instead  of  many  "  (Matt.  20  :  28 ;  Mark  10  :  45),  wdiere 
the  sacrificial  and  vicarious  nature  of  our  Lord's  death  is  ex- 
plicitly affirmed. 

But  it  was  after  our  Lord's  resurrection  that  the  sacrificial 
and  propitiatory  character  of  his  death  was  most  fully  revealed. 
"We  have  seen  the  view  taken  of  it  in  the  ejDistle  to  the  He- 
brews. With  this  the  other  writers  of  the  New  Testament  are 
in  harmony.  Jesus  Christ  is  the  great  sufferer  foretold  in  the 
fifty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah,  who  "  was  wounded  for  our  trans- 
gressions, bruised  for  our  iniquities :  the  chastisement  of  our 
peace  was  upon  him ;  and  with  his  stripes  we  are  healed ;" 
upon  whom  the  Lord  "  laid  the  iniquity  of  us  all ;"  who  was 
brought  as  a  lamb  to  the  slaughter,  and  as  a  sheep  before  her 
shearers  is  dumb,  so  he  opened  not  his  mouth;  whose  soul 
God  made  "  an  offering  for  sin  ;"  who  "  w^as  numbered  with  the 
transgressors,"  and  "bare  the  sins  of  many,  and  made  inter- 
cession for  the  transgressors."  1  Pet.  2  :  24,  25;  Acts  8  :  32-35; 
Mark  15  :  28  ;  Luke  22  :  37.  He  "  hath  once  suffered  for  sins, 
the  just  for  the  unjust,  that  he  might  bring  us  to  God"  (1  Pet. 
3  :  18) ;  He  has  redeemed  us  to  God  by  his  blood  (Rev.  5:9); 
has  "loved  us  and  washed  us  from  our  sins  in  his  osvn. blood" 
(Rev,  1:5);  and  his  redeemed  "  have  washed  their  robes,  and 
made  them  white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb"  (Rev.  7  :  14). 

To  recite  all  the  declarations  of  the  apostle  Paul  on  this 
great  theme  would  be  a  superfluous  work.  It  is  not  through 
Christ's  example  or  teachings,  but  through  his  blood  that  we 
have  "  redemption,  the  forgiveness  of  sins."  Ephes.  1 :  7. 
"  Christ  hath  redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the  law,  being  made 
a  curse  for  us  "  (Gal.  3 :  13),  words  which  teach  as  explicitly  as 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  593 

Imman  language  can,  that  Christ  has  delivered  us  from  the  pen- 
alty of  the  divine  law,  which  is  its  curse,  by  bearing  the  curse 
in  our  behalf.  This  he  did  when  he  was  hanged  on  the  tree. 
His  death  on  the  cross  was,  then,  vicarious ,  a  death  in  our 
stead ;  and  propitiatory^  for  in  view  of  it  God  releases  us  from 
the  curse  of  the  law.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  a  propitiatory 
sacrifice.  Finally,  as  if  to  cut  off  all  ground  for  the  assertion 
that  the  efficacy  of  Christ's  death  lies  wholly  in  its  moral  influ- 
ence upon  the  human  heart — its  humbling,  softening,  and  win- 
ning power — the  apostle  teaches  that  God  has  set  forth  Christ 
Jesus  as  a  propitiation  through  faith  in  his  blood  for  a  mani- 
festation of  his  righteousness,  "  that  he  raight  he  just,  and  the  jus- 
tifier  of  him  that  helieveth  in  Jesus.''     Rom.  3  :  25,  26. 

Every  word  of  this  weighty  passage  deserves  serious  consideration. 
We  give  by  the  side  of  the  English  version  another  translation,  intended 
to  be  somewhat  more  literal : 

Whom  God  hath  set  forth  to  be  a  Whom  God  hath  set  forth,  a  pro- 

l^ropitiation,    through   faith  in   his  pitiation,  through  faith,  in  his  blood, 

blood,  to  declare  his  righteousness  for  the  manifestation  of  his  right- 

for  the  passing  over  [marginal  ren-  eousness  in  respect  to  the  overlook- 

dering]  of  sins  that  are  past,  through  ing  of  sins  that  are  past,  through 

the  forbearance  of  God.    To  declare,  the  forbearance  of  God — a  manifes- 

/  sai/,  at  this  time,  his  righteous-  tation  of  his  righteousness  at  the 

ness  ;  that  he  might  be  just,  and  the  present  time  ;  in  order  that  he  may 

justifier  of  him  which  believeth  in  be  just,  and  the  justifier  of  him  that 

Jesus.  believeth  in  Jesus. 

From  these  words  we  learn  :  (1.)  That  God  has  publicly  set  forth  Christ 
as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice.  The  following  paraphrase  gives  the  probable 
connection  of  the  words  of  the  first  clause  :  Whom  God,  by  means  of  his 
blood,  hath  set  forth  as  a  propitiation  through  faith.  But  if  we  take  the 
connection  as  given  in  our  version,  the  propitiation  is  still  through  Christ's 
blood,  and  is  thus  a  propitiatory  or  exj)iatory  sacrifice.  (2.)  That  the  ajjpro- 
IH'iation  to  individual  sinners  of  this  propitiation  is  conditioned  on  personal 
faith.  Christ's  propitiatory  sacrifice  does  not,  in  and  of  itself,  justify  any 
man  ;  but  it  provides  a  ground  whereby  all  may  be  justified,  if  they  will  be- 
lieve iu  Jesus,  (3.)  That  through  Christ's  propitiatory  sacrifice  God  makes 
a  public  manifestation  of  his  righteousness  in  showing  mercy  to  sinners. 
The  jjhrase,  ''the  righteousness  of  God,"  may  mean,  in  the  usage  of  Paul, 


594  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  righteousness — justification — which  he  gives  through  faith.  But  in  con- 
nection with  the  words  that  follow,  "that  he  might  be  Just,  and  the  justi- 
fier  of  him  that  believeth  in  Jesus,"  it  can  only  mean  righteousness  as  an 
attribute  of  God,  his  jJublic  justice,  namely,  as  the  lawgiver  and  governor 
of  the  world.  (4.)  That  Christ's  propitiatory  sacrifice  was  necessary  in 
order  that  God  might  show  mercy  to  siiiners  consistently  with  the  demands 
of  his  justice.  For  when  the  apostle  says  "that  God  might  be  just,  and 
the  justifier  of  him  that  believeth  in  Jesus,"  the  words  necessarily  imply 
that,  without  this  sacrifice,  he  could  not  have  been  just  in  justifying  sin- 
ners. Christ's  propitiation  was  not  needed  to  make  God  more  merciful  in 
his  nature;  for  in  this  respect  he  is  unchangeably  "the  same  yesterday, 
to-day,  and  for  ever."  But  it  opens  a  way  by  which  he  may  show  mercy 
consistently  with  his  justice  and  the  sanctity  of  his  law.  When  we  raise 
inquiries  concerning  the  interior  nature  of  the  atonement,  we  meet  with 
deep  mysteries,  some  of  which  are,  perhaps,  above  the  comprehension  of 
finite  human  understanding.  But  we  can  comprehend,  and  believe  upon 
God's  testimony,  the  great  central  fact  of  the  gospel,  that  Christ  offered 
himself  to  the  Father  to  bear  in  human  nature  the  curse  of  the  divine  law 
in  behalf  of  sinners  ;  and  that  God  accepted  this  propitiatory  offering  as 
a  satisfaction  to  his  justice  in  such  a  sense  that  he  can  pardon  all  who 
believe  in  Christ  without  dishonor  to  himself  or  injury  to  his  moral  gov- 
ernment. 

13.  We  have  considered  Christ  as  the  great  Antitype  of  the 
Levitical  priests  and  sacrifices.  Let  us  now  go  back  and  con- 
sider the  characteristics  belonging  to  the  types  themselves,  beginning 
with  the  priesthood. 

(1.)  The  first  point  in  which  the  Levitical  priests  typified 
Christ  was  in  their  possession  of  the  same  common  human  nature 
as  those  in  whose  behalf  they  acted.  "  For  both  he  that  sanc- 
tifieth  [Christ]  and  they  wdio  are  sanctified  [believers]  are  all 
of  one  [one  Father,  having  a  common  sonship  as  members  of 
the  same  family  of  Adam]  :  for  which  cause  he  is  not  ashamed 
to  call  them  brethren"  (Heb.  2  :  11) ;  and  again  :  "  Forasmuch 
then  as  the  children  are  partakers  of  flesh  and  blood,  he  also 
himself  likewise  took  part  of  the  same"  (ver.  14);  and  still  fur- 
ther :  "  Wherefore  in  all  things  it  behooved  him  to  be  made 
like  unto  his  brethren ;  that  he  might  be  a  merciful  and  faith- 
ful High  Priest  in  things  pertaining  to  God,  to  make  reconcili- 
ation for  the  sins  of  the  people.      For  in  that  he  himself  hath 


BIBLICAL  INTERPKETATION.  595 

suffered,  being  tempted,  he  is  able  to  succor  them  that  are 
tempted"  (ver.  17,  18;  and  compare  4:15).  Accordingly  the 
priests  who  typified  Christ  were  taken  from  among  men,  not 
angels;  and  "able  to  have  compassion  on  the  ignorant,  and  on 
them  that  are  out  of  the  way,"  being  themselves  "  compassed 
with  infirmity."     Heb.  5  : 1,  2. 

(2.)  The  Levitical  priests,  again,  were  appointed  to  their  office 
hy  God:  "  And  no  man  taketh  this  honor  upon  himself,  but  he 
that  is  called  of  God,  as  was  Aaron.  So  also  Christ  glorified 
not  himself  to  be  made  a  high  priest ;  but  he  that  said  unto 
him.  Thou  art  my  Son,  to-day  have  I  begotten  thee.  As  he 
saith  also  in  another  place.  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the 
order  of  Melchizedec."     Heb.  5  :  4-6. 

(3.)  The  Levitical  priests,  once  more,  were  mediators  hetween 
God  and  the  people.  After  the  establishment  of  their  priest- 
hood, no  Israelite  or  sojourner  in  the  land  could  approach  God 
with  sacrifices  and  oblations  in  his  own  right,  and  be  his  own 
priest.  He  must  come  to  God  through  the  priesthood  of  his 
appointment — an  expressive  type  of  the  great  truth  announced 
by  Christ;  "  I  am  the  way,  and  the  truth,  and  the  life  :  no  man 
cometh  unto  the  Father  but  by  me."     John  14  :  6: 

(4.)  Finally,  the  Levitical  priests  were  not  only  mediators 
between  God  and  men,  but  mediators  through  propitiatory  sacri- 
fices. They  were  ordained  to  "  offer  both  gifts  and  sacrifices 
for  sins."  Heb.  5:1;  8:3.  "Wherefore,"  adds  the  writer, 
"it  is  of  necessity  that  this  man  [Christ]  have  somewhat  also 
to  offer."  Heb.  8  : 3.  They  offered  the  blood  of  bulls  and 
goats,  which  made  expiation  only  in  a  typical  way;  he  offered 
to  God  his  own  blood  as  a  real  propitiation  for  sin.  Heb.  7  :  27 ; 
9 : 12-28 ;  10 : 10-14. 

The  points  of  dissimilarity  between  the  Levitical  priests  and 
Christ,  as  stated  in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  all  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  superior  dignity  and  efficacy  of  his  priesthood.  They 
were  sinful  men,  and  as  such  needinsr  to  offer  sacrifice  first  for 
their  own  sins  (chap.  5  : 3) ;  but  he  is  "holy,  harmless,  unde- 
filed,  separate  from  sinners,  and  made  higher  than  the  heav- 


596  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

ens  "  (chap.  7  :  26).  They  were  many,  "because  they  were  not 
suffered  to  continue,  by  reason  of  death:"  but  he,  "because  he 
continueth  ever,  hath  an  unchangeable  priesthood."  Chap. 
7 :  23,  24.  Their  offerings  could  not  take  away  sin.  They  were 
only  typical  of  expiation,  and  therefore  needed  to  be  continu- 
ally repeated.  But  Christ  has  by  his  one  offering  "  perfected 
for  ever  them  that  are  sanctified" — perfected  them  in  respect  to 
the  expiation  of  sin,  which  is  the  foundation  on  which  the  work 
of  personal  sanctification  rests.     Heb.  10  :  11,  12. 


Mediatorship  between  God  and  man  through  propitiatory  sacrifice  con- 
stitutes the  central  idea  of  priesthood.  The  Levitical  priests  did  indeed 
make  intercession  for  the  people  in  the  burning  of  sweet  incense  (see 
above,  No.  8),  and  in  presenting  to  God  their  unbloody  offerings,  but  all 
this  was  done  through  the  blood  of  atonement.  We  see,  then,  how  false  and 
mischievous  is  the  idea  that  there  can  be  true  mediating  priests  under  the 
New  Testament  dispensation.  Christ  appeared  once  for  all  "to  put  away 
sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself"  (Heb.  9  :  25-28  ;  10  :  10-12),  since  which  no 
further  sacrifice  is  needed,  or  can  be  lawfully  offered.  Christ  also  opened 
to  all  believers  through  his  blood  a  new  and  living  way  of  access  to  God, 
through  which  they  can  come  boldly  to  the  throne  of  grace,  having  no 
need  of  human  mediators.  Heb.  10  :  18-22.  Behevers  as  a  body  are  "a 
holy  priesthood,  to  offer  up  spiritual  sacrifices,  acceptable  to  God  by  Jesus 
Christ."  1  Pet.  2  : 5.  They  present  themselves  to  God  "a  living  sacri- 
fice, holy,  acceiDtable  to  God."  Eom.  12  : 1.  They  "  offer  the  sacrifice  of 
praise  to  God  continually,  that  is,  the  fniit  of  their  lips,  giving  thanks  to 
his  name."  Heb.  13  :  15.  These  spiritual  sacrifices  offered  by  the  body  of 
believers  through  Christ,  their  glorified  High  Priest,  are  the  only  sacrifices 
known  to  the  New  Testament  church. 

Of  the  high  priest's  garments,  made  by  divine  direction  "for  glory  and 
for  beauty,"  we  cannot  here  speak  in  detail.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  they 
represented  in  general  the  dignity  and  excellence  of  his  office,  as  the 
divinely  appointed  mediator  between  God  and  the  covenant  people.  The 
golden  plate  with  the  inscription  HOLINESS  TO  THE  LORD  is  its  own 
interpreter.  The  twelve  names  of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  graven  on  two  pre- 
cious stones,  and  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  the  high  priest,  six  on  each 
shoulder,  and  then  the  same  twelve  graven  on  twelve  gems,  and  borne 
on  his  breast  as  he  ministered  before  the  Lord,  beautifully  typify  Christ 
our  great  High  Priest,  who  bears  his  people  on  his  shoulders  by  his 
almighty  power  and  efficacious  atonement,  and  on  his  heart  by  his  ever- 
lastinof  love. 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  597 

14.  From  tlie  typical  priests  we  naturally  pass  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  typical  sacrifices  offered  by  tliem.  Upon  Noah's 
leaving  the  ark,  God  prohibited  the  eating  of  blood  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  the  life  of  the  animal.  Gen.  9  : 4.  The  rea- 
son of  this  prohibition  is  unfolded  in  a  passage  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  which  clearly  sets  forth  the  nature  and  design  of  bloody 
offerings :  "  And  whatsoever  man  there  be  of  the  house  of  Israel, 
or  of  the  strangers  that  sojourn  among  you,  that  eateth  any  man- 
ner of  blood,  I  wdll  even  set  my  face  against  that  soul  that  eateth 
blood,  and  will  cut  him  off  from  among  his  people.  For  the  life 
of  the  flesh  is  in  the  blood;  and  I  have  given  it  to  you  upon  the 
altar  to  make  an  atonement  for  your  souls :  for  it  is  the  blood 

THAT  MAKETH  AN  ATONEMENT  FOR  THE  SOUL."   Lev.  17  :  10,  11. 

Hence  the  sprinkling  of  the  sacrificial  blood  by  the  priest  as  a 
sign  of  expiation,  a  rite  that  will  be  more  particularly  consid- 
ered hereafter  (No.  15).  The  reason  that  the  hlood  makes  the 
atonement  is  that  "the  Ufe  of  the  flesh  is  in  the  blood."  The 
scriptural  idea,  then,  of  a  sacrifice  is  the  offering  to  God  of  one 
life  in  behalf  of  another  that  has  been  forfeited  by  sin — the  life 
of  the  innocent  beast  instead  of  the  life  of  the  guilty  offerer. 
Tliis  general  idea  of  the  vicarious  and  propitiatory  nature  of  sac- 
rifices comes  out  with  beautiful  simplicity  and  clearness  in  the 
book  of  Job :  "  And  it  was  so  when  the  days  of  their  feasting 
were  gone  about,  that  Job  sent  and  sanctified  them,  and  rose 
up  early  in  the  morning,  and  offered  burnt  offerings  according 
to  the  number  of  them  all :  for  Job  said,  It  may  he  that  my  sons 
have  sinned,  and  cursed  God  in  their  hearts."  Chap.  1 :  5.  And 
again  :  "My  wrath  is  kindled  against  thee,  and  against  tliy  two 
friends ;  for  ye  have  not  spoken  of  me  the  thing  that  is  right, 
as  my  servant  Job  hath.  Therefore  take  unto  you  now  seven 
bullocks  and  seven  rams,  and  go  to  my  servant  Job,  and  offer 
up  for  yourselves  a  burnt-offering ;  and  my  servant  Job  shall 
pray  for  you :  for  him  will  I  accept :  lest  I  deal  with  you  after 
your  folly."  Chap.  42 :  7,  8.  The  sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic 
law  were  of  various  kinds,  implying  various  accessory  ideas. 
But  underlying  them  all  was  the  fundamental  idea  of  pyopitia- 


598  COMPANION   TO   THE  BIBLE. 

tion  through  blood.  Hence  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews,  when 
commenting  on  the  transaction  recorded  in  Exodus,  chap. 
24 : 4-8,  says :  "  And  almost  all  things  are  by  the  law  purged 
with  blood ;  and  without  shedding  of  blood  is  no  remission.'* 
Heb.  9  :  22.  The  only  exception  was  in  the  case  of  the  poor 
man  who  was  "  not  able  to  bring  two  turtle  doves  or  two  young 
pigeons."  He  w^as  allowed  to  "  bring  for  his  offering  the  tenth 
part  of  an  epliah  of  fine  flour  for  a  sin-offering"  (Lev.  5  :  11), 
upon  the  principle  that  God  "will  have  mercy  and  not  sacri- 
fice." 

No  orderly  classification  of  sacrifices  is  to  be  sought  without  tlie  pale 
of  the  Jewish  ceremonial.  The  burnt-offerings,  for  example,  mentioned 
in  the  book  of  Job,  had  the  force  of  proper  sin-offerings.  Chaps.  1:5; 
42  : 8.  The  classification  in  the  book  of  Leviticus  is  into  burnt-offerings, 
sin-offerings,  trespass-offerings,  and  peace-offerings.  But  they  may  be 
most  conveniently  considered  in  the  order  of  their  i)resentation,  when  two 
or  more  of  them  were  offered  on  the  same  occasion,  as  when  Aaron  and 
his  sons  were  consecrated  to  the  priesthood,  and  the  people  sanctified  in 
connection  with  this  transaction  (Lev.  chaps  8,  9),  and  in  the  offerings  of 
the  great  day  of  atonement  (Lev.  chap,  16). 

Here  the  sin-offering  naturally  held  the  first  place  ;  for  this,  as  its  nanae 
indicates,  was  whoUy  expiatory  and  propitiatory,  bringing  the  offerer  into 
a  state  of  forgiveness  and  divine  favor.  The  sin-offerings  had  reference  (1) 
to  sin  generally,  as  when  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  consecrated  and  the  peo- 
ple sanctified,  and  when,  on  the  annual  day  of  atonement,  expiation  was 
made  for  the  sins  of  the  past  year ;  (2)  to  specific  offences  (Lev.  chains.  4,  5). 
The  exact  distinction  between  the  sin-offering  and  the  trespass-offering  is 
of  difficult  determination.  Both  were  alike  expiatory,  were  in  fact  sub- 
divisions of  the  same  class  of  offerings.  A  comparison  of  the  passages  in 
which  trespass-offerings  are  prescribed  (Lev.  5:1;  6  : 1-7  ;  Numb.  5  : 6-8) 
seems  to  indicate  that  they  belonged  esj)ecially  to  trespasses  for  which  res- 
titution could  be  made. 

Next  in  the  order  of  sacrifices,  though  first  in  dignity,  came  the  burnt- 
offering,  also  called  holocaust  (Heb.  kalil),  that  is,  wliole  hwnt-offering,  the 
characteristic  mark  of  which  was  the  consuming  of  the  whole  by  fire  (Lev. 
chap.  1).  It  is  conceded  by  all  that  this  was  a  symbol  of  completeness  ;  but  in 
what  respect  is  a  question  that  has  been  answered  in  different  ways.  Some 
refer  the  completeness  to  the  offering  itself,  as  that  form  of  sacrifice  which 
embraces  in  itself  all  others  (Eosenmiiller  on  Deut.  33  :  10) ;  or,  as  the 
most  perfect  offering,  inasmuch  as  it  exhibits  the  idea  of  offering  in  its 


BIBLICAL  INTERPEETATION.  599 

completeness  and  generality,  and  so  concentrates  in  itself  all  -svorsliip. 
Bahr,  Symbolik,  vol.  2,  p.  362.  But  we  cannot  separate,  in  the  intention 
of  God,  the  completeness  of  the  form  from  the  state  of  the  offerer's  mind. 
The  burnt-offering  was  indeed,  in  its  outward  form,  the  most  perfect  of  all 
sacrifices,  for  which  reason  it  excluded  female  victims,  as  relatively  infe- 
rior to  the  male  sex.  But  because  of  this  its  completeness  and  generality 
it  signified  the  entire  self -consecration  of  the  offerer  to  God.  Winer  and  oth- 
ers after  Philo.  But  this,  let  it  be  carefully  remembered,  was  a  self-con- 
secration that  could  be  made  only  through  the  hlood  of  expiation,  to  indicate 
which,  the  blood  of  the  burnt- offering  was  sprinkled  by  the  priest  "round 
about  upon  the  altar ;"  or,  in  the  case  of  a  bird,  where  the  quantity  was 
too  small  to  be  thus  sprinkled,  was  "wrung  out  at  the  side  of  the  altar." 

The  peace-offering  (more  literally,  offe7'i7ig  of  renditions ;  that  is,  offer- 
ing in  which  the  offerer  rendered  to  God  the  tribute  of  praise  and  thanks- 
giving which  was  his  due)  was  in  all  its  different  subdivisions — thank-offer- 
ing, votive  offering,  free-will  offering  (Lev.  7  :  11-16) — a  eucharistic  offer- 
ing. Hence  its  social  character.  After  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood,  the 
burning  of  the  prescribed  parts  on  the  altar,  and  the  assignment  to  the 
priest  of  his  portion,  the  offerer  and  his  friends  feasted  JoyfuUy  before  the 
Lord  on  the  remainder.  Lev.  chap.  3  compared  with  chap.  7  :  11-18.  In 
the  case  of  monarchs,  like  David  and  Solomon,  the  whole  nation  was  feasted. 
2  Sam.  6  :  17-19  ;  1  Kings  8  :  62-66.  Hence  the  Messiah,  as  the  great  King  of 
all  nations,  is  beautifully  represented  as  paying  his  peace-offerings  to  God  for 
the  deliverance  granted  him  from  his  foes,  and  as  summoning  all  nations  to 
the  sacrificial  feast :  "My  praise  shall  be  of  thee  in  the  great  congregation  ;  I 
will  pay  my  vows  [vows  in  the  form  of  peace-offerings]  before  them  that 
fear  him.  The  meek  shall  eat  and  be  satisfied  :  they  shall  praise  the  Lord 
that  seek  him  :  your  heart  shall  Hve  for  ever.  All  the  ends  of  the  world 
shall  remember  and  turn  unto  the  Lord, "  etc.  Psa.  22  :  25-31.  The  peace- 
offering  naturally  followed  the  burnt-offering,  as  that  did  the  sin-offering 
in  the  sanctification  of  .the  Israelitish  congregation.  Lev.  9  :  15-18.  It 
signified  joyful  communion  with  God  in  thanksgiving  and  praise  ;  but  this, 
too,  only  through  the  hlood  of  the  victim  sprinkled  upon  the  altar  as  a  sign 
of  expiation.  Lev.  chap.  3.  In  these  three  classes  of  offerings,  then,  we 
have  typically  set  forth,  first,  expiation  restoring  man  to  God's  favor,  then 
self-consecration,   then  holy  communion  in  thanksgiving  and  praise — alij 

THBEE  ONLY  THROUGH  THE  SPRENEXING  OF  THE  BLOOD  OF  ChEIST,  the  great 

Antitype  of  the  Levitical  priests  and  sacrifices. 

The  sacrificial  nature  of  the  passovei^  appears  in  the  direction  given  at 
its  institution  that  the  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb  should  be  sprinkled  on 
the  lintel  and  two  side-posts  of  the  house  where  it  was  eaten  as  a  protec- 
tion against  the  destroyer  of  the  first-born  (Exod.  12  :  22,  23) ;  and  in  the 
ordinance  afterwards  established,  requiring  that  it  should  be  slain  at  the 


GOO  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

sanctuary  (Dent.  16  : 1-8),  and  its  blood  sprinkled  upon  tlie  altar.  2  Cliroii 
30  :  16  ;  35  :  11.  Its  character  approached  very  near  to  that  of  the  peace- 
offerings.  It  was  a  joyous  festival,  commemorative  of  the  deliverance  of 
Israel  from  Egyptian  bondage;  and  thus  typically  shadowing  forth  the 
higher  redemption  of  God's  people  from  the  bondage  of  sin.  As  the  blood 
of  the  paschal  lamb  sprinkled  on  the  doors  of  the  houses  protected  the 
inmates  from  the  destroyer  of  the  first-born,  so  does  the  blood  of  Christ 
protect  all  who  through  faith  receive  its  expiatory  power  from  the  wrath 
to  come.  As  the  Israelites  feasted  joyfully  on  the  flesh  of  the  paschal 
lamb,  so  does  the  church  feed  by  faith  on  the  great  antitypal  Lamb  of 
God,  who  is  the  true  Passover  sacrificed  for  us.     1  Cor.  6  :  7. 

There  were  some  other  sacrifices  of  a  special  character,  such  as  those 
by  which  the  covenant  between  God  and  the  people  was  ratified  (Exod. 
24  :  3-8)  ;  the  ram  of  consecration,  when  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  inducted 
into  the  priesthood  (Lev.  8  :  22-30)  ;  the  sacrifice  and  other  rites  connected 
with  the  cleansing  of  the  leper  (Lev.  14 : 1-32)  ;  the  sacrifice  of  the  red 
heifer  from  which  were  prepared  the  ashes  of  purification  (Numb.  chap.  19)  ; 
the  sacrifice  of  the  heifer  in  the  case  of  an  uncertain  murder  (Deut.  21 : 1-9). 
Kespecting  these,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remark  generally  that,  whatever 
other  ideas  were  typified  by  them,  that  of  expiation  through  blood  was  not 
wanting. 

It  was  required  by  the  law  that  all  the  sacrificial  victims  should  be  with- 
out blemish,  not  only  because  the  offering  to  God  of  an  imperfect  victim 
would  have  been  an  affront  to  his  majesty  (Mai.  1  :8,  13,  14),  but  espe- 
cially because  a  perfect  victim  could  alone  typify  the  Lamb  of  God,  "with- 
out blemish  and  without  spot,"  who  was  offered  on  Calvary  as  the  propiti- 
ation for  "the  sins  of  the  whole  world.     1  Pet.  1 :  19,  20. 

Of  the  unbloody  offerings  [oblations,  called  in  our  version  meat-oferings), 
some  were  "supplementary  to  the  sacrifices,  being  necessary  to  their  com- 
pleteness. Such  was  the  salt  which,  as  a  symbol  of  purity  and  friendship, 
was  prescribed  for  all  meat  offerings  (Lev.  2  :  13),  and  seems  to  have  been 
used  with  aU  sacrifices  also.  Ezek.  43 :  24  compared  with  Mark  9  :  49. 
Such  also  were  the  flour,  wine,  and  oil  offered  with  the  daily  sacrifice 
(Exod.  29  :  40),  and  in  certain  other  cases.  Lev.  8  :  26  ;  9  :  17  ;  14  :  10,  etc. 
Other  oblations,  like  those  prescribed  in  the  second  chapter  of  Leviticus,' 
were  presented  by  themselves,  as  expressions  of  love,  gratitude,  and  devo- 
tion to  God  on  the  part  of  the  offerers.  After  a  portion  of  them,  including 
all  the  frankincense,  had  been  burned  on  the  altar,  the  rest  went  to  Aaron 
and  his  sons  as  their  jDortion. 

The  priests  also  received  specified  portions  from  tlie  peace-offerings  of 
the  people,  the  trespass-offerings,  and  the  sin-offerings  the  blood  of  which 
was  not  carried  into  the  sanctuary.     See  Lev.  chap.  6  :  24 — 7  :  34. 


BIBLICAL  IaTERPEETATION.  601 

15.  Of  the  typical  transactions  connected  with  the  offering 
of  sacrifices  and  oblations  we  notice  the  following : 

(1.)  In  all  cases  the  offerer  laid  Ms  hands  upon  the  head  of  the 
victim.  The  meaning  of  this  act  may  be  inferred  from  the  first 
mention  of  it  in  the  Levitical  ceremonial :  "  And  he  shall  put 
his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  burnt-offering ;  and  it  shall  be 
accepted  for  him  to  make  atonement  for  him."  Lev.  1 : 4. 
The  act  in  question  was,  then,  the  solemn  dedication  to  Jeho- 
vah of  the  victim  for  the  end  proposed.  By  the  laying  on  of 
his  hands,  he  presented  it  to  God  as  his  offering  to  make  atone- 
ment for  his  soul,  and  God  accepted  it  as  such.  From  the  very 
nature  of  the  offering,  this  act  of  presentation  contained  an 
acknowledgment  of  guilt  that  needed  exj^iation,  but  there  was 
no  formal  transfer  of  his  sins  to  the  victim,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  scape-goat.     See  below.  No.  16. 

(2.)  The  waving  and  heaving  of  offerings  belonged  to  the 
priests  alone.  Both  were  manifestly  acts  of  presentation  and 
dedication  to  God.  For  example,  the  loaf  of  bread,  cake  of 
oiled  bread,  and  wafer  of  unleavened  bread  employed  upon  the 
occasion  of  Aaron's  consecration  were  first  placed  in  his  hands 
to  be  waved  before  the  Lord,  and  then  burned  by  Moses  on  the 
altar  of  burnt-offering.  Exod.  29 :  23-25.  So  also  the  breast 
of  the  ram  of  consecration  was  waved,  and  the  right  shoulder 
heaved,  before  they  were  eaten  by  Aaron  and  his  sons  (Exod. 
29 :  26-28) ;  the  lamb  of  the  leper  who  had  been  healed,  with 
the  accompanying  oblation,  was  waved  by  the  priest  before  the 
Lord  before  slaying  it.     Lev.  14 :  12,  seq. 

According  to  the  rabbins,  the  waving  consisted  of  a  movement  for- 
wards and  backwards.  Some  think  that  there  was  also  a  lateral  motion 
from  right  to  left  and  the  reverse.  The  heaving  was  a  movement  upwards 
and  downwards.  The  ground  of  the  distinction  between  these  two  forms 
of  presentation  to  Jehovah  is  uncertain.  We  only  know  that  the  ceremony 
of  heaving  was  restricted  to  certain  cases.  Thus  the  breast  of  the  peace- 
offerings  was  always  waved,  and  the  right  shoulder  heaved,  before  they 
were  given  to  the  priests  as  their  portion.     Lev.  7  :  28-34, 

(3.)  The  spnnlding  of  the  victim's  blood  was  a  most  weighty 
part  of  the  ceremonial,  for  by  this  expiation  was  symbolit:ed. 

Comr-  tn  WMe.  26 


GD2  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

It  was  accordingly  restricted  to  the  priest,  wlio  was  the  ap- 
pointed mediator  between  God  and  the  people.  The  seven- 
fold sprinkling  of  the  blood  that  was  carried  into  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  4 :  6, 17  ;  16  :  14, 19),  and  in  certain  other  cases  (Lev.  8  :  11 ; 
14 :  7,  51)  denoted  the  completeness  of  the  expiation,  seven  being 
the  well-known  symbol  of  perfection.  Hence  the  New  Testa- 
ment beautifully  represents  believers  as  purified  from  sin  by  the 
sprinkling  of  the  blood  of  Christ,  the  great  Antitype  of  the  Mo- 
saic sacrifices.      Heb.  9  :  13,  14 ;  10 :  22  ;  12  :  24 ;  1  Pet.  1 :  2. 

Kindred  to  the  rite  of  sprinkling  was  the  application  of  the 
victim's  blood  to  the  horns  of  the  altar  and  to  the  person  of 
the  offerer.  Exod.  29  :  12,  20 ;  Lev.  4  :  7,  18,  25,  30 ;  8  :  15,  24  ; 
14 :  14,  etc. 

(4.)  The  hurning  of  the  offering,  or  of  certain  specified  parts 
of  it,  upon  the  altar,  whereby  its  odor  ascended  up  to  heaven, 
was  a  natural  expression  of  dedication  to  God.  Compare  Gen. 
8  :  21,  Lev.  1 :  9,  etc. 

16.  We  have  seen  the  typical  import  of  the  furniture  of  the 
tabernacle  (Nos.  8  and  9  above).  That  the  tabernacle  itself ,  con- 
sidered generally,  had  also  a  typical  meaning,  is  admitted  by 
all  who  believe  in  revelation.  But  when  we  come  to  the  con- 
sideration of  details,  we  encounter  diversities  of  interpretation 
which  cannot  be  here  considered.  We  notice  only  the  follow- 
ing points : 

(1.)  The  Mosaic  tabernacle  was,  as  we  have  seen,  God's 
visible  earthly  dwelling-place.  As  such,  it  shadowed  forth  his 
real  presence  and  glory,  first,  in  the  church  of  the  redeemed  on 
earth  through  Jesus  Christ ;  secondly,  in  the  glorified  church  in 
heaven.  Some  think  that  the  outer  sanctuary,  with  its  altar  of 
incense,  its  golden  candlestick,  and  its  table  of  show-bread, 
typified  God's  presence  with  the  church  militant,  through  her 
divinely-appointed  ordinances;  and  the  inner  sanctuary,  his 
presence  with  the  church  triumphant  in  heaven. 

(2.)  Under  the  Mosaic  economy,  the  people  were  not  admit- 
ted to  either  sanctuary.  They  could  approach  God  only 
through  the  mediation  of  the  priests.     The  priests  themselves 


BIBLICAL  INTERPEETATION.  603 

entered  the  outer  sanctuary  daily  to  burn  incense  and  perform 
the  other  prescribed  services;  but  the  high  priest  alone  was 
permitted  to  enter  the  most  holy  place  once  every  year  with 
the  blood  of  the  sin-offering.  This  represented  that,  under 
the  old  dispensation,  the  way  of  access  to  God  on  the  part  of 
sinners  was  not  yet  made  manifest.  In  respect  to  the  holy  of 
holies,  we  have  the  express  statement  of  inspiration  :  "  But  into 
the  second  went  the  high  priest  alone  once  every  year,  not 
without  blood,  which  he  offered  for  himself,  and  for  the  errors 
of  the  people :  the  Holy  Ghost  this  signifying,  that  the  way 
into  the  holiest  of  all  was  not  yet  made  manifest,  while  as  the 
first  tabernacle  was  yet  standing."  Heb.  9  : 7,  8.  By  parity 
of  reason,  the  principle  holds  good  in  respect  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  people  from  the  outer  sanctuary.  We  are  informed, 
accordingly,  that  when  Christ  cried  upon  the  cross  with  a  loud 
voice,  "  It  is  finished,"  and  gave  up  the  ghost,  "  the  vail  of  the 
temple  was  rent  in  twain  from  the  top  to  the  bottom."  Matt. 
27 :  50,  51 ;  Mark  15 :  37,  38 ;  Luke  23  :  45,  46.  By  this  was  sig- 
nified that  now  the  way  of  access  to  God  was  opened  through 
Christ's  blood  to  all  believers;  so  that  they  constitute  a  spir- 
itual priesthood,  having  access  to  God  within  the  vail  without 
the  help  of  any  earthly  mediation,  that  they  may  there  "  offer 
up  spiritual  sacrifices,  acceptable  to  God  by  Jesus  Christ." 
Heb.  7:25;  10:19,  20;  1  Pet.  2:5,9;  Kev.  1:6. 

(3.)  The  typical  character  of  the  tabernacle  appears  very 
strikingly  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  great  day  of-  atonement. 
Lev.  chap.  16.  After  the  high-priest  had  first  offered  a  sin- 
offering  for  himself,  and  sprinkled  its  blood  in  the  inner  sanc- 
tuary upon  and  before  the  mercy-seat  seven  times,  he  brought 
the  two  goats  that  had  been  appointed  for  the  expiation  of  the 
people,  one  for  a  sin-offering,  the  other  for  a  scape-goat,  the 
office  of  each  being  determined  by  lot.  When  he  had  slain 
the  goat  of  the  sin-offering,  he  carried  its  blood  into  the  most 
holy  place,  and  sprinkled  it  also  seven  times  upon  and  before 
the  mercy-seat,  to  "  make  an  atonement  for  the  holy  place,  be- 
cause of  the  uncleanness  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and  because 


604  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

of  their  transgressions  in  all  their  sins  (ver.  16)."  Then  it  was 
directed  that  the  live  goat  should  be  brought :  "  And  Aaron 
shall  lay  both  his  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  live  goat,  and 
confess  over  him  all  the  iniquities  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and 
all  their  transgressions  in  all  their  sins,  putting  them  upon  the 
head  of  the  goat,  and  shall  send  him  away  by  the  hand  of  a  fit 
man  into  the  wilderness.  And  the  goat  shall  bear  upon  him 
all  their  iniquities  into  a  land  not  inhabited ;  and  he  shall  let 
go  the  goat  in  the  wilderness."  Ver.  21,  22.  By  this  double 
ceremonial  was  signified,  first,  that  Christ  should  exjDiate  our 
sins  by  his  own  blood;  secondly,  that  through  this  expiation 
he  should  bear  them  in  his  own  person,  and  thus  remove  them 
far  away  from  us.  The  Jewish  high  priest  entered  year  by 
3^ear  through  the  earthly  tabernacle  into  God's  presence  with 
the  blood  of  the  sin-offering,  that  he  might  sprinkle  it  before 
the  mercy-seat.  But  Christ,  our  great  High  Priest,  has  entered 
*'  by  a  greater  and  more  perfect  tabernacle  not  made  with 
hands"  into  heaven  itself,  to  present  his  own  blood  before  the 
throne  of  God  as  a  perfect  propitiation  for  our  sins.  Heb. 
9  :  11,  12,  24. 

The  striking  ceremonial  connected  with  the  scape-goat  on  the  great  day 
of  atonement  (Lev.  chap.  16)  is  never  to  be  interpreted  separately,  but 
always  in  connection  with  the  other  goat,  which  was  slain  as  a  sin-offering, 
and  its  blood  carried  within  the  vail  into  the  most  holy  place.  The  inade- 
quacy of  the  type  made  it  necessary  that  tivo  goats  should  be  used  in  this 
0)16  service,  one  to  represent  the  expiation  of  the  people's  sin  through  the 
sjjrinkling  of  its  blood  ;  the  other,  the  vicarious  bearing  and  taking  away 
of  their  sin.  Whatever  difficulties  are  connected  with  the  interpretation 
of  the  Hebrew  w^ord  rendered  in  our  version  "for  a  scape-goat"  (Hebrew, 
la-azazel),  the  typical  meaning  of  the  transaction  is  clear,  and  it  has  its  fulfil- 
ment only  in  Christ,  who  has  expiated,  and  so  taken  away,  the  sin  of  the 
world. 

(4.)  In  the  case  of  the  more 'solemn  sacrifices — the  sin- 
offerings  for  the  high-priest  and  for  the  congregation  (Lev. 
4 : 1-21 ;  chap.  16) — the  expiatory  blood  was  carried  into  the 
sanctuary  to  be  presented  before  God.  But  the  victim  was  in 
all  cases  slain  without  the  sanctuary ;  and  when  its  blood  was 


BIBLICAL  INTERPKETATION.  605 

carried  into  the  sanctuary,  its  body  typically  bearing  the  curse 
of  the  violated  law,  was  burned  without  the  camp.  In  corre- 
spondence with  this,  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews  reminds  us  that 
"Jesus  also,  that  he  might  sanctify  the  people  with  his  own 
blood,  suffered  without  the  gate."  Heb.  13:11,  12.  He  suf- 
fered "  without  the  gate  "  in  a  two-fold  sense.  As  a  condemned 
malefactor,  he  was  thrust  out  of  the  holy  city,  which  answered 
to  the  ancient  Israelitish  camp,  and  there  he  expiated  on  the 
cross  the  sin  of  the  world.  He  also  suffered  "without  the 
gate  "  of  the  true  holy  city,  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  which  he 
left  that  he  might  tabernacle  among  men  and  die  for  their 
redemption ;  and  having  accomplished  this  work,  he  went  "  by 
his  own  blood"  into  the  heavenly  holy  of  holies,  there  to  make 
intercession  for  us. 

Tlie  dignity  and  sacredness  of  these  solemn  sin-offerings  made  it  neces- 
sary that  a  clean  place  should  be  selected  for  the  burning  of  the  jflesh  ;  but 
inasmuch  as  they  were  typically  laden  with  the  curse  of  sin,  they  were  car- 
ried without  the  precincts  of  the  camp  where  God  dwelt,  and  there  con- 
sumed, where  the  ashes  of  all  the  bloody  offerings  were  poured  out.  Lev. 
4  :  11,  12,  21 ;  16  :  27.  The  man,  moreover,  who  performed  the  service  of 
burning  the  sin-offering  on  the  day  of  atonement,  having  been  tyi3ically 
defiled  by  contact  with  it,  was  required  to  wash  his  clothes  and  bathe  his 
flesh  in  water  before  coming  into  the  camp.  Lev.  16  :  28.  In  the  case  of 
the  scape-goat,  "the  wilderness,"  the  "land  not  inhabited,"  answered  to 
the  place  without  the  camp  where  the  sin-offering  was  burned ;  and  the 
man  that  led  him  away  was,  in  like  manner,  required  to  wash  his  clothes 
and  bathe  his  flesh  in  water  before  reentering  the  camp.     Lev.  16  :  26. 

1 

17.  The  distinctions  hettueen  clean  and  unclean  in  respect  to 
articles  of  food  and  various  other  particulars,  had  also  a  typ- 
ical meaning.  That  the  regulations  in  regard  to  these  matters 
were  promotive  of  physical  purity  and  health  is  undoubtedly 
true;  yet  we  are  not  to  consider  them  as  simply  a  sanitary 
code.  They  reached  to  the  inner  man.  Through  these  phys- 
ical distinctions  of  clean .  and  unclean  God  educated  the  peo- 
ple to  an  apprehension  of  the  difference  between  moral  purity 
and  impurity. 


606  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  Levitical  view  of  sickness  and  every  bodily  infirmity  is 
deep  and  fundamental.  All  is  referred  to  sin  as  the  primal 
cause.  The  sufferer  from  leprosy  and  various  other  infirmities 
(Lev.  chaps.  12-15)  is  regarded  not  as  a  sinner  above  other 
men  (Luke  13  : 1-5),  but  yet  as  suffering  in  the  character  of  a 
sinner.  Hence  the  ceremonial  uncleanness  of  such  persons, 
and  the  expiatory  offerings  required  in  the  case  of  those  who 
have  been  healed. 


BIBLICAL  INTERPEETATION.  607 


CHAPTER  XXXYIII. 

Interpretation   of   Prophecy. 

1.  The  scriptural  idea  of  prophecy  is  widely  removed  from 
that  of  human  foresight  and  presentiment.  It  is  that  of  a 
revelation  made  by  the  Holy  Spirit  respecting  the  future,  always 
in  the  interest  of  God's  kingdom.  It  is  no  part  of  the  plan  of 
prophecy  to  gratify  vain  curiosity  respecting  "  the  times  or  the 
seasons  which  the  Father  hath  put  in  his  own  power."  Acts 
1:7.  "  Comfort  ye,  comfort  ye  my  people,  saith  your  God  " — 
this  is  its  key-note.  In  its  form  it  is  carefully  adapted  to  this 
great  end.  Its  notices  of  the  future  are  interwoven  with  ex- 
hortations and  admonitions,  encouragements  and  warnings, 
promises  and  threatenings.  These  constitute,  indeed,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  prophetical  writings  that  have  come  down  to 
us.  The  subject  of  the  interpretation  of  prophecy  may  be 
conveniently  considered  under  the  following  heads :  prophecies 
relating  to  the  near  future ;  prophecies  relating  to  the  last 
days ;  the  question  of  double  sense ;  the  question  of  literal  and 
figurative  meaning. 

I.  PROPHECIES  RELATING  TO  THE  NEAR  FUTURE. 

2.  The  Bible  contains  many  prophecies  relating  to  the 
comparatively  near  future.  These  are  all  specific  in  their  char- 
acter, and  have  a  single  exhaustive  fulfilment.  Examples  are : 
the  prediction  to  Noah  of  the  approaching  deluge,  and  to  Abra- 
ham of  the  bondage  of  his  posterity  in  a  strange  land ;  the  dis- 
closure through  Pharaoh's  dreams  of  the  coming  famine  in 
Egypt;  Joseph's  announcement  of  the  future  deliverance  of 
Israel  from  Egypt;  the  token  given  to  Moses  that  God  had 
sent  him :  "  When  thou  hast  brought  forth  the  people  out  of 
Egypt,  ye  shall  serve  God  upon  this  mountain  "  (Exod.  3  :  12) ; 
God's  threatened  judgments  upon  the  house  of  Eli  with  the 


G08  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

accompaDjing  sign  (1  Sam.  2  :  34) ;  the  warning  that  David 
received  by  Urim  and  Thummim  of  Saul's  approach  to  destroy 
him  (1  Sam.  23  : 9-12) ;  the  prediction  that  Josiah  should  defile 
Jeroboam's  altar  at  Bethel  with  men's  bones  (1  Kings  13 : 2) ; 
etc.  Minute  events,  in  themselves  unimportant,  sometimes 
come  within  the  sphere  of  prophetic  revelation,  but  always  in 
connection  with  and  subserviency  to  important  transactions 
affecting  the  interests  of  God's  people.  Thus  when  Samuel 
anointed  Saul  as  the  future  king  of  Israel,  he  foretold  to  him 
the  incidents  of  his  journey  homeward  (1  Sam.  10 :  2-7).  But 
this  was  in  order  that  Saul  might  be  assured  of  Samuel's  pro- 
phetic office,  and  consequently  of  the  divine  sanction  to  the 
transaction.  An  event  in  the  immediate  future  is  frequently 
predicted  as  a  pledge  that  some  prophecy  of  more  distant  ful- 
filment shall  be  accomplished.  Thus  the  death  of  Eli's  two 
sons  in  one  day  was  to  be  a  token  of  the  fulfilment  of  all  the 
evils  threatened  against  his  house.  The  same  end  may  be 
accomplished  by  a  miraculous  sign.  1  Kings  13  :  3 ;  2  Kings 
20 :  9,  11.  Prophecies  of  the  kind  now  under  consideration  are 
in  general  very  plain  and  simple,  and  their  recorded  fulfilment 
is  to  us  a  sufficient  interpreter  of  their  meaning. 

II.  PEOPHECIES  EELATING  TO  THE  LAST  DAYS. 

3.  In  Old  Testament  usage,  "  the  last  days,"  or  "  the  latter 
days  "  ("  in  the  latter  years,"  Ezek.  38  :  8)  denote  not  simply  the 
distant  future,  but  that  future  as  including  the  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah,  which  extends  to  the  consummation  of  all  things. 
Gen.  49 : 1 ;  Numb.  24 :  14 ;  Deut.  4 :  30 ;  31 :  29 ;  Isa.  2:2;  Jer. 
23:20;  30:24;  48:47;  49:39;  Ezek.  38:16;  Dan.  10:14;  Hos. 
3:5;  Mic.  4 : 1.  We  are  not,  however,  to  conceive  of  these 
"last  days"  as  totally  separated  from  the  preceding  ages.  In 
the  plan  of  God  the  history  of  the  world  constitutes  a  whole, 
all  the  parts  of  which  are  closely  connected.  Hence  the  proph- 
ecies relating  to  the  latter  days  include,  more  or  less  distinctly, 
the  events  which  precede  them,  and  prepare  the  way  for  them. 
In  such  prophecies  we  are  not  to  look  for  exhaustive  details. 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  609 

They  give,  as  a  rule,  only  general  views  relating  to  the  conflicts 
of  God's  people  and  their  final  triumph.  Where  minute  inci- 
dents are  introduced  (Psa.  22  :  18 ;  69  :  21 ;  Zech.  9:9;  11 :  13) 
it  is  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  identifying  to  future  genera- 
tions the  Messiah  as  their  main  subject.     See  below,  No.  9. 

Prophecies  relating  to  the  days  of  the  Messiah  are  introduced  in  other 
more  indefinite  ways,  thus  :  "Behold  the  days  come "  (Jer.  23  : 5  ;  31  :  31 ; 
etc.)  :  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass  afterward"  (Joel  2  :  28) ;  "In  that  day  " 
(Isa.  4:2,  Jer.  30  :  8  ;  Ezek.  39  :  11 ;  Amos  9  :  11,  and  elsewhere)  ;  or  they 
are  sufficiently  indicated  by  their  contents,  as  Isa.  chaps.  40-66. 

These  prophecies  naturally  fall  into  two  classes :  those  in 
which  the  succession  of  events  is  distinctly  indicated,  and  those 
which  give  only  general  views  of  the  future,  without  any  clear 
order  of  succession. 

4.  To  the  first  and  smaller  class  belong  especially  certain 
of  Daniel's  prophecies.  The  four  great  monarchies,  for  exam- 
ple, that  are  to  bear  rule  over  the  earth  are  symbolized  first  by 
a  great  image  (Dan.  chap.  2),  then  by  four  beasts  rising  out  of 
the  sea  (Dan.  chap.  7).  Of  these  monarchies  the  fourth,  rep- 
resented by  the  legs  of  iron  and  feet  part  of  iron  and  part  of 
clay  (Dan.  2 :  33),  and  by  the  fourth  beast  with  his  ten  horns 
(Dan.  7:  7),  belongs  in  part  to  the  latter  days  of  the  Messiah. 

The  fourth  kingdom,  represented  by  the  "legs  of  iron  and  feet  part  of 
iron  and  part  of  clay,"  is  at  the  beginning  "strong  as  iron"  (chap.  2  : 40)  ; 
afterwards  it  is  "partly  strong  and  partly  broken"  (ver.  42)  ;  it  is,  more- 
over, the  last  great  monarchy  that  oppresses  the  world.  All  these  charac- 
ters point  to  the  Roman  empire,  first  in  its  pagan,  afterwards  in  its  papal 
form.  From  the  nature  of  the  symbol,  the  jjrophet  sees  the  whole  image 
standing  tiU  it  is  smitten  in  its  feet  of  iron  and  clay.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  four  monarchies  are  contemporaneous,  but  that  they  constitute 
one  great  system  of  oppression,  in  which  the  power  passes  successively 
down  from  the  head  to  the  feet.  It  is  in  its  feet  that  the  stone  smites  it, 
for  it  is  in  this  its  last  form  that  the  kingdom  set  up  by  the  God  of  heaven 
.shall  encounter  and  destroy  it.  The  toes,  part  of  iron  and  part  of  clay, 
well  represent  the  kingdoms  that  grew  up  out  of  the  old  Roman  empire, 
with  an  intermixture  of  the  northern  nations.  These  could  never  unite  into 
a  compact  whole,  like  the  original  pagan  empire,  yet  they  constituted  a 
continuation  of  it  in  a  divided  form. 

26* 


610  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

That  the  fourth  beast  again  (chap.  7  : 7-14,  19-28)  represents  the  same 
Eoman  empire  appears  from  the  following  considerations  :  (1. )  Both  here 
and  in  the  second  chapter  a  succession  of  four  great  monarchies  is  repre- 
sented, of  which  the  first  three  are  admitted  to  have  been  universal.  It  is 
altogether  reasonable,  therefore,  to  look  for  a  universal  empire  in  tho 
fourth  ;  but  that  empire  can  be  no  other  than  the  Eoman.  (2.)  The  fourth 
beast  is  represented  as  the  strongest  and  most  terrible  of  them  aU,  which 
cannot  apply  to  any  other  than  the  Eoman  power.  (3.)  All  its  characters 
agree  with  those  of  the  Eoman  empire,  and  cannot  be  made  to  agree  with 
those  of  any  other  power.  Those  who  understand  by  the  little  horn  of  the 
fourth  beast  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  must  consider  the  fourth  beast  as  rep- 
resenting the  Syrian  monarchy,  or  perhaps  Syria  and  Egypt.  But  these 
belong  to  the  third  beast.  They  are  two  of  the  four  divisions  into  which 
his  empire  was  broken,  and  which  have  just  been  represented  by  the  four 
heads  and  four  wings  of  the  leopard.  (4.)  No  persecuting  power  comes 
after  this  beast.  Its  dominion  is  destroyed  by  that  of  the  Messiah,  who 
takes  the  kingdom  and  holds  it  for  ever.  This  can  apply  only  to  the 
Eoman  power  as  perpetuated  in  its  papal  form  in  the  ten  horns,  which  cor- 
respond to  the  ten  toes  of  the  image.  Chap.  2  :  41-43.  All  the  characters 
of  the  little  horn  agree  with  those  of  the  papal  jDOwer  ;  and  considering  the 
vast  influence  which  this  has  wielded,  and  still  wields,  over  God's  church, 
we  should  naturally  expect  that  it  would  be  included  in  a  comprehensive 
view  Uke  this  of  the  world's  history. 

The  prophecies  of  the  book  of  Eevelation  relative  to  the  great  red 
dragon — pagan  Eome  (chap.  12),  the  two  beasts  that  succeeded  to  his  seat 
and  power  (chap.  13),  and  (what  is  identical  with  these  two  beasts)  the 
woman  riding  upon  a  scarlet-colored  beast  (chap.  17),  are  so  intimately 
related  to  the  fourth  kingdom  of  Daniel,  that  whatever  view  be  taken  of 
this  kingdom  must  apply  to  them  also.  In  these  prophetic  symbols  we 
have  again  all  the  characters  of  pagan  Eome  as  continued  in  papal  Eome. 
Chap.  32,  No.  4.  To  the  class  of  prophecies  now  under  consideration 
belong  also,  according  to  the  most  probable  principle  of  interpretation, 
those  of  the  seven  seals,  the  seven  trumpets  included  under  the  last  seal, 
and  the  seven  vials  of  the  last  trumjDet  (Eev.  6  : 1  seq.J;  for  in  these  the 
succession  of  events  is  distinctly  marked. 

The  numbers  of  the  books  of  Daniel  and  Eevelation,  particularly  the 
"time  and  times  and  dividing  of  time" — three  years  and  a  half — during 
which  the  little  horn  is  to  have  dominion  (Dan.  7  :  25),  and  (what  is  equiv- 
alent to  this  number)  the  " f orty-and-two  months"  during  which  the  Gen- 
tiles are  to  tread  down  the  holy  city  (Eev.  11  :  2),  and  the  beast  that  suc- 
ceeds to  the  dragon  is  to  have  power  (Eev.  13  :  5) ;  or  in  days,  the  thousand 
two  hundred  and  threescore  days  of  the  two  witnesses  (Eev.  11  :  3),  and  of 
the  woman's  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  (Eev.  12  :  6),  have  furnished  for  cen- 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  611 

turies  matter  of  curious  speculation  and  computation,  upon  the  assumption 
that  a  day  here  represents  a  year  (Chap.  35,  No.  9) ;  but  hitherto  history 
has  not  verified  the  results  as  to  time  wliich  the  students  of  these  prophe- 
cies have  given.  The  failure  of  their  computations  might  have  been  anti- 
cipated. It  seems  to  be  the  plan  of  God  to  throw  such  a  vail  over  even 
exact  dates  of  prophecy,  that  their  place  in  a  chronological  chart  of  history 
cannot  be  accurately  marked  out  beforehand.  Either  the  time /row  which 
the  reckoning  is  to  proceed,  or  the  symbolism  of  the  dates,  or  the  place 
which  the  whole  series  holds  in  relation  to  other  prophecies,  is  left  in 
obscurity.  The  experience  of  those  who  have  busied  themselves  with  the 
computation  of  these  dates  teaches,  not  that  we  should  wholly  withdraw 
ourselves  from  inquiries  of  this  kind,  but  that  to  pursue  them  in  a  confi- 
dent and  dogmatic  spirit,  as  if  we  had  been  admitted  to  the  council-cham- 
ber of  heaven,  and  had  there  learned  the  exact  day  and  hour  on  which  the 
papal  throne  must  fall,  or  our  Lord  reappear  on  earth,  is  a  mark,  not  of 
wisdom,  but  of  weakness  and  folly. 

5.  In  the  second  and  larger  class  of  prophecies  relating  to 
the  last  days,  the  element  of  time,  and  especially  that  of  suc- 
cession in  time,  is  either  wholly  wanting,  or  is  indicated  in 
only  a  vague  and  general  way. 

Examples  of  this  class  of  prophecies  are  almost  innumerable.  A 
remarkable  specimen  is  found  in  the  fourth  chapter  of  Isaiah,  viewed  in 
connection  with  the  preceding  context.  The  prophet's  position  is  that  of 
his  own  day.  He  writes  at  a  time  when  heavy  calamities  are  impending- 
over  his  countrymen.  With  these  calamities  he  begins:  "Behold  the 
Lord,  the  Lord  of  hosts,  doth  take  away  from  Judah  and  Jerusalem  the 
stay  and  the  stalBf,  the  whole  stay  of  bread,  and  the  whole  stay  of  water, 
the  mighty  man,  and  the  man  of  war,  the  judge,  and  the  prophet,  and  the 
prudent,  and  the  ancient,  the  captain  of  fifty,  and  the  honorable  man,  and 
the  counsellor,  and  the  cunning  artificer,  and  the  eloquent  orator."  Chap. 
3  : 1-3.  So  he  proceeds,  in  terms  which  must  apply  primarily  to  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,  to  the  end  of  the  third  chapter,  which  closes  with  the 
terrible  denunciation  :  "  Thy  men  shall  fall  by  the  sword,  and  thy  mighty 
men  in  war.  And  her  gates  shall  lament  and  mourn  ;  and  she,  being  des- 
olate, shall  sit  upon  the  ground"  (ver.  25,  26).  To  complete  the  picture 
of  desolation,  it  is  added  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  chapter  :  ''And  in 
that  day  seven  women  shall  take  hold  of  one  man,  saying.  We  will  eat  our 
own  bread,  and  wear  our  own  apparel :  only  let  us  be  called  by  thy  name 
to  take  away  our  reproach."  The  obvious  meaning  of  this  last  threatening 
is,  that  the  mass  of  the  men  shall  perish  in  war,  so  that  the  surviving 
women  cannot  find  husbands.      Seven  of  them,  therefore,  ask  of  one  man 


612  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

the  privilege  of  being  called  each  his  wife,  while  they  offer  to  forego  all 
the  usual  advantages  of  that  relation.  Thus  far  the  prophet  proceeds  in  a 
strain  of  threatening.  But  now,  with  the  single  formula,  "in  that  day," 
there  is  a  sudden  transition  to  promise,  and  promise  of  such  a  character 
that  it  must  cover  the  whole  future  period  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom  :  "In 
that  day  shall  the  branch  of  the  Lord  be  beautiful  and  glorious,  and  the 
fruit  of  the  earth  shall  be  excellent  and  comely  for  them  that,  are  escaped 
of  Israel"  (chap.  4:2);  and  so  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  glory  of  the  lat- 
ter days,  when  the  Lord,  having  ' '  purged  the  blood  of  Jerusalem  from  the 
midst  thereof  by  the  spirit  of  judgment,  and  by  the  spirit  of  burning," 
' '  will  create  upon  every  dwelling-place  of  Mount  Zion,  and  upon  her 
assemblies,  a  cloud  and  smoke  by  day,  and  the  shining  of  a  flaming  iire  by 
night :  for  upon  all  the  glory  shall  be  a  defence  "  (ver.  4,  5).  Here  we 
have,  in  a  certain  sense,  an  indication  of  time,  but  it  is  wholly  indefinite. 
No  date  is  given  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy,  nor  any  exact  chrono- 
logical order  of  succession.  The  prophet  began  with  the  judgments  that 
impended  over  his  countrymen.  He  ends  with  the  full  glory  of  the  Mes- 
siah's reign,  without  any  indication  of  the  intervening  interval  of  time. 

Another  striking  example  is  furnished  by  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Isaiah 
in  connection  with  the  preceding  context.  The  tenth  chapter  of  Isaiah 
contains  an  account  of  the  Assyrian  monarch's  progress  through  the  land 
of  Judea,  ending  with  a  figurative  account  of  his  overthrow  :  "Behold  the 
Lord,  the  Lord  of  hosts,  shall  lop  the  bough  with  terror ;  and  the  high 
ones  of  stature  shall  be  hewn  doAvn,  and  the  haughty  shall  be  humbled. 
And  he  shall  cut  down  the  thickets  of  the  forest  with  iron,  and  Lebanon 
shaU  fall  by  a  mighty  one  "  (ver.  33,  34).  Immediately  upon  this  predic- 
tion, and  with  reference  to  the  Assyrian  bough  and  the  thickets  of  Leba- 
non— Sennacherib  with  his  host — that  have  been  hewn  down,  foUows  a 
prophecy  of  the  Messiah's  advent  :  ' '  And  there  shall  come  forth  a  rod  out 
of  the  stem  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch  shall  grow  out  of  his  roots."  Chap. 
11  : 1.  The  jjrophet  represents  these  two  events,  the  overthrow  of  the 
Assyrian  and  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  as  so  connected  that  the  latter 
follows  as  a  natural  sequel  to  the  former,  passing  over  in  silence  the  many 
intervening  centuries.  He  represents,  again,  the  Messiah's  kingdom  as 
one  of  continuous  victorious  progress,  till  ' '  the  earth  shall  be  full  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover  the  sea,"  without  pausing  to 
indicate  any  intervening  period  of  darkness  and  depression. 

Still  a  third  pure  specimen  of  this  form  of  prophecy  occurs  in  the  fifty- 
ninth  and  sixtieth  chapters  of  Isaiah.  The  former  of  these  two  chapters  is 
occupied  with  a  description  in  very  dark  lines  of  the  sins  of  God's  cove- 
nant people  (ver.  1-15),  and  of  God's  interposition  in  awful  majesty  to  vin- 
dicate his  own  cause  (ver.  16-21).  Immediately  upon  this  follows,  in  the 
sixtieth  chapter,  a  vision  of  the  latter  day  glory  that  has  no  i)arallel  in 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  613 

the  Old  Testament  for  briglituess,  extending  down  to  the  full  establish- 
ment of  the  millennial  age.  But  when  shall  these  things  be  ?  How  long 
shall  the  present  age  of  iniquity  endure  ?  And  when  Jehovah  appears  to 
save  the  cause  of  truth  and  righteousness,  shall  it  be  by  a  single  interposi- 
tion or  a  series  of  interpositions  ?  If  by  the  latter,  how  widely  shall  they 
be  separated,  and  what  dark  scenes  shall  intervene  ?  When  shall  the 
j)romised  Redeemer  apx)ear,  and  how  long  shall  his  work  be  in  progress 
before  that  blessed  consummation  contained  in  the  promise  :  "Thy  suu 
shall  no  more  go  down  ;  neither  shall  thy  moon  withdraw  itself :  for  the 
Lord  shall  be  thine  everlasting  light,  and  the  days  of  thy  mourning  shall 
be  ended  ?"  On  all  these  points  which  involve  the  element  of  time  the 
prophecy  maintains  a  majestic  silence.  The  closing  promise  indeed  is  : 
"I  the  Lord  will  hasten  it  in  his  time  ;"  but  with  the  Lord  one  day  is  as 
a  thousand  years,  and  a  thousand  years  as  one  day.  The  time  for  the  con- 
summation of  God's  plan  to  rescue  this  a^Dostate  world  from  the  dominion 
of  Satan — how  many  slowly  revolving  centuries  may  it  include,  and  what 
fierce  and  bloody  assaults  of  the  adversary,  compelling  God's  suffering  peo- 
ple to  cry  out :  "  O  Lord,  how  long  !" 

The  whole  of  the  prophecy  of  Joel  belongs  to  the  class  now  under  con- 
sideration. It  begins  with  impending  judgments,  and  closes  with  the  con- 
flict and  triumph  of  the  last  times  :  ' '  Multitudes,  multitudes  in  the  valley 
of  decision  :  for  the  day  of  the  Lord  is  near  in  the  valley  of  decision.  The 
sun  and  the  moon  shall  be  darkened,  and  the  stars  shall  withdraw  their 
shining.  The  Lord  also  shall  roar  out  of  Zion,  and  utter  his  voice  from 
Jerusalem  ;  and  the  heavens  and  the  earth  shall  shake  ;  but  the  Lord  shall 
be  the  hope  of  his  people,  and  the  strength  of  the  children  of  Israel.  So 
shall  ye  know  that  I  am  the  Lord  your  God  dwelling  in  Zion,  my  holy 
mountain  ;  then  shall  Jerusalem  be  holy,  and  there  shall  no  strangers  f)ass 
through  her  any  more."     Chap.  3  :  14-17. 

Many  more  examples  might  be  adduced  from  the  other  prophets,  but 
the  above  will  be  sufficient. 

6.  But  let  no  one  infer,  from  this  absence  of  dates  and  of 
the  exact  succession  of  events,  that  the  view  which  the  prophet 
gives  of  the  future  is  loose  and  confused.  Times  and  succes- 
sions belong  rather  to  the  outward  machinery  of  God's  provi- 
dential government.  They  are,  so  to  speak,  the  wheels  and 
bands  and  shafts  which  connect  the  different  movements.  But 
the  'perpetual  liviiig  poioer  that  dwells  in  the  church  is  above  all 
time'  and  succession.  In  this  lies  the  guarantee  of  her  final 
triumph,  and  with  this  the  prophets  are  mainly  occupied.  They 
take  the  deepest  view  of  the  progress  of  God's  kingdom,  for 


614  COMPANION   TO  THE  BIBLE. 

they  unfold  to  our  view  the  indestructible  divine  life  and  power 
which  animate  it  throughout,  and  which  are  steadily  bearing 
it  onward  towards  its  final  destiny — victory  complete  and  eter- 
nal over  all  the  powers  of  darkness.  If  we  examine  more  par- 
ticularly the  manner  in  which  the  ]3rophets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment represent  the  future  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  we  shall 
find  that  it  has  its  foundation  in  the  unity  of  the  plan  of  redemp- 
tion, the  end  towards  which  it  is  tending,  the  indicatmis  of  that 
end  which  are  perpetually  given  in  its  progress,  and  the  fact 
that  tJie  end  itself  is  the  chief  object  of  interest  in  prophetic  vision. 
(1.)  The  unity  of  the  plan  of  redemption  lies  not  in  its  times 
and  seasons,  but  in  the  higher  connections  of  cause  and  effect, 
which,  under  God's  supernatural  presence  and  agency,  bind 
the  whole  together  laterally,  so  to  speak,  as  well  as  backward 
and  forward.  It  may  be  compared  to  the  unity  of  a  web,  in 
which  each  thread  of  the  warp  extends  from  its  beginning  to 
its  end,  and  each  thread  of  the  woof  from  one  margin  to  the 
other ;  so  that  every  part  of  the  texture  is  connected  with  every 
other  part  without  respect  to  nearness  or  distance.  So  in  the 
plan  of  redemption,  events  thousands  of  years  apart  and  taking 
place  in  regions  thousands  of  miles  from  each  other,  are  as 
really  connected  as  if  they  belonged  to  the  same  year  and 
country.  And  since  they  are  thus  connected  in  God's  plan,  it 
is  natural  that  prophecy  should  exhibit  them  in  this  connec- 
tion, passing  over,  it  may  be,  many  centuries  in  silence ;  for  it 
is  the  salient  'points  of  the  church's  future  history,  the  great 
crises  in  the  process  of  her  development,  that  the  spirit  of 
inspiration  will  naturally  bring  to  view.  Prophecy  relating  to 
the  last  times  is  not  a  map,  in  which  the  distance  from  one 
point  to  another,  with  all  the  intervening  mountains,  rivers,  and 
towns,  is  accurately  marked;  but  rather  a  prospective  view, 
which  exhibits  only  the  great  features  of  the  region  that  lies 
before  the  traveller.  He  sees  far  off  in  the  horizon  the  goodly 
mountains  rising  one  behind  another,  and  bathed  in  the  pure 
light  of  heaven,  with  no  ability  to  discern,  much  less  to  meas- 
ure, the  intervening  valleys  and  plains.     Nay  more,  mountain 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  615 

ranges  that  are  widely  separated  may  appear  to  his  eye  as  one 
and  indivisible. 

(2.)  The  plan  of  redemption  has  not  only  complete  unity, 
but  continual  "progress  toivards  a  high  end.  It  may  be  compared 
to  a  majestic  river,  fed  by  thousands  of  perennial  springs,  that 
cannot  stay  a  moment  in  its  course  towards  the  ocean.  Its 
path  is  not  always  straight,  but  it  is  always  onward.  ,  Its  cur- 
rent is  not  always  rapid  and  broken,  for  it  is  not  always  ob- 
structed. Sometimes,  like  the  Arar  described  by  Caesar,  it 
winds  through  level  plains  with  a  current  so  gentle  and  noise- 
less, that  the  eye  cannot  discern  its  direction.  Then  it  plunges 
over  some  Niagara,  roaring,  boiling,  and  foaming,  and  shaking 
the  very  earth  with  its  mighty  cataracts.  But  it  has  all  the 
power  in  the  level  meadows  that  it  manifests  on  the  fearful 
brink  of  the  precipice.  To  arrest  its  current  in  one  place  is  as 
impossible  as  in  the  other.  Eesistance  cannot  overcome  its 
strength,  but  only  bring  it  to  view.  Let  any  number  of  Titans 
build  up  ever  so  high  a  wall  across  the  level  meadow,  and  the 
stream,  every  particle  of  which  is  pressed  forward  by  an  inward 
force,  will  quietly  rise  above  their  vain  rampart,  and  then  it 
will  begin  to  thunder.  Since  then  God's  kingdom — this  river 
of  God  that  is  full  of  water — is  continually  tending  towards  a 
high  end,  and  since  every  event  of  his  providence  contributes 
something  towards  its  progress,  what  wonder  if  we  find  in 
prophecy  events  separated  by  many  centuries  of  time  immedi- 
ately connected  as  cause  and  effect  ?  Does  the  prophet  pre- 
dict the  overthrow  of  Sennacherib's  army,  or  the  coming  deso- 
lation of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldean  armies ;  he  connects  these 
calamities  immediately  with  the  advent  of  Christ,  for  this  is  the 
end  towards  which  they  look.  Desolating  judgments  prepare 
the  way  for  the  King  of  glory  to  appear.  After  the  storm  of 
thunder  and  hail  there  follows  a  serene  light,  "  as  the  light  of 
the  morning  when  the  sun  riseth,  even  a  morning  without 
clouds ;  as  the  tender  grass  springing  out  of  the  earth  by  clear 
shining  after  rain."  The  mind  of  the  -inspired  bard  hastens 
onward  towards  the  glorious  end  of  God's  judgments,  without 


616  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

pausing  to  give  us,  what  it  is  not  necessary  that  we  should 
know,  the  chronological  distance  of  that  end. 

(3.)  The  progress  of  God's  kingdom  gives  continual  indica- 
tions of  the  end  towards  which  it  is  tending.  The  first  great 
interposition  of  God  in  behalf  of  Israel  contained  in  itself  a 
pledge  of  all  needful  help  for  the  future,  and  thus  of  a  final  tri- 
umph in  the  future ;  for  it  was  a  manifestation  of  both  God's 
absolute  power  to  save  his  people,  and  his  absolute  purpose  to 
save  them.  The  full  idea  embodied  in  this  interposition  is 
summed  up  in  the  closing  words  of  their  triumphal  song  on 
the  shore  of  the  Red  sea :  "  The  Lord  shall  reign  for  ever  and 
every  What  was  true  of  this  deliverance  was  true  of  every 
subsequent  deliverance.  In  each  of  them  separately,  and  in 
the  whole  of  them  collectively,  lay  the  promise:  "Fear  not, 
thou  worm  Jacob,  and  ye  men  of  Israel ;  I  will  help  thee,  saith 
the  Lord,  and  thy  Bedeemer,  the  Holy  One  of  Israel.  Behold 
I  will  make  thee  [make  thee  to  be]  a  new  sharp  threshing 
instrument  having  teeth :  thou  shalt  thresh  the  mountains,  and 
beat  them  small,  and  shalt  make  the  hills  as  chaff.  Thou  shalt 
fan  them,  and  the  wind  shall  carry  them  away,  and  the  whirl-, 
wind  shall  scatter  them :  and  thou  shalt  rejoice  in  the  Lord, 
and  shalt  glory  in  the  Holy  One  of  Israel."     Isa.  41 :  14-16. 

The  chastisements  J  moreover,  which  God  inflicted  on  the 
covenant  people  through  the  temporary  ascendency  of  their 
enemies,  and  in  other  ways,  gave  in  like  manner  indications  of 
a  final  triumph  of  the  cause  of  truth  and  righteousness.  How- 
ever great  their  severity,  they  were  always  so  ordered  that 
God's  people  were  never  destroyed,  hut  alioays  'purified  by  their 
power,  and  thus  the  way  was  prepared  for  their  future  enlarge- 
ment. This  purifying  tendency  the  divinely  illumined  eye  of 
the  Hebrew  prophet  clearly  discerned.  What  wonder,  then, 
that  he  should  have  constantly  connected  with  present  or  im- 
pending judgments  glorious  promises  respecting  the  future. 
The, destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army  by  the  destroying  angel, 
and  afterwards  of  Jerusalem  itself  by  the  Chaldean  armies — 
the  former  event  so  joyous  in  its  outward  form,  the  latter  so 


BIBLICAL  INTEEPRETATIOX.  617 

sad — these  were  both  ahke  to  the  prophet's  vision  parts  of  the 
preparation  through  which  God  was  carrying  his  people  for  the 
future  glory  and  blessedness  of  the  latter  days.  He  accord- 
ingly connected  both  with  bright  visions  of  the  future,  without 
pausing  to  notice  the  intervening  centuries,  respecting  the 
duration  of  which  he  had  no  commission  to  speak. 

(4.)  The  end  itself  towards  Avhich  the  plan  of  redemption 
tends  is  the  chief  ohject  of  interest  in  prophetic  representation. 
To  nourish  the  faith  and  hope  of  the  church,  to  invigorate  her 
in  her  present  struggles  by  the  assurance  of  final  victory — this, 
and  not  the  gratification  of  a  prurient  curiosity  respecting  the 
exact  dates  of  "times  and  seasons,"  is  the  main  design  of  proph- 
ecy. That  it  has  other  subordinate  ends  need  not  be  denied. 
It  challenges  for  itself  the  attribute  of  omniscience,  and  its  ful- 
filment is,  to  those  who  live  after  it,  a  proof  of  the  validity  of 
its  claim.  But  to  become  absorbed  in  calculations  beforehand 
respecting  its  dates  is  to  elevate  the  subordinate  and  circum- 
stantial in  prophecy  to  the  place  of  the  essential.  The  bright 
end  of  the  present  conflict  with  the  powers  of  darkness  is  what 
prophetic  vision  is  continually  presenting  for  our  encourage- 
ment. To  those  who  love  God,  this  is  the  point  of  chief  inter- 
est; and  accordingly  the  prophets  make  it,  not  the  exact  num- 
ber of  years  that  is  to  elapse  before  the  final  consummation 
with  the  details  of  their  history,  the  prominent  point.  Some 
great  crises  in  the  church's  history  are  indicated  so  clearly  that 
they  who  can  discern  "the  signs  of  the  times"  may  understand 
beforehand  that  they  are  near.  The  general  expectation  of  the 
Messiah's  advent  at  the  time  when  he  actually  appeared  had 
its  foundation  in  a  sober  comparison  of  the  prophecies  with  the 
existing  condition  of  the  covenant  people.  The  present  uni- 
versal belief  among  Christians  that  the  time  for  the  final  over- 
throw of  the  triple  league  between  Satan,  wicked  kings,  and 
wicked  priests  for  the  suppression  of  the  gospel  is  at  hand 
rests,  we  doubt  not,  on  the  same  solid  ground.  But  farther 
than  this  we  cannot  go.  We  cannot  say  that  it  shall  be  in 
Buch  a  year  of  the  present  century,  or  even  in  the  century,  in 


618  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

harmouy  with  the  true  spirit  of  prophecy.  It  is  enough  for  us 
to  know  that  God  "will  hasten  it  in  his  time" — that  the  victory 
is  certain,  and  that  every  believer  from  Abel  to  the  trump  of 
the  archangel  shall  have  his  share  in  it. 

III.     THE   QUESTION  OF  DOUBLE   SENSE. 

7.  The  so-called  double  sense  of  Scripture,  especially  of 
prophecy,  concerning  which  there  has  been  so  much  discus- 
sion among  biblical  writers,  must  be  distinguished  from  the 
double  sense  of  pure  allegory,  which  all  admit.  In  allegory, 
the  first  or  literal  meaning  is  only  a  cover  for  the  higher  spir- 
itual sense,  which  alone  is  of  importance.  That  we  may  have 
a  true  example  of  double  sense,  the  obvious  literal  meaning 
must  have  its  own  proper  significance,  irrespective  of  the  highei^. 
sense  belonging  to  it,  and  this  higher  sense  must  be  intended 
by  the  Spirit  of  inspiration.  The  question  now  to  be  consid- 
ered is:  Do  such  examples  occur  in  Scripture,  by  whatever 
term  we  may  choose  to  designate  them  ? 

To  avoid  logomachy,  arising  from  the  use  of  the  same  phrase  in  differ- 
ent senses,  we  prefer  the  expression  literal  and  typical  sense. 

8.  If,  as  has  been  shown  above  (chap.  37,  No.  4),  examples 
of  hisioric  types  are  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  these  contain 
a  twofold  sense.  The  priesthood  of  Melchizedek  and  the  trans- 
actions between  him  and  Abraham  were  true  historic  realities, 
having  their  own  proper  office  and  meaning.  Yet  the  word  of 
inspiration  teaches  us  that  the  circumstances  connected  with 
Melchizedek's  priesthood  and  his  meeting  with  Abraham  were 
intended  by  God  to  shadow  forth  the  higher  priesthood  of 
Melchizedek's  great  Antitype.  He  brought  forth  bread  and 
wine,  the  very  symbols  that  should  afterwards  represent  Christ 
crucified  as  our  spiritual  food  and  drink,  blessed  him  that  had 
the  promises,  and  received  at  his  hand  tithes  of  all  (Gen. 
14  :  18-20),  thus  exercising  the  prerogatives  of  one  higher  than 
Abraham,  and  consequently  higher  than  all  his  posterity.  Heb. 
7 : 4-10.     In  the  intention  of  the  Holy  Ghost,,  the  higher  typical 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPRETATION.  619 

meaning  lay  in  this  transaction  from  the  beginning,  but  it  was 
not  revealed  to  the  apprehension  of  believers  till  the  Christian 
dispensation  had  begun.  So  also  the  rest  of  the  covenant  peo- 
ple in  the  land  of  Canaan  is  represented  in  the  New  Testament 
as  typical  of  the  true  heavenly  rest.  Heb.  4 : 7-11.  Other 
examples  might  be  adduced,  but  these  will  serve  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  principle  now  under  consideration. 

9.  The  most  striking  examples  of  a  literal  covering  a  typical 
meaning  are  furnished  by  the  so-called  Messianic  psalms,  sl  part 
of  which  describe  the  victories  and  universal  dominion  of  a 
mighty  King  whom  Jehovah  himself  establishes  on  Zion  to 
reign  there  for  ever  (Psalms  2,  45,  72,  110,  etc.) ;  another  part, 
the  deep  afflictions  of  a  mighty  Sufferer  and  his  subsequent 
deliverance,  which  has  for  its  result  the  conversion  of  all 
nations  to  the  service  of  Jehovah.  Psalms  22,  40,  69,  109,  etc. 
That  such  psalms  as  the  second  and  seventy-second,  the  twen- 
ty-second, fortieth,  and  sixty-ninth  (not  to  mention  others), 
have  a  true  reference  to  Christ's  person  and  work,  cannot  be 
denied  without  imputing  either  error  or  fraud  to  the  writers  of 
the  New  Testament.  Nay  more,  our  Lord  himself  said,  after 
his  resurrection :  "  These  are  the  words  which  I  spake  unto 
you,  while  I  was  yet  with  you,  that  all  things  must  be  fulfilled 
which  were  written  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and  in  the  prophets, 
and  in  the  psalms,  concerning  me"  (Luke  24  :44) ;  whence  we 
learn  that  it  was  our  Lord's  custom  to  refer  to  the  psalms  as 
containing  prophecies  of  himself.  If  the  psalms,  when  legit- 
imately interpreted,  contain  no  such  prophecies,  then,  when  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  quoted  them  as  referring  to 
Christ,  they  either  believed  that  they  were  making  a  true  appli- 
cation of  them  according  to  the  mind  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  or 
they  simply  accommodated  themselves  to  what  they  knew  to 
be  the  groundless  prejudices  of  the  age.  Upon  the  former 
supposition  they  were  in  error;  upon  the  latter,  they  were 
guilty  of  fraud.  Such  is  the  dishonor  which  the  modern  prin- 
ciples of  rationalism  put  upon  the  word  of  God.  In  the  inter- 
pretation of  these  psalms,  then,  we  must  assume  as  a  funda- 


620  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

mental  truth  that  they  contain  a  true  reference  to  Christ. 
The  only  question  is,  whether  they  contain  a  lower  reference 
also. 

(1.)  One  class  of  interpreters  understand  these  psalms  sim- 
ply of  Christ ;  that  is,  they  assume  that  the  writer  speaks 
wholly  in  the  name  of  Christ,  without  reference  to  himself  or 
any  merely  human  personage.  There  are  psalms — the  hun- 
dred and  tenth,  for  example — that  may  be  very  well  explained 
in  this  way.  The  opening  words  of  that  psalm — "  The  Lord 
said  unto  my  lord" — seem  to  exclude  David  as  the  subject, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  see  in  what  sense  David  could  speak  of 
himself  as  made  by  a  divine  oath  "  a  priest  for  ever  after  the 
order  of  Melchizedek  "  (ver.  4).  But  in  the  attempt  to  carry 
this  principle  consistently  through  all  the  Messianic  j)salms, 
one  meets  with  serious  difficulties.  They  contain,  at  least 
some  of  them,  historic  allusions  of  a  character  so  marked  and 
circumstantial  that  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  the  writer  had  not 
in  view  his  own  personal  situation.  In  some  of  them,  moreo- 
ver, the  writer  makes  confession  to  God  of  his  sins.  Psa. 
40:12;  69:5. 

They  who  apply  these  iDsalms  exchisively  to  Christ  assume  that  these 
confessions  of  sin  are  made  in  a  vicarious  way,  the  Messiah  assuming  the 
character  of  a  sinner  because  '*  the  Lord  hath  laid  on  him  the  iniquities  of 
us  all."  Isa.  53  : 6.  But  the  form  of  these  confessions  forbids  such  an 
interpretation.  When  the  psalmist  says:  "Mine  iniquities  have  taken 
hold  upon  me ;"  *'  O  God,  thou  knowest  my  foolishness,  and  my  sins  are 
not  hid  from  thee,"  we  cannot  understand  such  language  of  any  thing  else 
than  personal  sinfulness.  It  is  true  that  the  Messiah  bore  our  iniquities, 
and  that  God  "made  him  to  be  sin  for  us,  who  knew  no  sin  ;"  but  the  Sav- 
iour now^here  speaks  or  can  speak  of  "mine  iniquities,"  "my  foolishness," 
and  "my  sins." 

(2.)  According  to  another  class  of  interpreters,  the  subject 
of  these  psalms,  particularly  of  those  which  describe  the  Mes- 
siah as  a  sufferer,  is  an  ideal  ijersonage,  namely,  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  righteous  considered  not  separately  from  Christ, 
but  in  Christ  their  head ;  or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing, 
Christ  considered,  not  in  his  simple  personality  apart  from  the 


BIBLICAL  INTERPKETATION.  621 

church,  but  Christ  with  his  body  the  church.  The  contents 
of  these  psalms  are  then  appHecl,  according  to  their  nature,  to 
Christ  alone,  to  believers  alone  who  are  his  members,  or  to 
Christ  in  the  fullest  sense  and  believers  in  a  subordinate  sense. 
Much  might  be  said  in  favor  of  this  view;  jet  it  labors  under 
the  difficulty  already  indicated,  that  one  cannot  well  read  the 
psalms  in  question,  with  their  marked  historic  ahusions,  with- 
out the  conviction  that  the  author  had  in  view — not  indirectly, 
but  immediately — his  own  personal  situation. 

(3.)  There  remains  a  third,  and  perhaps  preferable  view, 
which  may  be  called  the  typical  vieiv,  maintained,  as  is  well 
known,  by  Melanchthon,  Calvin,  and  many  later  expositors. 
This  begins  with  the  well-established  principle  that  David  (in 
a  less  eminent  degree  his  successors  also  on  the  throne,  so  far 
as  they  were  true  to  their  office)  was  a  divinely-constituted 
type  of  the  Messiah,  not  only  in  his  office  as  the  earthly  head 
of  God's  kingdom,  but  in  the  events  of  his  history  also ;  that  the 
psalms  in  question,  whether  they  describe  his  victorious  might 
or  his  deep  suffering  at  the  hand  of  his  enemies,  had  a  true  his- 
toric origin;  that  their  first  and  immediate  reference  was  to  the 
writer's  own  situation  and  the  events  which  befell  him ;  but  that, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  w^as  carried  beyond 
himself  to  describe  the  office  and  history  of  the  Messiah ;  that 
consequently  these  psalms  have  a  lower  fulfilment  in  David  the 
type  (the  seventy-second  in  Solomon),  and  a  higher  in  Christ 
the  Antitype. 

The  second  psalm,  for  example,  wliicli  describes  the  vain  conspiracy  of 
the  heathen  rulers  against  the  Lord's  anointed  king,  and  God's  purpose  to 
give  him  the  uttermost  ends  of  the  earth  for  his  possession,  may  have  had 
its  occasion  in  the  combination  of  the  surrounding  heathen  nations  against 
David.  In  the  victorious  might  with  which  God  endowed  him,  it  had  a 
lower  fulfilment ;  and  this  was,  so  to  speak,  the  first  sheaf  of  the  harvest 
of  victories  that  was  to  foUow.  It  was  an  earnest  and  pledge  of  the  com- 
plete fulfilment  of  the  psalm  in  Christ,  in  whom  alone  the  iDromise  made 
to  David  :  "Thine  house  and  thy  kingdom  shall  be  established  for  ever 
before  thee  :  thy  throne  shall  be  established  for  ever  "  (2  Sam.  7  :  16),  could 
have  its  real  accomplishment.     Luke  1 :  32,  33. 


622  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

The  second  class  of  psalms,  of  which  tlio  twenty-second  is  a  well-known 
example,  may  have  had,  in  like  manner,  a  true  historic  origin.  When  the 
psalmist  began  with  the  exclamation  :  *'My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou 
forsaken  me  ?"  he  may  have  had  immediate  reference  to  his  own  distressed 
condition.  But  since  he  was  the  divinely  appointed  head  of  the  hne  of 
kings  which  should  end  in  Christ,  and  was  thus  in  his  office  a  type  of 
Christ,  God  had  so  ordered  the  circumstances  of  his  history  as  to  shadow 
forth  in  them  the  sufferings  and  final  triumph  of  the  Messiah.  Writing 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  was  led,  through  these  circum- 
stances, to  say  many  things  which  applied  to  himself  only  in  a  lower  and 
often  figurative  sense,  but  which  were  appointed  to  have  a  complete  fulfil- 
ment in  Christ  his  Antitype  (Psa.  22  : 1,  7,  .8,  14,  15,  16,  18  ;  40  :  &-10  ; 
69  : 4,  7-9,  21 ;  109  : 1-20),  and  which  point  to  Christ  as  the  chief  subject 
of  the  prophecies. 

How  far  the  psalmist  understood  this  higher  reference  of  his  words  is 
a  question  difficult  to  be  determined.  With  regard  to  the  sixteenth  psalm, 
the  apostle  Peter  tells  us  that  David,  "being  a  prophet,  and  knowing  that 
God  had  sworn  with  an  oath  to  him,  that  of  the  fruit  of  his  loins,  accord- 
ing to  the  flesh,  he  would  raise  up  Christ  to  sit  on  his  throne ;  he  seeing 
this  before,  spake  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  that  his  soul  was  not  left 
in  hell,  neither  his  flesh  did  see  corruption"  (Acts  2:30,  31);  whence  we 
infer  that  in  penning  this  psalm  David  was  conscious  of  its  higher  appli- 
cation to  Christ.  The  spirit  of  the  New  Testament  quotations  from  the 
psalms  indicates  that  he  had  a  deeper  insight  into  the  prophetic  meaning 
of  his  words  than  many  modern  expositors  are  willing  to  admit.  But 
however  this  may  be,  the  Spirit  of  inspiration  had  in  view  the  fulfilment 
of  these  psalms  in  Christ ;  and  his  intention,  clearly  revealed  to  us  in  the 
New  Testament,  is  our  rule  of  interpretation. 

10.  Different  from  the  above  literal  and  typical  sense,  yet 
closely  related  to  it  in  principle,  is  that  of  the  progressive  fulfil- 
ment of  prophecy,  which  has  a  wide  application  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  those  prophecies  which  relate  to  the  last  days. 
By  the  progressive  fulfilment  of  prophecy  is  meant,  a  fulfilment 
nof  exhaustively  accomplished  at  one  particular  era  or  crisis 
in  the  church's  histor}^,  but  successively  from  age  to  age;  a  ful- 
filment repeated,  it  may  be,  many  times,  and  ending  only  with 
the  final  consummation  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom.  An  unde- 
niable example  of  such  a  prophecy  is  God's  message  by  Isaiali 
to  the  covenant  people:  "Go  and  tell  this  people.  Hear  ye 
indeed,  but  understand  not;  and  see  ye  indeed,  but  perceive 


BIBLICAL  INTEBPKETATION.  623 

not,"  etc.,  with  the  threatened  desolation  that  should  follow 
(chap.  6 : 9-13).  This  prophecy  had  a  true  fulfilment  in  the 
ancient  Jewish  people  before  the  Babylonish  captivity.  For 
their  blindness  of  mind  and  hardness  of  heart,  they  were  given 
over  to  the  power  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  wdio  wasted  their  land, 
destroyed  their  city  and  temple,  and  carried  the  remnant  of 
the  people  into  captivity.  But  the  same  prophecy  had,  in  both 
its  parts,  a  more  awful  fulfilment  in  the  generation  of  Jews  who 
rejected  and  crucified  our  Lord,  and  were  destroyed  with  their 
city  and  temple  by  the  armies  of  Rome  (Matt.  13  :  14, 15 ;  Mark 
4:12;  Luke  8:10;  John  12:39-41;  Acts  28:25-27;  Rom. 
11 : 8) ;  and  its  fulfilment  is  yet  in  progress.  Joel's  prophecy 
of  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  in  the  last  days  upon  all  flesh, 
with  the  mighty  accompanjdng  judgments  (chap.  2  :  28-32),  and 
Amos'  prediction  of  the  raising  up  of  David's  fallen  tabernacle 
(chap.  9  :  11, 12),  had  both  their  initial  fulfilment  in  the  outpour- 
ing of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  and  the  triumphs 
of  the  gospel  that  followed.  Acts  2 :  16-21 ;  15  :  16,  17.  But 
the  blessings  which  they  promised  were  not  exhausted  in  the 
apostolic  age.  The  church  has  had  rich  instalments  of  them, 
but  richer  still  are  reserved  for  the  future  of  millennial  glory. 
A  large  part  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  indicate 
in  their  very  structure  that  they  are  not  to  be  understood  of 
particular  events,  but  of  the  development  of  God's  kingdom 
from  age  to  age.  The  reader  may  take,  as  a  single  example 
among  many  others,  the  prediction  of  Isaiah  and  Micah  con- 
cerning the  establishment  of  the  Lord's  house  in  the  last  days 
in  the  top  of  the  mountains,  the  resort  of  all  nations  to  it,  and 
the  universal  peace  tha-t  shall  follow.  Isa.  2  :  2-4 ;  Micah  4  : 1-4. 
That  particularism  which  seeks  for  the  fulfilment  of  every  proph- 
ecy in  some  one  specific  event  of  history  must  go  widely  astray 
in  its-  interpretation  of  Scripture. 


624  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE.' 


ly.    THE   QUESTION  OF  LITEEAL  AND  FIGUKATIVE 

MEANING. 

11.  On  this  question  expositors  are,  as  is  well  known,  much 
divided ;  one  class  adopting,  as  far  as  possible,  the  literal 
meaning  of  the  prophetic  announcements,  the  other  freely  em- 
ploying the  principle  of  figurative  interpretation.  A  full  dis- 
cussion of  the  claims  of  these  two  methods  of  interpretation, 
on  which  so  many  volumes  have  been  written,  would  far  exceed 
the  limits  of  the  present  work.  All  that  can  be  done  is,  to  indi- 
cate some  well-established  principles  which  may  help  to  guide 
the  biblical  student  in  the  study  of  prophecy. 

12.  We  begin  by  calling  attention  to  the  representative  use 
which  the  Old  Testament  prophets  make  of  the  events  of  the 
fast  history  of  Israel ;  that  is,  to  their  habit  of  representing  the 
future  under  the  imagery  of  this  history.  When  Israel  jour- 
neyed from  Egypt  to  Palestine  through  the  wilderness  of  Ara- 
bia, God  dried  up  the  tongue  of  the  Egyptian  sea  before  the 
people,  guided  them  miraculously  by  the  cloudy  pillar,  fed 
them  with  manna,  made  streams  of  water  to  burst  forth  from 
the  rock  for  their  refreshment,  and  finally  divided  the  waters 
of  the  Jordan  to  give  them  a  passage  into  the  promised  land. 
This  primitive  history  of  Israel  furnishes  for  the  prophets  who 
lived  in  later  ages  a  rich  treasury  of  images  which  it  would  be 
absurd  to  interpret  in  a  literal  way. 

Thus  Isaiah,  speaking  of  the  future  gathering  together  of  the  outcasts 
of  Israel  and  the  dispersed  of  Judah  from  the  four  corners  of  the  earth 
(chap.  11:11,  12),  says:  "And  the  Lord  shall  utterly  destroy  the  tongue 
of  the  Egyptian  sea,  and  with  his  mighty  wind  shall  he  shake  his  hand 
over  the  river  [the  Eux3hrates] ,  and  shall  smite  it  in  the  seven  streams, 
and  make  men  go  over  dry  shod"  (ver.  15).  To  suppose  that  the  prophet 
foretells  a  literal  rej)etition  of  the  miracles  wrought  upon  the  Bed  sea  and 
the  Jordan  is  unnecessary  and  most  improbable.  The  meaning  is,  that 
God  shall  remove  all  obstacles  which  hinder  the  return  of  his  j)eople  to 
their  own  land,  as  he  originally  removed  all  obstacles  which  oj)posed  their 
entrance  into  it.  This  is,  indeed,  the  very  idea  of  the  following  verse : 
"And  there  shall  be  a  highway  for  the  remnant  of  his  people,  which  shall 


BIBLICAL  INTEEPEETATION.  625 

be  left,  from  Assyria ;  like  as  it  was  to  Israel  in  the  day  tliat  he  came  up 
out  of  the  land  of  Egypt, " 

Again,  the  prophet  foretells  that  in  the  latter  day  glory  "the  Lord  wiU 
create  upon  every  dwelling-place  of  mount  Zion,  and  upon  her  assemblies, 
a  cloud  and  smoke  by  day,  and  the  shining  of  a  flaming  fire  by  night : 
for  upon  all  the  glory  shall  be  a  defence."  Isa.  4  :  5.  Here  "the  figurative 
reference  is  to  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  the  pillar  of  fire  in  which  the  Lord 
went  before  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  and  to  the  glory  which  rested 
upon  the  tabernacle."  Henderson.  God  will  give  to  his  church  in  the 
latter  day  that  which  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  of  fire  signified,  his  glorious 
presence  and  protection.  A  literal  repetition  of  the  miracle  is  not  to  be 
thought  of. 

Once  more,  God  promises  to  his  weary  peoi^le,  on  their  pilgrimage  to 
Zion,  that  "in  the  wilderness  shall  waters  break  out,  and  streams  in  the 
desert "  (Isa.  35  : 6,  and  often  elsewhere),  with  obvious  allusion  to  the  mirac- 
ulous supplies  of  water  furnished  to  the  Israelites  in  their  journey  through 
the  Arabian  desert  to  the  land  of  Canaan.  The  water  here  promised  is  the 
water  of  life,  and  not  literal  fountains  in  the  desert.  Upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple are  we  to  interpret  the  river  that  flows  out  from  under  the  threshold 
of  the  temple,  and  flows  down  eastward  to  the  Dead  sea,  growing  broader 
and  deeper  in  its  course,  and  imparting  life  to  every  thing  which  comes 
within  its  influence.  Ezek.  47  : 1-12,  and  compare  Psa.  46  : 4 ;  Joel  3  :  18  ; 
Zech.  14  : 8. 

13.  Tlie  same  representative  use  is  made  by  the  prophets 
of  the  institutions  of  the  Mosaic  economy.  One  of  their  offices 
was,  to  foretell  the  extension  of  tlie  true  religion  over  all  the 
earth ;  the  conversion  of  all  nations  to  the  faith  of  the  cove- 
nant people,  and  their  peaceful  subjection  to  Jehovah  who 
reigned  in  Zion.  In  luliat  form  should  this  be  done  while  the 
theocracy  was  yet  in  full  force  ?  The  disclosure  of  God's  pur- 
pose to  abolish  this  theocracy  in  the  interest  of  a  simpler  and 
more  spiritual  dispensation,  which  should  know  no  distinction 
between  Jews  and  Gentiles,  would  have  been  a  premature  act. 
It  would,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  have  led  tcf  much  error  and 
misapprehension;  and  it  must  have  had  the  effect  of  dispar- 
aging the  existing  economy  before  the  Avorld  was  prepared  to 
receive  any  thing  better  in  its  place.  God,  therefore,  allowed 
his  prophets  to  portray  the  glories  of  the  latter  day,  when  all 
nations  should  come  to  the  knowledge  and  obedience  of  the 

Couip.  to   Uble.  27 


026  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

truth,  under  the  forms  of  the  Jeiuish  dispensation,  with  its  temple, 
sacrifices,  and  solemn  festivals. 

A  striking  example  is  the  bright  portraiture  of  two  contemporary  proph- 
ets :  "But  in  the  last  days  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  the  mountain  of  the 
house  of  the  Lord  shall  be  established  in  the  top  of  the  mountains,  and  it 
shall  be  exalted  above  the  hills ;  and  people  [Hebrew  peop/es,  that  is,  as 
Isaiah,  all  the  nations]  shall  flow  unto  it.  And  many  nations  shall  come, 
and  say,  Come,  and  let  us  go  up  to  the  mountain  of  the  Lord,  and  to  the 
house  of  the  God  of  Jacob  ;  and  he  will  teach  us  of  his  ways,  and  we  will  walk 
in  his  paths  :  for  the  law  shall  go  forth  of  Zion,  and  the  word  of  the  Lord 
from  Jerusalem.  And  he  shall  judge  among  many  people,  and  rebuke 
strong  nations  afar  off ;  and  they  shall  beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares, 
and  their  spears  into  pruning-hooks  :  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword  against 
nation,  neither  shall  they  learn  war  any  more.  But  they  shall  sit  every 
man  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig-tree ;  and  none  shall  make  them 
afraid  :  for  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath  spoken  it. "  Micah  4  : 1-4, 
compared  with  Isa.  2  : 2-4.  The  temple  at  Jerusalem,  with  its  altar  and 
priesthood,  was  the  central  point  of  the  old  theocracy.  There  all  the  sac- 
rifices were  to  be  offered,  there  was  the  seat  of  royal  authority,  and  conse- 
quently of  public  justice,  and  thither  all  the  males  among  the  peoiple  were 
required  to  repair  three  times  a  year  at  the  great  national  festivals.  Deut. 
16  :  16.  A  Jew  could  conceive  of  the  conversion  of  all  nations  only  in  the 
form  of  their  subjecting  themselves  to  the  theocracy,  and  coming  u^  to 
Jerusalem  for  worship  and  the  administration  of  justice.  Accordingly  the 
Spirit  of  prophecy  here  represents  the  mountain  of  the  Lord's  house  as 
"established  in  the  top  of  the  mountains,"  a  conspicuous  object  to  aU 
nations,  who  resort  thither  for  worship,  submit  themselves  to  the  authority 
of  the  great  king  who  reigns  there,  and  thus  have  universal  peace  and  hap- 
piness. To  insist  on  the  literal  interpretation  of  these  words  is  contrary  to 
the  general  analogy  of  projDhecy.  It  is  an  attempt  to  bring  back  the  out- 
ward sensuous  form  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  which  the  gospel  dispensa- 
tion has  abohshed. 

There  is  another  celebrated  passage  in  Zechariah  (14 :  16-21)  which  is 
intensely  Jewish  in  its  costume.  After  describing  the  judgments  of  God 
upon  the  nations  that  have  fought  against  Jerusalem,  the  prophet  goes  on 
to  say :  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass  that  every  one  that  is  left  of  all  the 
nations  which  came  against  Jerusalem,  shall  even  go  up  from  year  to  year 
to  worship  the  King,  the  Lord  of  hosts,  and  to  keep  the  feast  of  taberna- 
cles. And  it  shaU  be,  that  whoso  will  not  come  up,  of  all  the  families  of 
the  earth,  unto  Jerusalem  to  worship  the  King,  the  Lord  of  hosts,  even 
upon  them  shall  be  no  rain.  And  if  the  family  of  Egypt  go  not  up,  and 
come  not,  that  have  no  rain  ;  there  shall  be  the  plague,  wherewith  the 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  627 

Lord  will  smite  the  lieatben  that  come  not  up  to  keep  the  feast  of  taberna- 
cles. This  shall  be  the  punishment  of  Egypt,  and  the  punishment  of  all 
nations  that  come  not  up  to  keep  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  In  that  day- 
there  shall  be  upon  the  bells  of  the  horses,  Holiness  unto  the  Loed  ;  and 
the  pots  in  the  Lord's  house  shall  be  like  the  bowls  before  the  altar.  Yea, 
every  pot  in  Jerusalem  and  in  Judali  shall  be  holiness  unto  the  Lord  of 
hosts ;  and  all  they  that  sacrifice  shall  come  and  take  of  them  and  seethe 
therein  :  and  in  that  day  there  shall  be  no  more  the  Canaanite  in  the  house 
of  the  Lord  of  hosts."  The  prophet's  care  to  include  *'all  the  families  of 
the  earth"  in  this  ordinance  is  very  noticeable.  Whatever  nation  refuses 
to  observe  it  shall  have  no  rain.  But,  recollecting  that  for  Egypt  this  can 
be  no  punishment,  he  appoints  for  that  country  the  plague  instead  of  the 
absence  of  rain.  Is  it  so,  then,  that  in  the  last  days  all  the  families  of  the 
earth  are  to  go  up  year  by  year  to  worship  at  Jerusalem  ?  If  so,  they  are 
to  sacrifice  also ;  for  the  prophecy  is  a  homogeneous  whole,  of  which,  if 
the  beginning  is  to  be  understood  literally,  so  is  the  end  also.  The  refer- 
ence is  to  the  peace-offerings  of  the  people,  on  which,  after  certain  pre- 
scribed portions  had  been  burned  on  the  altar,  the  offerer  feasted  with  his 
friends  ;  and  a  special  provision  is  made  for  the  multitude  of  these  sacrifi- 
ces. "Every  pot  in  Judah  and  Jerusalem,"  as  well  as  "the  pots  in  the 
Lord's  house,"  "shall  be  holiness  unto  the  Lord  of  hosts,"  that  it  may  be 
used  for  boiling  the  flesh  of  the  peace-offerings,  precisely  as  we  find  done 
in  the  days  of  Eli.  1  Sam.  2  :  13-16.  But  all  sacrifices  are  done  away  for 
ever  in  Christ.  Heb.  10  :  10-18.  This  part  of  the  prophecy  must  clearly 
be  understood  figuratively,  and  therefore  the  whole.  The  future  reception 
of  the  true  religion  by  all  nations  is  foretold  under  the  symbols  of  the 
Mosaic  economy,  with  its  ritual,  its  yearly  feasts,  and  its  central  place  of 
worship.  For  this  principle  of  interpretation  we  have  the  warrant  of  the 
New  Testament.  Did  the  law  of  Moses  prescribe  a  literal  priesthood  with 
literal  sacrifices ;  believers,  under  the  new  dispensation,  are  a  spiritual 
priesthood,  presenting  their  bodies  as  "living  sacrifices."  Rom.  12:1  ; 
1  Pet.  2  :  5.  Did  the  Mosaic  economy  have  a  central  metropolis,  a  literal 
Zion,  whither  all  the  tribes  went  up  ;  believers  in  Christ  have  come  to  the 
spiritual  "Mount  Zion  "  which  this  shadowed  forth,  where  the  great  Anti- 
type of  David  reigns,  that  all  nations  may  resort  to  him,  and  he  may  teach 
them  his  laws. 

Upon  the  same  principle,  as  well  as  for  other  very  obvious  reasons  (see 
chaps.  42  :  15-20  ;  45  : 1-8  ;  47  : 1-12,  and  the  whole  of  chap.  48),  Ezekiel's 
minute  description  of  a  New  Jerusalem,  with  its  territory,  its  temple,  and 
its  Jewish  appointments  (chaps.  40-48),  is  to  be  undersfood  not  literally 
but  figuratively.  This  temple  has  also  its  Levitical  priesthood,  its  altar, 
and  its  sacrifices  (chap.  43 :  13-27),  aU  which  are  done  away  in  Christ. 
There  are  other  passages  kindred  to  the  above  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 


628  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

consider  separately,  as  they  all  come  under  the  same  general  principle  of 
interpretation. 

14.  In  the  classes  of  prophecies  that  have  been  considered, 
the  principle  of  figurative  interpretation  can  be  maintained 
upon  solid  grounds.  But  it  would  be  wrong  to  press  it  as  of 
universal  and  exclusive  application.  Where  no  reasons  to  the 
contrary  exist,  the  literal  interpretation,  as  the  most  natural 
and  obvious,  deserves  the  preference.  To  draw  the  limits  be- 
tween the  literal  and  the  figurative  in  prophecy  is  difficult,  and 
in  some  cases  impossible.  In  this  respect  it  has  pleased  the 
wisdom  of  God  that  a  vail  should  rest  on  some  unfulfilled  pre- 
dictions which  his  own  hand  alone  has  power  to  remove.  There 
are  two  questions,  especially,  respecting  which  interpreters 
haA^e  long  been  divided,  and  will  probably  continue  to  be  divi- 
ded, till  God  himself  shall  decide  them.  The  first  is  that  of 
the  literal  restoration  of  the  Jews  to  the  promised  land;  the 
second,  that  of  our  Lord's  personal  reign  on  earth  during  the 
promised  age  of  millennial  glory.  To  enter  upon  the  full  dis- 
cussion of  either  would  require  a  volume.  We  must  dismiss 
both  with  some  brief  hints. 

15.  The  original  promise  to  Abraham  included  the  grant  of 
the  land  of  Canaan  to  him  and  his  seed  "for  an  everlasting 
possession."  Gen.  12  :  7 ;  13  :  15 ;  15 :  18 ;  17  :  8 ;  26  :  3 ;  28  :  13. 
It  is  expressed  in  the  plainest  terms,  the  boundaries  of  the 
promised  territory  are  defined,  and  the  nations  inhabiting  it 
enumerated  (Gen.  15 :  18-21) ;  in  a  word,  every  thing  indicates 
the  literal  as  the  true  interpretation.  The  remarkable  words 
of  the  Saviour :  "And  they  shall  fall  by  the  edge  of  the  sword, 
and  shall  be  led  away  captive  into  all  nations:  and  Jerusalem 
shall  be  trodden  down  of  the  Gentiles,  until  the  times  of  the 
Gentiles  be  fulfilled"  (Luke  21:24),  have  had  a  hteral  fulfil- 
ment in  the  awful  judgments  which  they  foretell ;  and  it  seems 
reasonable  to -believe  that  the  promise  implied  in  the  last 
clause,  "  until  the  times  of  tJie  Gentiles  he  fulfilled,''  shall  have  a 
literal  fulfilment  also  in  their  repossession  of  Jerusalem  and 
the  Holy  Land.     The  wonderful  preservation  of  the  Jewish 


BIBLICAL  INTERPKETATION.  G29 

nation  through  so  many  centuries  of  dispersion  points  in  the 
same  direction.  All  these  things,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
numerous  and  very  explicit  prophecies  of  their  captivity  and 
dispersion  for  their  sins,  and  their  subsequent  restoration  upon 
repentance  (Lev.  chap.  26;  Deut.  chaps.  28-30;  1  Kings 
8:46-50;  Isa.  chaps.  6, 11,  66;  Jer.  chaps.  30,  31;  Ezek.  chaps. 
36-39 ;  Hosea  1 :  10,  11 ;  Joel  chap.  3  ;  Amos  chap.  9 ;  Micah 
7 : 8-20 ;  Zeph.  3  :  8-20),  seem  to  warrant  the  expectation  of  a 
literal  fulfilment  hereafter  of  the  promise  made  to  Abraham 
that  his  seed  should  inherit  the  land  of  Canaan  for  ever. 

16.  That  Christ  will  come  again  in  glory  to  raise  the  dead, 
change  the  living,  and  judge  all  nations,  is  a  fundamental  arti- 
cle of  the  Christian  faith.  But  the  doctrine  *'  that  the  fleshly 
and  sublunary  state  is  not  to  terminate  with  the  coming  of 
Christ,  but  to  be  then  set  up  in  a  new  form ;  when,  with  his 
glorified  saints,  the  Kedeemer  will  reign  in  person  on  the 
throne  of  David  at  JTerusalem  for  a  thousand  years,  over  a 
world  of  men  yet  in  the  flesh,  eating  and  drinking,  planting 
and  building,  marrying  and  giving  in  marriage,  under  this 
mysterious  sway"  (Brown  on  the  Second  Advent,  who  correctly 
states  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  system),  cannot  lay 
claim  to  an  irrefragable  basis  of  scriptural  teaching.  The 
arguments  relied  on  by  its  advocates  are  drawn  in  part  from 
the  very  passages  that  have  been  considered  above  (Micah 
4:1-4;  Zech.  14:16-21).  How  little  support  the  theory  de- 
rives from  these  passages,  when  fairly  interpreted,  we  have 
seen.  Nor  is  it  favored  by  the  references  to  our  Lord's  second 
coming  in  the  gospels  and  epistles,  for  they  clearly  connect  it 
with  the  final  consummation  of  all  things. 

Oar  Saviour  says  :  "Tlie  hour  is  coming,  in  the  which  all  that  are  in 
the  graves  shall  hear  his  voice,  and  shall  come  forth  ;  they  that  have  done 
good  unto  the  resurrection  of  life  ;  and  they  that  have  done  evil,  unto  the 
resurrection  of  damnation."  John  5  :  28,  29.  He  plainly  represents  these 
two  resurrections  as  simultaneous ;  nor  is  there  in  the  record  of  his  words 
any  hint  of  a  partial  resurrection  ages  before  the  reign  of  death  in  this 
world  shall  close.  The  resurrection  ''at  the  last  trump  "  to  which  the  apos- 
tle Paul  refers  (1  Cor.  chap.  15 ;  1  Thess.  4  :  13-18 ;  2  Thess.  1 : 7-10)  is 


(;33  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

universal.  It  exjiressly  includes  all  tlie  dead  in  Clirist  and  the  cluinge  of  all 
Christ's  living  disciples.  If  nothing  is  said  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
■wicked,  it  is  because  the  apostle  has  in  mind  only  the  "  resuiTection  of 
life,"  and  has  no  occasion  to  speak  of  the  simultaneous  "resurrection  of 
damnation  "  which  the  Saviour  himself  connects  with  it.  This  resurrec- 
tion at  the  last  trump  is  also  the  annihilation  of  the  reign  of  death  ;  for 
when  it  happens,  "then  shall  be  brought  to  pass  the  saying  that  is  written, 
Beath  is  swallowed  up  in  victory."  1  Cor.  15  :  54.  But  "the  last  enemy 
that  shall  be  destroyed  is  death,"  and  "then  cometh  the  end."  1  Cor. 
15  :  24-26. 

The  Saviour  teaches,  moreover,  that  his  personal  pres- 
ence on  earth  is  inconsistent  with  the  dispensation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  "  It  is  expedient  for  you  that  I  go  away ;  for  if  I  go 
not  away  the  Comforter  will  not  come  unto  you;  but  if  I 
depart,  I  will  send  him  unto  you."  John  16 :  7.  It  is  expedi- 
ent, doubtless,  because  the  dispensation  of  the  Spirit  is  better 
adapted  to  our  present  state  of  flesh  and  blood  than  his  per- 
sonal presence  could  be.  This  dispensation  of  the  Spirit  must, 
from  the  nature  of  the  case,  be  continued  in  its  full  force 
throughout  the  millennial  era,  when  the  generations  of  men 
will  succeed  each  other  as  at  present.  But  the  New  Testament 
knows  nothing  of  the  dispensation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  existing 
contemporaneously  with  Christ's  personal  reign  on  earth.  Its 
constant  doctrine  is  that  the  salvation  of  men  is  effected  by 
OJirisfs  intercession  in  heaven  conjointly  with  iJie  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  on  earth. 

The  passage  mainly  relied  upon  by  the  advocates  of  this 
theory  is  the  twentieth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Revelation,  which 
speaks  of  the  first  and  second  resurrection.  But  the  first  res- 
urrection there  described  cannot  be  identical  with  the  resur- 
rection described  by  Paul  at  our  Lord's  advent.  The  resurrec- 
tion described  by  Paul  includes  in  express  terms  all  the  right- 
eous, whereas  this  first  resurrection  of  the  Apocalypse  ia 
restricted  to  a  certain  class,  namely,  the  martyrs  and  confes- 
sors for  Christ's  sake  (ver.  4),  while  the  rest  of  tlie  dead  live 
not  till  the  thousand  years  are  over  (ver.  5).  Then  there  is  a 
general  resurrection  (ver.  11-15),  which,  from  its  very  terms, 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  631 

includes  the.  righteous  and  the  loicked ;  for  among  the  books  then 
opened  is  "  the  book  of  Ufe."  The  risen  dead  are  "  judged  every 
man  according  to  his  works,"  and  all  whose  names  are  not 
found  in  the  \fook  of  life  are  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire.  At  the 
same  time  death  and  hell  (Hades),  personified  as  two  enemies 
of  the  human  race,  are  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire,  and  thus 
"death,  the  last  enemy,  is  destroyed,"  and  "death  is  swallowed 
up  in  victory."  1  Cor.  15 :  26,  54.  This  is  the  resurrection 
which  takes  place  upon  our  Lord's  advent  at  the  last  trump, 
not  a  thousand  years  after  his  advent;  the  resurrection  and 
judgment,  when  the  wicked  "shall  go  away  into  everlasting 
punishment,  but  the  righteous  into  life  eternal."  We  venture 
not  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  the  first  resurrection,  believing 
that  it  is  one  of  the  mysteries  which  God  alone  will  reveal  in 
its  fulfilment.  But  whether  it  should  be  taken  literall/  or  fig- 
uratively, after  the  analogy  of  the  resurrection  of  the  two  wit- 
nesses (chap.  11 :  11),  it  does  not  seem  reasonable  to  build  upon 
this  obscure  and  difficult  passage  a  doctrine  respecting  our 
Lord's  pre-millennial  advent  and  personal  reign  on  earth  which 
is  so  decidedly  at  variance  with  the  general  tenor  of  Scripture. 


032  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTEE   XXXIX. 

Quotations  from   the   Old   Testament   in   the 

New. 

1.  As  it  respects  inspiration,  and  consequent  infallible 
authority,  the  quotations  of  the  New  Testament  stand  on  a 
level  with  the  rest  of  the  apostolic  writings.  The  Saviour's 
promise  was :  "  When  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will 
guide  you  into  all  truth;"  literally,  "into  all  the  truth,"  that 
is,  as  immediately  explained,  all  the  truth  pertaining  to  the 
Redeemer's  person  and  work.  When,  therefore,  after  the  ful- 
filment^of  this  promise,  Peter  and  the  other  apostles  expound- 
ed to  their  brethren  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament, 
wherein  the  Spirit  of  Christ  "testified  beforehand  the  suffer- 
ings of  Christ,  and  the  glory  that  should  follow,"  the  same 
"  Spirit  of  Christ "  guided  them  to  a  true  apprehension  of  their 
meaning.  If  we  cannot  trust  Peter  and  Paul,  whom  Christ 
himself  personally  commissioned  to  preach  his  gospel,  quali- 
fied for  this  work  by  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  endowed 
with  miraculous  powers  as  the  seal  of  their  commission — if  we 
cannot  trust  these  men  to  interpret  the  words  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, then  we  cannot  trust  the  guidance  of  the  Divine  Spirit 
himself.  But  when  we  have  admitted,  as  we  must,  the  author- 
ity of  the  New  Testament  writers  as  interpreters  of  the  Old 
Testament,  a  very  important  question  remains  to  be  consid- 
ered ;  and  that  is  the  manner  of  their  quotations.  This  question 
we  propose  briefly  to  examine  in  respect  to  both  outward  form 
and  inivard  contents. 

2.  As  it  respects  outward  form,  we  cannot  but  notice  at 
once  the  very  free  spirit  of  these  quotations.  It  is  manifest 
that  these  inspired  penmen  are  not  anxious  about  the  verbal 
accuracy  of  the  words  cited.  The  spirit  and  scope  of  a  passage, 
which  constitute  its  true  life  and  meaning,  are  what  they  have 


BIBLICAL  INTEEPKETATION.  G33 

in  view,  nofc  the  exact  number  of  words  literally  translated  from 
Hebrew  into  Greek.  It  is  well  known  that  a  very  large  part  of 
their  quotations  is  made  from  the  Greek  version  of  the  seventy, 
called  the  Septuagint,  which  was  in  common  use  in  their 
day.  No  one  pretends  that  the  translators  who  made  tjke  Sep- 
tuagint were  inspired,  or  that  they  always  succeeded  in  hitting 
the  exact  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  originaL  Yet,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  robust  good  sense  of  the  New 
Testament  writers  went  straight  forward  without  stopping  to 
notice  or  criticise  deviations  from  the  Hebrew,  provided  they 
did  not  affect  the  use  which  they  wished  to  make  of  the  passa- 
ges quoted. 

But  the  New  Testament  writers  do  not  always  conform 
their  quotations  to  the  Septuagint.  They  frequently  follow 
the  Hebrew  wholly  or  in  part  where  the  Greek  version  departs 
from  it.  Matthew,  in  particular,  follows  the  Hebrew  in  the 
Messianic  quotations.  Chap.  29,  No.  19.  Yet  in  these  cases 
also  they  cite  in  the  same  free  manner,  abridging  sometimes 
the  Hebrew  passage  quoted,  or  giving  only  its  general* sense. 
It  may  be  that  thus  the  wisdom  of  God  intended  to  bear  testi- 
mony against  the  undue  exaltation  of  the  letter  of  inspiration 
above  its  spirit. 

From  a  hst  of  some  two  liundred  and  fifty  citations  placed  side  by  side 
with  the  original  Hebrew  passages  and  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  same 
we  select  the  following  as  illustrations  of  the  above  remarks,  each  passage 
being  literally  translated.  The  words  in  brackets  are  regarded  by  some  as 
not  belonging  to  the  true  text. 

Hebrew.  The  SjDirit  of  the  Lord  God  is  upon  me ;  because  the  Lord 
hath  anointed  me  to  i)reacli  good  tidings  to  the  meek  :  he  hath  sent  me 
to  bind  up  the  broken-hearted,  to  jDroclaim  liberty  to  the  captives,  and  the 
opening  of  the  prison  to  the  bound  ;  to  proclaim  a  year  of  acceptance  to 
the  Lord.     Isa.  61 : 1,  2. 

Septuagint.  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon  me  ;  because  he  hath 
anointed  me  to  preach  good  tidings  to  the  poor  ;  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal 
the  broken-hearted,  to  proclaim  release  to  the  captives,  and  recovery  of 
sight  to  the  blind;  to  proclaim  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord.  Isa. 
61 : 1,  2. 

New  Testament.     The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon  me ;  because  he  hath 


()34:  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

anointed  me  to  preach  good  tidings  to  the  poor,  he  hath  sent  me  [to  heal 
the  broken-hearted,]  to  proclaim  release  to  the  captives,  and  recovery  of 
sight  to  the  blind,  to  send  away  free  the  bruised  (perhaps  from  the  Greek  of 
Isa.  58  : 6)  ;  to  j)roclaim  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord.     Luke  4  :  18,  19. 

Hebrew.  Rejoice  greatly,  O  daughter  of  Zion ;  shout,  O  daughter  of 
Jerusalem  :  behold  thy  king  shall  come  to  thee  :  he  is  just  and  endowed 
^\■ith  salvation  ;  lowly,  and  riding  ujDon  an  ass,  and  upon  a  colt  the  foal  of 
an  ass.    Zech.  9  :  9. 

Septungint.  Rejoice  greatly,  O  daughter  of  Zion ;  proclaim,  O  daugh- 
ter of  Jerusalem  :  behold  the  king  cometh  to  tliee,  just  and  exercising  sal- 
vation ;  he  is  meek,  and  mounted  on  an  ass  and  a  young  colt.     Zech.  9  : 9. 

New  Testament.  Say  ye  to  the  daughter  of  Zion  (Isa.  62  :  11)  :  Behold 
thy  king  cometh  to  thee,  meek,  and  mounted  upon  an  ass,  and  upon  a  colt 
the  foal  of  an  ass.     Matt.  21 : 5. 

Fear  not,  O  daughter  of  Zion ;  behold  thy  king  cometh  sitting  upon 
an  ass's  colt.     John  12  :  15. 

Hebrew.  In  hearing  hear  ye,  but  understand  not ;  and  in  seeing  see  ye, 
but  perceive  not.  Make  fat  the  heart  of  this  people,  and  their  ears  make 
heavy,  and  their  eyes  cover  over  :  lest  they  see  with  their  eyes,  and  with 
their  ears  hear,  and  with  their  heart  understand,  and  turn,  and  one  heal 
them.     Isa.  6  : 9,  10. 

Septuagiyit.  In  hearing  ye  shall  hear,  but  understand  not ;  and  in  see- 
ing ye  shall  see,  but  perceive  not.  Eor  the  heart  of  this  people  became 
gross,  and  with  their  ears  they  heard  heavily,  and  the  eyes  they  closed  ; 
lest  at  any  time  they  should  see  with  the  eyes,  and  with  the  ears  should 
hear,  and  with  the  heart  should  understand,  and  should  turn,  and  I  should 
heal  them.     Isa.  6  :  9,  10. 

New  Testament.  In  hearing  ye  sa.ili  hear,  but  understand  not ;  and  in 
seeing  ye  shall  see,  but  perceive  not.  For  the  heart  of  this  people  became 
gross,  and  with  the  ears  they  heard  heavily,  and  their  eyes  they  closed  ; 
lest  at  any  time  they  should  see  with  the  eyes,  and  with  the  ears  should 
hear,  and  with  the  heart  should  understand,  and  should  turn,  and  I  should 
heal  them.     Matt.  13  :  14,  15  ;  also  Acts  28  :  26,  27. 

That  in  seeing  they  may  see  and  not  i^erceive,  and  in  hearing  they  may 
hear  and  not  understand ;  lest  at  any  time  they  should  turn,  and  [their 
sins]  should  be  forgiven  them.     Mark  4  :  12. 

That  in  seeing  they  may  not  see,  and  in  hearing  they  may  not  under 
stand.     Luke  8  :  10. 

He  hath  blinded  their  eyes,  and  hardened  their  heart ;  that  they  might 
not  see  with  the  eyes,  and  understand  with  the  heart,  and  be  turned,  anc, 
I  should  heal  them.     John  12  :  40. 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPKETATION.  635 

These  quotations  of  the  same  passage  by  different  New  Testament  wri- 
ers  furnish  a  remarkable  example  of  their  free  manner,  while  the  spirit 
and  scope  of  the  proj^bet  are  kept  by  all. 

In  Heb.  10  :  5  we  have  a  quotation  from  the  Septuagint  where  it  differs 
widely  from  the  Hebrew  of  Psa,  40  :  7.  This  reads  :  "  Sacrifice  and  offer- 
ing thou  didst  not  desire;  mine  ears  hast  thou  opened"  (Heb.  bored  or 
digged).  But  the  apostle  quotes  after  the  Septuagint:  "Sacrifice  and 
offering  thou  wouldest  not,  but  a  body  hast  thou  prepared  for  me."  The 
attempted  explanations  of  this  difference  are  not  very  satisfactory.  It  is 
to  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  apostle  builds  no  essential  part  of  his  argu- 
ment upon  the  clause  in  question. 

In  the  long  quotation  from  Jeremiah  in  Hob.  8  : 8-12,  the  clause,  "and 
I  regarded  them  not"  (ver.  9),  is  perhaps  correct  for  substance;  since 
many  prefer  to  render  the  corresponding  Hebrew  clause  not  as  in  our  ver- 
sion— "  though  I  was  a  husband  unto  them, " — but,  ' '  and  I  rejected  them. " 

When,  on  the  contrary,  the  spirit  and  scope  of  a  passage  are  lost  in  the 
version  of  the  Seventy,  the  New  Testament  writers  quote  directly  from  the 
Hebrew.     Examples  are  the  following  : 

"When  Israel  wa?  a  child,  then  I  loved  him,  and  called  my  son  out  of 
Egypt."  Hosea  11  : 1,  quoted  in  Matt.  2  :  15.  Here  the  Seventy  render  : 
"  Out  of  Egypt  I  called  my  children,"  a  variation  from  the  original  which 
makes  the  passage  inapplicable  ;  since  Israel,  as  God's  first-born  son 
(Exod.  4  :22,  23),  was  the  type  of  Christ,  and  not  the  individual  Israelites. 

Again,  to  the  passage  Isa.  42  : 1-4,  quoted  in  Matt.  12  :  18-21,  the  Sep- 
tuagint gives  a  wrong  turn  by  the  introductory  words  :  ' '  Jacob  my  son,  I 
will  help  him  :  Israel  my  chosen,  my  soul  hath  accepted  him  :  I  have  put 
my  Spirit  upon  him  ;  he  shall  bring  forth  judgment  to  the  Gentiles,"  etc.  ; 
whereas  the  Hebrew  speaks  not  of  Jacob  and  Israel,  but  of  God's  servant : 
"Behold  my  servant,  whofii  I  uphold;  my  chosen,  in  whom  my  soul  de- 
lighteth,"  etc.  Matthew  accordingly  follows  the  Hebrew,  yet  in  a  very 
free  manner  :  "Behold  my  servant,  whom  I  have  chosen ;  my  beloved,  in 
whom  my  soul  delighteth,"  etc. 

For  other  examples  see  Mai.  3:1,  as  quoted  by  Matt.  11  :  10  ;  Mark 
1:2;  Luke  7  :  27  ;  Isa.  9  : 1,  2,  as  quoted  by  Matt.  4  :  15,  16. 

3.  Passing  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  New  Testament 
citations  on  the  side  of  their  iniuard  contents,  the  first  question 
that  arises  has  respect  to  the  so-called  p?*i;zcip?e  6f  accommodation. 
There  is  a  sense  in  which  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  some- 
times employ  the  language  of  the  Old  in  the  way  of  accommo- 
dation ;  that  is,  they  use  its  phraseology,  originally  applied  io 


636  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

a  different  connection,  simply  as  expressing  in  an  apt  and  for- 
cible manner  the  thoughts  which  they  wish  to  convey.  Of  this 
we  have  a  beautiful  example  in  Eom.  10 :  18,  where  the  apostle 
says,  in  reference  to  the  proclamation  of  the  gospel :  "  But  I 
say.  Have  they  not  heard  7  Yes  verily,  their  sound  went  into 
all  the  earth,  and  their  words  unto  the  ends  of  the  world," 
meaning  that  what  the  psalmist  says  of  the  instruction  given 
by  the  heavens,  Psa.  19:1-4,  is  true  of  the  preaching  of  the 
word;  so  that  none  are  excusable  for  their  unbelief.  Another 
striking  example  is  found  in  the  same  c»hapter  (ver.  6-8),  where 
"  phraseology  originally  used  by  Moses  to  express  the  way  of 
justification  contained  in  the  law  (Deut.  30 :  11-14)  is  adapted  to 
the  gospel  as  properly  descriptive  of  the  salvation  propounded 
in  it."     Davidson's  Hermeneutics,  p.  471. 

But  that  the  Saviour  and  his  apostles  used  accommodation 
in  the  commonly  received  sense  of  the  term ;  that  is,  that  they 
quoted,  in  accommodation  to  the  ideas  of  their  age,  passages 
from  the  Old  Testament  as  applicable  to  the  Messiah  and  his 
kingdom,  which  they  knew  to  have  no  such  application  when 
fairly  and  legitimately  interpreted;  that,  for  example,  they 
used  the  hundred  and  tenth  psalm  as  a  prophecy  of  the  Mes- 
siah (Matt.  22:41-46;  Mark  12:35-37;  Luke  20:41-44;  Acts 
2:34,  35;  Heb.  1:13),  simply  because  this  was  the  current 
interpretation  of  their  times — this  is  not  to  be  admitted  for  a 
moment.  That  the  Saviour  dealt  prudently  with  the  preju- 
dices of  his  age  is  admitted ;  but  he  did  not  build  upon  them 
his  claim  to  be  the  Messiah,  nor  solemnly  appeal  to  the  author- 
ity of  Moses  and  the  prophets  knowing  this  to  be  only  a  dream 
of  fanciful  interpretation.  If  Christ  and  his  apostles  taught 
any  thing,  ifc  was  that  he  had  come  in  accordance  with  the 
prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  fulfilment  of  these 
prophecies.  Did  they  indeed,  in  all  this,  only  act  upon  the 
maxim  which  Paul  rejects  with  abhorrence  as  damnable?  "If 
the  truth  of  God  hath  more  abounded  through  my  lie  unto  his 
glory;  why  yet  am  I  also  judged  as  a  sinner?  And  not  rather 
(as  we  be  slanderously  reported,  and  as  some  affirm  that  we 


BIBLICAL  INTERPRETATION.  637 

say),  Let  us  do  evil  that  good  may  come?  whose  damnation 
is  just." 

4.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  often  cite  the  Old  by 
way  of  argument.  Thus  the  Saviour  argues  against  divorce  at 
the  husband's  will  "for  every  cause"  by  an  appeal  to  the  ori- 
ginal institution  of  marriage  (Matt.  19  :  3-6) ;  and  Paul  proves 
that  the  man  is  the  head  of  the  woman,  and  that  she  owes  sub- 
jection to  him,  from  the  order  of  creation  and  its  accompany- 
ing circumstances.  1  Cor.  11 : 8,  9 ;  1  Tim.  2  :  11-14.  Respect- 
ing this  class  of  quotations,  it. is  only  necessary  to  remark  that 
the  validity  of  the  arguments  depends  on  the  historic  truth  and 
divine  authority  -of  the  passages  adduced.  The  Saviour  and 
his  apostles  professedly  build  their  arguments  on  the  record  of 
the  Old  Testament.  If  this  is  sand — mythical  quicksand — • 
their  house  falls,  and  their  authority  with  it.  But  if  the  foun- 
dation is  rock — an  inspired  record  of  facts — their  house  stands, 
and  with  it  their  character  as  truthful  teachers. 

5.  Far  more  numerous  are  the  passages  which  are  cited  as 
prophecies  of  Christ  and  his  Jdngdom.  These  are  introduced  by 
various  formulas :  •'  That  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spo- 
ken of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet;"  "that  it  might  be  fulfilled 
which  was  spoken  by  Esaias  the  prophet ;"  "  in  them  is  ful- 
filled the  prophecy  of  Esaias;"  "  this  day  is  this  Scripture  ful- 
filled in  your  ears ;"  "  this  Scripture  must  needs  have  been  ful- 
filled;" "it  is  .contained  in  Scripture;"  "another  Scripture 
saith;"  "this  that  is  written  must  yet  be  accomplished  in 
me,"  etc. 

The  common  formula,  "that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  means  that  the 
event  recorded  took  place  in  order  thai  the  purpose  of  God  announced  in 
the  prophecy  might  be  accomplished.  The  prophecy  was  not  the  main 
thing,  but  the  purpose  of  God  contained  in  it.  For  the  accomplishment 
of  this  purpose,  and  thus  of  the  prophecy  which  revealed  it,  God's  truth 
was  pledged.  In  the  same  way  are  to  be  understood  the  words  of  John 
(chap..  12  : 39,  40)  :  "Therefore  they  could  not  beheve  because  that  Esaias 
saith  again,  He  hath  blinded  their  eyes,"  etc.  The  hinderance  to  their 
belief  lay  not  in  the  prophecy,  but  in  that  which  the  prophecy  announced. 


(538  COMPANION  TO  THE  BIBLE.     ' 

6.  Of  the  prophecies  quoted,  some  refer  immediately  to 
Glirist.  Such  are  the  following :  "  The  Lord  said  unto  my 
Lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand,  till  I  make  thine  enemies  thy 
footstool"  (Matt.  22:44,  from  Psa.  110:1);  "The  Lord  sware 
and  will  not  repent,  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of 
Melchizedek"  (Heb.  7:  21,  from  Psa.  110  : 4) ;  "  He  was  led  as 
a  sheep  to  the  slaughter;  and  like  a  lamb  dumb  before  his 
shearer,  so  opened  he  not  his  mouth,"  etc.  (Acts  8 :  32,  33,  from 
Isa.  53  :  7,  8) ;  "A  Prophet  shall  the  Lord  your  God  raise  up 
unto  you  of  your  brethren,  like  unto  me ;  him  shall  ye  hear," 
etc.  (Acts  3  :  22,  23 ;  7  :  37,  from  Deut.  18  :  15,  18,  19). 

7.  Others  refer  ultimately  to  Christ,  hut  under  a  type.  An 
undeniable  example  is  the  following :  "  A  bone  of  him  shall  not 
be  broken"  (John  19:36,  from  Exod.  12:46;  Numb.  9:12); 
words  originally  spoken  of  the  paschal  lamb,  which  was  the 
type  of  Christ,  and  now  fulfilled  in  the  great  Antitype.  Again, 
we  read  in  Hosea  (chap.  11 : 1) :  "  When  Israel  was  a  child, 
then  I  loved  him,  and  called  my  son  out  of  Egypt;"  words 
which  Matthew  quotes  as  fulfilled  in  Christ  (chap.  2  :  15).  It 
was  the  purpose  of  God,  namely,  that  the  history  of  Israel, 
God's  first-born  son  (Exod.  4 :  22,  23),  in  his  national  child- 
hood, should  foreshadow  that  of  Jesus,  the  only  begotten  Son 
of  God. 

To  the  same  class  belongs  apparently  the  following  citation  : 
"  What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him  ?  or  the  son  of 
man,  that  thou  visitest  him  ?  Thou  madest  him  a  little  lower 
than  the  angels;  thou  crownedst  him  with  glory  and  honor, 
and  didst  set  him  over  the  works  of  thy  hands :  thou  hast  put 
all  things  in  subjection  under  his  feet."  Heb.  2 :  6-8,  from  Psa. 
8  : 4-6.  It  seems  impossible  to  deny  that  the  immediate  refer- 
ence of  the  psalm  is  to  man's  exalted  dignity  and  high  prerog- 
atives as  the  lord  of  this  lower  world.  But,  as  the  writer  to 
the  Hebrews  argues,  the  words  have  no  complete  fulfilment  in 
man  considered  apart  from  Christ.  It  is  in  the  person  of 
Christ  alone  that  the  high  destiny  of  human  nature  finds  its  full 
realization.     He  is  made  Lord  of  all,  and  "  crowned  with  glory 


BIBLICAL  INTEKPEETATION.  639 

and  honor"  for  himself  and  for  all  his  disciples  also,  who  shall 
reign  with  him  in  glory  for  ever.  We  add  one  more  example 
from  Heb.  1  :  5,  where  the  writer  quotes  and  applies  to  Christ 
the  words  of  Nathan  to  David  :  "  I  will  be  to  him  a  Father,  and 
he  shall  be  to  me  a  Son."  2  Sam.  7 :  14.  The  promise  unde- 
niably had  immediate  respect  to  Solomon  ;  not  to  Solomon, 
however,  in  his  simple  personality,  but  to  Solomon  as  the  first 
after  David  of  a  line  of  kings  that  should  end  in  Christ,  in 
whom  alone  it  has  its  true  fulfilment.  God  took  Solomon,  and 
in  him  the  whole  line  of  kings  on  David's  throne,  into  the  rela- 
tion of  sonship,  and  thus  of  heirship.  Eom.  8:17;  Gal.  4  :  7. 
To  Solomon,  as  God's  son,  the  kingdom  was  confirmed  for  ever 
through  Christ;  and  Solomon's  lower  sonship,  moreover,  adum- 
brated the  higher  sonshij)  of  the  last  and  greatest  of  his  sons, 
to  whom  the  promise  was :  "  He  shall  be  great,  and  shall  bo 
called  the  Son  of  the  Highest;  and  the  Lord  God  shall  give 
unto  him  the  throne  of  his  father  David :  and  he  shall  reign 
over  the  house  of  Jacob  for  ever;  and  of  his  kingdom  there 
shall  be  no  end."     Luke  1 :  32,  33. 

To  draw  the  exact  line  of  separation  between  the  two  above 
named  classes  of  citations  is  difficult,  and  in  some  cases  per- 
haps impossible.  Nor  is  it  necessary,  since  the  essential  truth 
is,  that  all  these  prophecies  find  their  accomplishment  in  Christ ; 
those  of  the  former  class  directly,  those  of  the  latter  through 
types  of  divine  appointment. 

The  exegesis  of  the  New  Testament  quotations  presents  many  difficult 
questions,  relating  partly  to  the  true  rendering  of  the  original  words,  partly 
to  the  deviations  of  the  Septuagint  from  the  Hebrew,  and  the  citations  from 
both  the  Sej)tuagint  and  the  Hebrew  ;  partly  to  the  original  application  of 
the  passages  cited  and  the  use  made  of  them  in  the  New  Testament,  For 
the  details  the  student  must  be  referred  to  the  commentators.  All  that 
has  been  here  attempted  is  a  statement  of  the  general  principles  that  must 
govern  us  in  interpreting  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  which 
are  found  in  the  New. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


N.  B.  THE  FIGURES  REFER  TO  THE  PAGES. 


A. 

Abrahamic  covenant,  the  ground  work 
of  the  Pentateuch,  225;  of  the  gos- 
pel, 116,  seq. 

Adam,  his  apostasy  the  key  to  the  plan 
of  redemption,  115. 

Accentuation,  Hebrew  system  of,  265. 

Acknowledged  epistles,  91,  seq. 

Accommodation,  principle  of,  635. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  a  natural  sequel 
to  the  Gospels,  87;  external  testimo- 
nies to  the  book,  88;  internal  eviden- 
.  ces,  89;  its  credibility,  90;  coinciden- 
ces with  the  Pauline  epistles,  90;  its 
plan  and  divisions,  440;  its  offices, 
442,  seq. 

Ahasuerus,  the  Xerxes  of  history,  261. 

Alamoth,  288. 

Alexander  the  Great,  his  visit  to  Jeru- 
salem, 263,  325. 

Alexandria,  the  Septuagiut  version  made 
here,  199. 

Alexandrine  Jews,  their  use  of  the  Greek 
language,  369. 

Alexandrine  manuscript,  385. 

Allegorical  applications  of  Scripture, 
553. 

Allegories,  319,553;  their  interpretation, 
558,  seq. 

Altar,  of  incense,  589;  of  burnt-offer- 
ing, 590. 

Al-taschith,  288. 

Ammonian  sections,  375. 

Amos,  336;  book  of,  336,  seq. 

Analogy  of  f;\ith,  576,  seq. 

Antilegomena,  91,  96,  seq. 

Antioch  in  Pisidia,  442. 


Antioch  in  Syria,  the  centre  of  Paul's 
missionary  labors,  441,  442,  449. 

Apocalypse,  meaning  of  the  term,  ;503; 
its  apostolic  authorship,.  503,  seq. ;  its 
date,  506;  various  schemes  of  inter- 
pretation, 507 ;  symbolic  import  of  its 
numbers,  508,  seq. 

Apocrypha,  meaning  of  the  word,  350. 

Apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
198,  350,  seq.;  uncertainty  of  their 
dates,  350;  none  of  them  exist  in  He- 
brew or  wer^eceived  into  the  Hebrew 
canon,  350;  received  by  the  Alexan- 
drine Jews,  351;  estimation  by  tho 
early  Christians  and  by  Protestants, 
351. 

Apocryphal  Gospels  and  Acts,  517. 

Apostolic  canons,  so-called,  514. 

Apostolic  epistles,  a  natural  sequel  to 
the  Gospels,  445 ;  their  occasions  and 
offices,  445,  seq. 

Apostolic  men,  109 ;  their  writings,  483. 

Apostolic  fathers,  511,  seq. 

Apostles,  their  peculiar  office,  103;  their 
inspiration,  104,  seq. 

Apostle's  Creed,  517. 

Aquila  and  his  version,  204. 

Aramaean  or  Aramaic  and  its  branches, 
175;  became  the  language  of  the  Jews 
after  the  captivity,  177,  369. 

Ark  of  the  covenant,  588. 

Aristeas'  account  of  the  Septuagint  ver- 
sion, 199. 

Aristobulus'  account  of  the  same,  199. 

Armenian  version,  409. 

Artaxerxes,  261;  Artaxerxes  Longima- 
nus,  261,  341>. 


28 


642 


INDEX   OF    SUBJECTS. 


Assyrian  or  square  character,  172,  175. 

Atonement,  great  day  of,  603. 

Authenticity  of  the  Gospels,  66,  seq. ;  of 
the  Pentateuch,  120,  seq.  See  fur- 
ther under  the  several  books. 

Autographs  of  the  sacred  writers,  their 
early  disappearance,  61,  209. 

B. 

Babylon,  church  in,  492. 

Babylonish  captivitj^  255. 

Barnabas,  his  relation  to  Mark,  427. 

Barnabas,  so-called  Epistle  of,  46,  100, 
516. 

Baruch,  apocryphal  book  of,  358. 

Bashmuric  version,  407. 

Belshazzar,  identification  of,  328. 

Berosus'  account  ■  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
327. 

Beza's,  or  the  Cambridge  manuscript, 
387. 

Bible,  meaning  of  the  word,  165;  vari- 
ety of  its  authors  and  dates  of  its 
books,  168,  372,  seq. ;  their  arrange- 
ment, 169,  seq.,  371, %eq.;  different 
designations  of,  165,  seq. ;  its  code  of 
morals,  150,  seq.  ;  harmony  of  its 
parts,  152,  154;  its  power  over  the 
conscience  and  life,  154. 

Blood,  sacrificial,  the  atonement  lay  in 
it,  597;  sprinkling  of,  601,  603;  when 
carried  into  the  sanctuary,  604. 

Books  of  the  New  Testament,  public 
reading  of,  63.  See  further  under 
New  Testament  and  the  several  books. 

Books  of  the  Old  Testament.  See  under 
Bible  and  Old  Testament. 

Branch  as  a  designation  of  the  Messiah, 
590. 

Briefs,  377. 

Burning  of  sacrifices,  signification  of, 
602;  without  the  camp,  605. 

Burnt-ofi'erings,  598. 

c. 

Cambyses,  261. 

Canaanites,  their  extirpation,  140,  244. 
Candlestick,  golden,  589. 
Canon,   meaning  of  the  word,   183;  its 
extent,  112. 


Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  its  grad- 
ual formation,  394,  seq. ;  first  recog 
nition  of  a  canon,  398;  the  books  re- 
ceived separately  and  on  full  evidence, 
399;  completion  of  the  present  canon, 
398;  important  ancient  canons,  398. 

Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  settled  by 
Ezra,  123,  193,  seq. ;  principle  of  its 
settlement,  147;  Josephus' account  of, 
197;  Origen'sand  Jerome's,197;  canon 
of  the  Pentateuch,  183,  seq. ;  of  the 
historical  books,  185,  seq.  ;  of  the 
prophetical  and  poetic  books,  190,  seq. 

Canticles,  292. 

Chaldaisms,  307. 

Chaldee  language,  parts  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament written  in  it,  175.  See  further 
under  Targums. 

Chapters,  origin  of,  174,  377. 

Cherubim  over  the  ark,  God's  dwelling- 
place,  588. 

Christ,  his  person  and  advent  the  cen- 
tral point  of  Christianity,  32,  411;  his 
character  verifies  itself,  71,  seq. ;  man- 
ner of  his  teaching,  77,  seq. ;  manner 
in  which  he  manifested  his  deity,  79, 
seq.  ;  his  infallibility  an  axiom  of 
Christianity,  102;  preparation  for  his 
.  advent,  114;  union  of  the  kingly  and 
priestly  offices  in  his  person,  590; 
question  of  his  second  advent  and 
personal  reign  on  earth,  629,  seq. 

Christian  church,  inauguration  of,  443. 

Christianity,  its  historic  basis,  31»  410. 

Chronicles,  books  of,  originallj' one,  255; 
meaning  of  the  name,  255;  their  char- 
acteristics, 256;  their  place  in  the 
Hebrew  canon,  257;  difficulties  con- 
nected with  them,  257,  seq. 

Chronology,  of  the  Old  Testament,  230; 
of  the  book  of  Judges,  247;  of  the 
books  of  Kings,  255;  of  the  book  of 
Ezra,  260. 

Church  lessons,  378. 

Clean  and  unclean.  Mosaic  distinctions 
of,  605. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  40.  See  fur- 
ther under  various  New  Testament 
books. 


INDEX   OF    SUBJECTS. 


643 


Clement  of  Kome,  first  epistle  of,  100, 
511,  seq. ;  its  occasion,  scope,  and 
stj'le,  512;  its  reference  to  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  483;  second  Epistle 
of,  not  genuine,  512;  so-called  Clem- 
entines, or  Recognitions  of  Clement, 
513;  so-called  Constitutions  of  Clem- 
ent, and  apostolic  canons,  514. 

Codex  Vaticanus,  384;  Sinaiticus,  385; 
Alexandrinus,  385,  seq. ;  Ephraemi, 
386;  Dublinensis,  387;  Bezae,  387; 
Purpureas,  388.  See  further  on  pa- 
ges 402,  404. 

Colosse  and  church  of  the  Colossians, 
463. 

Colossians,  epistle  to  the,  its  relation  to 
the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  461;  its 
occasion,  scope,  and  plan,  464. 

Comparisons,  552. 

Context,  definition  of,  531;  its  import- 
ance, 531. 

Continuous  writing,  172,  373. 

Contradictions,  apparent,  reconciliation 
of,  543. 

Coptic  version,  407. 

Corinth  and  the  Corinthian  church,  454. 

Corinthians,  first  epistle  to.  the,  date 
and  place  of  writing,  453:  occasion 
and  scope,  454;  contents,  455;  con- 
trast with  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
456. 

Corinthians,  second  epistle  to  the,  date 
and  place  of  writing,  456;  occasion, 
contents,  and  peculiar  character,  457. 

Cornelius,  441. 

Councils,  general,  their  later  introduc- 
tion, 41,  97. 

Council  of  Laodicea,  its  canon,  399. 

Credibility  of  the  gospels.  See  gosj)el 
narratives. 

Crete  and  the  Cretan  churches,  480. 

Criticism  of  the  sacred  text,  its  oflfice, 
209;  of  the  Old  Testament  text,  its 
sources,  manuscripts,  209  ;  ancient 
versions,  210;  primary  editions,  210; 
parallel  passages,  211;  quotations  in 
the  New  Testament,  211,  632,  seq.; 
criticism  of  the  New  Testament  text, 
its  state,  380,  seq. ;  various  readings, 


381  ;  materials  for  correction,  383; 
manuscripts,  384,  seq. ;  primary  edi- 
tions, 388;  the  received  text,  389,  seq. ; 
principles  of  textual  criticism,  391, 
seq. 

Cursive  manuscripts,  60,  375,  388. 

Cyrus,  signification  of  the  name,  306 
his  decree  for  liberating  the  Jews,  306. 

D. 

Damasus,  his  agency  with  respect  to  the 
vulgate,  402. 

Daniel,  322. 

Daniel,  book  of,  its  place  in  the  Jewish 
canon,  322 ;  arrangement  and  contents, 
323;  genuineness, 324,  seq. ;  unity,324; 
testimonies  to  it,  Josephus,  325;  the 
Saviour,  325,  seq. ;  its  language,  326, 
329;  difficulties  connected  with  its 
chronology  and  history,  327;  its  su- 
pernatural contents,  330. 

Daniel,  apocryphal  additions  to,  359, 

Danites,  their  conquest  of  Laish,  243, 
245. 

Darius  Hystaspes,  261,  345. 

Darius  the  Median,  328. 

David,  249,  seq. ;  typical  character  of 
his  kingdom  and  office,  582. 

Deluge,  229. 

Demetrius  Phalereus,  his  agency  in  the 
Septuagint  versiom  201. 

Deuteronomy,  book  of,  meaning  of  the 
name,  238;  its  authorship,  124,  seq.; 
its  relation  to  the  earlier  parts  of  the 
law,  127;  design,  128;  peculiar  char- 
acter, 129;  contents,  238,  seq. 

Diatesseron  of  Tatian,  50. 

Difficulties,  treatment  of,  34,  85 ;  of  the 
Mosaic  economy,  138,  571;  of  the  book 
of  Genesis,  229,  seq. 

Diognetus,  epistle  to,  45. 

Disputed  books.     See  Antilegomena. 

Double  sense,  question  of,  618,  seq. ;  in 
the  historic  types,  618;  in  the  Messi- 
anic Psalms,  619. 

Dublin  manuscript,  387. 

E. 

Ebionites,  their  gospel,  422. 
Ecclesiastes,  book  of,  290,  seq. 


GU 


INDEX   OF    SUBJECTS. 


Ecclesiasticus,  apocryphal  book  of,  357. 

Elihu,  283. 

Egypt,  the  sojourn  in,  233. 

Eleazar,  martyrdom  of,  361. 

Enoch,  apocryphal  book  of,  501. 

Ephesus  and  the  Ephesian  church,  405, 
479. 

Ephesians,  Epistle  to  the,  462,  465,  seq. ; 
its  relation  to  the  epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians,  462 ;  occasion  and  general  char- 
acter, 466;  address  and  authorship, 
466;  contents  and  divisions,  467,  seq. 

Ephraem  manuscript,  380. 

Epistles,  apostolic,  445;  Pauline,  446. 
See  further  under  the  several  epistles. 

Esdras,  apocryphal  books  of,  352. 

Esther,  book  of,  263. 

Esther,  apocryphal  additions  to,  355. 

Ethiopian  version,  408. 

Eusebius,  account  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment canon,  398.  See  further  under 
the  various  New  Testament  books. 

Eusebian  canons,  376. 

Euthalius  and  stichometry,  374. 

Evidences  of  Christianity,  internal  and 
experimental,  149,  seq.  For  the  his- 
toric see  gospel  narratives,  Penta- 
teuch, etc. 

Exodus,  meaning  of  the  word,  232;  unity, 
divisions,  and  contents  of  the  book, 
232 ;  time  of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt,  233. 

Exegesis  defined,  521. 

Expositions,  inept,  540;  incompatible, 
541;  forced,  544. 

Expositor,  his  office,  521;  qualifications, 
522,  seq. 

Ezekiel,  316,  seq. 

Ezekiel,  book  of,  320,  seq. 

Ezra,  his  work  in  the  restoration,  258; 
in  settling  the  Hebrew  canon,  123, 
147. 

Ezra,  book  of,  258;  its  chronology,  260. 

F. 

Fables,  distinguished  from  parables,  554. 

Figurative  language,  546;  its  ascertain- 
ment, 547,  seq.  ;  its  interpretation, 
557,  seq. 

Figures,  different  kinds  of,  550,  seq. 


G. 

Galatia  and  the  Galatian  church,  458. 

Galatians,  Epistle  to  the,  date  and  place 
of  writing,  458;  occasion  and  scgpe, 
459;  contents  and  divisions,  460,  seq. 

Genesis,  book  of,  meaning  of  the  word, 
224;  its  relation  to  thefollowing  books, 
130;  authorship,  132,  227;  introduc- 
tory office,  225;  divisions,  226,  seq.; 
contents  and  difficulties,  227,  seq. 

Gentiles,  their  reception  of  the  gospel, 
and  introduction  to  the  church,  443, 
447. 

Genuineness.  See  under  the  several 
divisions  and  books  of  the  Bible. 

Gittith,  287. 

Gnosticism,  477. 

Gospel,  meaning  and  different  uses  of 
the  word,  411. 

Gospel  of  the  Ebionites,  422. 

Gospels,  relation  to  each  other,  417 ; 
chronology,  419;  relative  size  of,  420. 

Gospels,  sj'noptical,  50;  their  earlier 
composition,  51;  their  agreements, 
412;  differences,  413;  theories  of  their 
origin,  that  of  mutual  dependence, 
413;  of  an  original  document,  413;  of 
apostolic  tradition,  414,  seq. ;  their 
incomplete  character,  417;  relation  to 
the  fourth  gospel,  419. 

Gospels,  the  several.  See  under  the 
head  of  each. 

Gospel  narratives,  their  genuineness, 
30,  seq. ;  written  successively  at  inter- 
vals, 37 ;  ecirlier  histories  of  our  Lord, 
37;  external  evidences  considered,  38, 
seq. ;  internal,  50,  seq. ;  their  uncor- 
rupt  preservation,  59,  seq. ;  their  au- 
thenticity and  credibility,  character 
of  the  writers,  67,  seq. ;  of  the  works 
recorded,  68;  certainty  of  our  Lord's 
resurrection,  70;  the  character  of  Je- 
sus verifies  itself,  71,  seq. ;  supernat- 
ural character  of  the  facts  recorded 
in  the  gospels,  84;  objections  consid- 
ered, 85. 

Gospel  harmonies,  419. 

Gothic  version,  408. 

Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  its  pecu- 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


C-l.j 


liax  character,  57,  3G8;  its  adaptation 
to  the  wants  of  the  New  Testament 
writers,  366;  its  introduction  into  Asia 
and  Egypt,  367. 

H. 

Habakknk,  book  of,  342. 

Haggai,  book  of,  345. 

Hagiographa,  169 ;  Targums  on  the, 
208. 

Hanian,  263. 

Haphtaroth,  173. 

Harmony  between  the  Okl  and  New 
Testament,  in  spirit,  568,  seq. ;  in 
doctrine,  570. 

Harmonies  of  the  gospels,  419,  537. 

Heave-offerings,  601. 

Hebrew  alphabet,  176;  vowel  pohits  and 
accents,  178. 

Hebrew  commonwealth,  its  establish- 
ment under  Joshua,  241;  its  condi- 
tion under  the  Judges,  245 ;  the  Kings, 
249,  253;  at  the  restoration;  256,  258, 
261. 

Hebrew  language,  175,  366;  its  disuse 
after  the  captivity,  177,  367 ;  succeeded 
by  the  Aramaean,  367. 

Hebrew  text,  Jewish  divisions  of,  173; 
manuscripts,  189. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the,  482;  question 
of  its  authorship,  482 ;  date,  and  per- 
sons addressed,  484;  its  central  theme, 
485. 

Hellenistic  Jews,  368. 

Hermas,  Shepherd  of,  100,  517. 

Hermeneutics  defined,  521. 

Heretics,  their  testimony  to  the  gospels, 
48,  seq. 

Hexapla  of  Origen,  205. 

Hexaplar,  Syriac  version,  406. 

Historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
240,  seq. ;  of  the  New  Testament,  410, 
seq. 

Historical  types,  581,  seq. 

Holocausts,  or  burnt-offerings,  598. 

Homologoumena,  91. 

Hosea,  book  of,  333. 

Hugo,  Cardinal,  divides  the  Bible  into 
chapters,  174,  377, 


I. 

Ignatius  and  his  testimony,  46;  his  epis- 
tles, 514. 

Infidelity,  its  fragmentary  method  of 
argument,  34. 

Inspiration  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
term  defined,  101,  tests  of,  102,  seq.; 
in  what  sense  plenary,  question  of  its 
limitation,  111;  inspiration  of  the  Old 
Testament  books,  134,  142,  148,  195, 
seq.,  215,  etc. 

Interpretation,  its  human  and  divine 
sides,  526;  of  figurative  language,  527, 
seq. 

Interpreter,  his  office,  521;  qualifica- 
tions, 522,  seq. 

Irenseus  and  his  testimony,  39.  See 
further  under  the  several  books. 

Isaiah,  his  age  and  prophetical  activity, 
290. 

Isaiah,  book  of,  its  two  main  parts,  299; 
contents  and  divisions  of  the  first  part, 
299,  seq.;  the  second  part,  ")02;  its 
genuineness,  303,  seq. ;  its  form  that 
of  true  prophecy,  305. 

J. 

James  the  apostle,  and  James  the  Lord's 
brother,  question  respecting,  487. 

James,  Epistle  of,  its  author,  date,  and 
place  of  M'riting,  488;  genuineness  and 
reception  into  the  canon,  489,  seq. ; 
practical  character,  490;  alleged  dis- 
agreement with  the  Pauline  doctrine 
of  justification,  491. 

Jasher,  book  of,  243. 

Jason,  his  five  books,  360. 

Jeremiah,  sketch  of  his  life,  310. 

Jeremiah,  book  of,  309,  seq. ;  general 
character  of  his  prophecies,  312;  their 
arrangement,  313;  arrangement  of  the 
Alexandrine  version,  314. 

Jeremiah,  apocryphal  epistle  of,  358. 

Jeroboam,  his  sinful  policy  and  its  re- 
sults, 254. 

Jerome,  his  account  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment canon,  197;  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment canon,  399 ;  revision  of  the  Latin 
Bible,  400,  seq.      See  further  under 


6i6 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS 


the  several  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Jerusalem,  the  first  centre  of  Christian- 
ity, 440. 

Jerusalem  Targum,  207. 

Jesus.     See  Christ. 

Jews,  their  preparation  for  Christ's  ad- 
vent, 114;  their  institutions  typical  of 
Christ  as  well  as  preparatory,  146. 

Job,  book  of,  its  plan,  280;  design,  282; 
age  of  Job  and  of  the  book,  283;  ques- 
tion of  its  authorship,  283;  its  historic 
character,  284. 

Joel,  book  of,  334. 

John  the  apostle,  notices  of,  436,  seq. 

John's  gospel,  its  later  composition,  53; 
437;  sources,  438;  peculiarity  in  re- 
spect to  matter,  438,  seq. ;  general 
scope  and  special  office,  418,  439. 

John's  epistles,  the  first  epistle,  93,  497, 
seq. ;  the  second  and  third,  500. 

John  the  Presbyter,  503. 

Jonah,  book  of,  338. 

Jonathan,  Targum  of,  207. 

Josephus,  his  account  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment canon,  195,  197;  testimony  to 
the  book  of  Daniel,  325;  account  of 
the  feast  of  Purim,  263. 

Joshua,  book  of,  its  office  and  contents, 
241;  age  and  authorship,  243;  authen- 
ticity and  credibility,  244. 

Joshua  the  high-priest,  as  a  type  of 
Christ,  590. 

Judaizing  teachers,  448;  in  Galatia,  459; 
among  the  Colossians,  463;  of  the 
Pastoral  Epistles,  477. 

Jude,  Epistle  of,  501,  seq. 

Judges  of  the  Old  Testament,  their  char- 
acter and  office,  245. 

Judges,  book  of,  245,  seq. ;  its  chronol- 
ogy, 247. 

K. 

Kephalaia,  375. 

Keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  575. 

Kingdom  of  Israel,  its  establishment, 
249;  division,  254;  extinction  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes,  254. 

Kingdom  of  Judah,  its  origin,  254;  its 
extinction,  255, 


Kingly  office,  typical  of  Christ,  118,  249, 
582. 

Kings,  books  of,  originally  one,  252  ; 
their  contents  and  office,  252;  chro- 
nology, 255. 


Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  314;  pecu- 
liar structure  of  the  book,  315. 

Laodiceans,  epistle  to  the,  465. 

Last  days,  meaning  of  the  term,  608; 
prophecies  concerning,  611,  seq. 

Law.     See  Pentateuch. 

Lectionaries,  378. 

Leviticiis,  book  of,  meaning  of  the  word, 
235;  its  contents,  235,  seq. 

Limitations  in  the  interpretation  of  lan- 
guages, 542. 

Luke  the  Evangelist,  his  origin  and  re- 
lation to  Paul,  431 ;  his  soui-ces  of  in- 
formation, 432;  his  identity  with  the 
author  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
440. 

Luke's  gospel,  its  date,  432;  plan  and 
character,  433;  peculiar  matter,  434; 
its  integrity,  435 ;  its  genealogy  of  our 
Lord,  433,  435. 

Lyons  and  Vienne,  letter  of  the  churches 
of,  40,  88,  503. 

M. 

Maccabees,  family  of,  359;  origin  of  the 

name,  360. 
Maccabees,  apocryphal  books  of,  360, 

seq. 
Malachi,  book  of,  348. 
Manasses,  apocryphal  prayer  of,  359. 
Manuscripts,  ancient  mode  of  writing, 

60,  172,  373,  382. 
Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament,  their 

age  and  form,   180;  synagogue  rolls, 

18L 
Manuscripts    of   the    New    Testament, 

their  early  multiplication,   64;  noted 

manuscripts,  Vatican,  384;  Sinai,  38."; 

Alexandrine,  385,  seq. ;  Ephraem,  38C, 

Dublin  palimpsest,   387;  Beza's,  387, 

seq.;  purple,3SS;  cursive mauusciipts. 

388. 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


647 


Manuscripts  of  the  old  Latin,  402;  of 
of  the  vulgate,  404. 

Manuscript  of  the  Gothic  version  called 
the  Silver  manuscript,  408. 

Marcion  and  his  gospel,  49,  435. 

Mark  the  Evangelist,  notices  of,  427; 
his  relation  to  Peter  and  Paul,  427, 
seq. ;  in  what  sense  he  was  Peter's  in- 
terpreter, 428. 

Mark's  gospel,  place,  time  of  writing, 
and  language,  428;  its  design,  429;  its 
peculiarities,  430;  question  respecting 
its  closing  passage,  430,  seq. 

Maschil,  287. 

Masora  and  Masoretic  text,  178,  seq. 

Mattathias,  359. 

Matthew  the  Evangelist,  420. 

Matthew's  gospel,  its  original  language, 
421;  present  Greek  form,  422;  prima- 
ry design,  424;  characteristics,  425; 
chronology,  426;  place  and  time  of 
writing,  426;  integrity,  426;  its  gene- 
alogy of  our  Lord,  424,  435. 

Meat-offerings,  600. 

Melchizedek,  his  person  and  typical 
character,  583. 

Memphitic  version,  407. 

Messiah.     See  Christ. 

Messianic  Psalms,  different  principles 
of  interpretation,  that  of  exclusive  ref- 
erence to  Christ,  620;  that'  of  an  ideal 
personage,  620,  seq. ;  the  typical  view, 
621. 

Metaphor,  551. 

Metonymj'-,  551. 

Micah,  book  of,  340. 

Michtam,  287. 

Mosaic  economj'',  Christ  its  end,  118; 
its  preparatory  character,  138;  objec- 
tions to  it  considered,  138,  571;  its 
spirit  was  love,  139,  seq. 

Mottoes,  remarks  respecting,  533 

Muratorian  canon,  48,  89,  93,  398,  etc. 

Myths,  remarks  concerning,  556,  560. 

N. 

Nahum,  Prophecy  of,  341. 
Nathan's  writings,  251. 
Nazarenes,  their  gospel,  422. 


Nebuchadnezzar,  his  expeditions  to  Ju- 
daea, 327. 

Neginah  and  Neginoth,  287. 

Nehemiah,  his  work  in  the  restoration, 
261. 

Nehemiah,  book  of,  261,  seq. 

Nehiloth,  287. 

New  Jerusalem  of  Ezekiel's  vision,  321, 
627. 

Nineveh.     See  Nahum. 

Nitrian  desert,  Sj'riac  manuscripts  from, 
405. 

Numbers,  book  of,  237. 

Numbers,  symboHcal,  508,  564,  610. 

0. 

Obadiah,  Prophecy  of,  338. 

Oblations,  or  unbloody  offerings,  600. 

Old  Latin.     See  versions,  Latin. 

Onkelos,  Targum  of,  206. 

Origen,  his  account  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment canon,  197;  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment canon,  398;  his  Hexapla,  205. 
See  further  under  the  several  New 
Testament  books. 

P. 

Paley's  Horse  Paulinse,  94. 

Palimpsests,  60,  384;  examples  of,  386. 

Pantaenus,  40. 

Papias,  44.  See  also  under  the  several 
books  of  the  New  Testament. 

Papyrus,  59;  rolls  of,  384. 

Parables,  553;  their  interpretation,  560, 
seq. 

Paragraph  Bibles,  378. 

Parallelisms,  211,  534;  real  and  verbal, 
534;  doctrinal  and  historic,  535,  seq. 

Parallelisms,  poetic,  274,  seq. 

Parchments,  59,  seq. 

Parshiyoth,  173. 

Particular  Introduction,  its  province, 
214. 

Passover,  its  sacrificial  and  typical  char- 
acter, 599. 

Pastoral  epistles,  92 ;  their  place  in 
Paul's  history,  475,  seq. ;  character  of 
the  false  teachers  described  in  them, 
477;  their  genuineness  and  peculiar 
tone,  478. 


648 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  and 
his  peculiar  qualifications,  447;  his 
style,  448;  three  missionary  journeys, 
449. 

Pauline  epistles,  446;  commentaries  on 
them,  449 ;  their  connection  with  Paul's 
history  contained  in  the  Acts,  449; 
principle  of  their  arrangement,  and 
groups  into  which  they  fall,  450. 

Pentateuch,  meaning  of  the  term,  120; 
its  admitted  existence  from  Ezra's 
time,  120;  its  authorship,  120,  seq. ; 
relation  of  Deuteronomy  to  the  pre- 
ceding books,  126,  239;  of  Genesis  to 
the  following,  130,  225;  unity  of  its 
plan,  132,  224;  its  authenticity,  134, 
seq. ;  the  Jewish  polity  presupposes 
it,  135;  difficulties  connected  with  it, 
137,  seq.;  its  preparatory  office,  141; 
constitutes  a  Jewish  division  of  the 
Old  Testament,  169. 

Personal  reign  of  Christ,  question  con- 
cerning the,  629,  seq. 

Personification,  551. 

Peshito.     See  Syriac  versions. 

Peter,  his  leadership  among  the  apos- 
tles, 441 ;  in  what  sense  a  rock,  575. 

Peter,  first  epistle  of,  491. 

Peter,  second  epistle  of,  493;  question 
of  its  genuineness,  494,  seq. ;  its  de- 
sign, 497. 

Philemon,  Epistle  to,  469. 

Philoxenian.     See  Sj^riac  versions. 

Philippi  and  the  Philippian  church,  469. 

Philippians,  Epistle  to  the,  date,  occa- 
sion, and  place  of  writing,  469;  con- 
tents and  peculiar  character,  470. 

Phoenician  language,  175. 

Plan  of  redemption,  its  unity  and  prog- 
ress, 614;  its  foreshadowings,  616;  its 
end,  617. 

Poetry,  Hebrew,  its  characteristics,  266, 
seq. ;  its  outward  form,  274,  seq. ;  its 
diction,  278;  its  offices,  279. 

Poetical  books,  so-called  Hebrew,  169, 
265. 

Polycarp,  46. 

Polycarp,  epistle  of,  515. 

Pothinus,  40. 


Priesthood  of  our  Lord,  485. 

Priesthood,  Levitical,  tj^ical  of  Christ, 
119,  236;  points  of  agreement  speci- 
fied, a  common  human  nature,  ap- 
pointment by  God,  mediatorship  be- 
tween God  and  the  people  through 
proj)itiatory  sacrifice, 594,  seq. ;  points 
of  disagreement  incident  to  the  type, 
595,  seq. ;  central  idea  of  priesthood, 
596. 

Priesthood  of  Melchizedek,  583,  seq. 

Priestly  garments,  596. 

Prophecy,  interpretation  of,  607,  seq. ; 
its  progressive  fulfilment,  622;  ques- 
tion of  its  literal  and  figurative  mean- 
ing, 624,  seq. ;  its  representative  use 
of  Old  Testament  history  and  institu- 
tions, 624. 

Prophecies,  specific,  607;  generic,  608; 
with  the  succession  of  events,  609; 
without  it,  611;  their  inward  view  of 
God's  kingdom,  613,  seq. 

Prophetical  books  and  their  office,  143, 
seq. 

Prophetical  office,  typical  of  Christ,  118, 
582. 

Prophets,  Hebrew,  their  office  and  char- 
acter, 294,  seq. 

Prophets,  as  a  Jewish  division  of  the 
Old  Testament  canon,  169;  greater 
prophets,  169,  294;  less  or  minor,  169, 
332 ;  Masoretic  and  Septuagint  ar- 
rangement of,  332. 

Proverbs,  555. 

Proverbs,  book  of,  its  office,  288;  out- 
ward form  and  divisions,  289;  arrange- 
ment in  its  present  form,  290. 

Psalms,  book  of,  its  character  and  office, 
284;  fivefold  division,  285,  seq. ;  titles, 
286,  seq. ;  Messianic  psalms,  619. 

Psalms,  alleged  Maccabean,  196. 

Psalters,  Galilean  and  Roman,  400,  403. 

Pseudo-Jonathan,  Targum  of,  207. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  his  agency  in 
respect  to  the  Septuagint  version, 
199. 

Punic  language,  175. 

Purple  manuscript,  388. 

Purim,  feast  of,  263. 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


649 


Q. 

Quotations  of  the  early  fathers,  37. 

Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  New,  their  use  in  sacred  criticism, 
211;  authority,  632;  outward  form, 
G33;  free  spirit,  635;  principle  of  ac- 
commodation considered,  635;  quota- 
tions for  argument,  637;  of  Old  Testa- 
ment prophecies  referring  to  Christ — 
directly,  638;  in  a  typical  way,  638. 
See  further  under  Septuagint. 

Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  Talmud  and  Eabbinic  writers,211, 
seq. 

R. 

Rabbinic  writers,  211,  seq. 

Eabbinic  mode  of  writing,  176. 

Reason,  its  office  in  interpretation,  544, 

Restoration  of  the  Jews,  question  con- 
cerning the,  628. 

Resurrection  of  Jesus,  70. 

Resurrection,  first  and  second,  630. 

Revelation,  its  unity,  33,  566,  568;  di- 
versity, 566,  seq. ;  each  particular  rev- 
elation perfect  in  its  place,  571;  the 
later  revelations  interpret  the  earlier, 
572. 

Revelation,  book  of.     See  Apocalypse. 

Ritual  types,  585,  seq. 

Romans  and  Roman  church,  451. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the,  its  date  and 
place  of  writing,  451;  occasion  and 
contents,  452;  office,  453. 

Ruth,  bock  of,  2-18;  supplementary  to 
the  history  of  David's  family,  248. 

s. 

Sacrifices,  typical  of  Christ,  591,  seq. ; 
their  essential  character,  597,  seq.; 
Mosaic  classification  of  them,  sin- 
offerings  and  trespass-offerings,  598; 
burnt-offerings,  598;  peace-offerings, 
599 ;  sacrificial  victims,  600. 

Sahidic  version,  407. 

Salome,  436. 

Samaritans,  their  language,  175;  their 
Pentateuch  and  its  version,  181,  208. 

Samuel,  he  establishes  the  school  of  the 
prophets  and  the  kingly  office,  249. 


Samuel,  books  of,  their  original  unity, 
248;  contents,  office,  and  divisions, 
249,  seq.;  age  and  sources,  251. 

Sanctuary,  Mosaic,  its  general  idea, 
585;  structure,  divisions,  and  furni 
ture,  586,  seq. ;  typical  character,  587, 
seq. 

Saul,  250. 

Scape-goat,  603. 

Scope,  defined,  528;  its  primary  impor- 
tance, 529;  how  ascertained,  530. 

Scriptio  continua,  172,  373. 

Sense,  distinguished  from  signification, 
528. 

Sense  of  Scripture,  its  extent,  573;  the 
clearer  statements  of  Scripture  inter- 
pret the  more  obscure,  574. 

Selah,  287. 

Septuagint,  Greek  version  of,  its  antiq- 
uity, 199;  Jewish  account  of  its  ori- 
gin, 199,  seq. ;  character  and  critical 
value,  201;  influence  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament language,  202;  Hebrew  text 
from  which  it  was  made,  203;  history 
of  its  text,  205;  Origen's  Hexapla, 
205;  Jewish  estimates  of  it,  203,  368; 
quotations  from  it  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 633,  seq. 

Septuagint  arrangement  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament books,  171. 

Seventy.     See  Septuagint. 

Shalmaneser,  334. 

Sheminith,  288. 

Shemitic  languages,  175. 

Shoshannim,  Shushan,  and  Shushan 
eduth,  287,  s*[. 

Show-bread,  589. 

Signification  of  words,  527. 

Sinai  manuscript,  385. 

Sirach,  Jesus  son  of.  See  Ecclesiasti- 
cus. 

Six  days  of  creation,  137,  228. 

Smerdis,  261. 

So,  334. 

Sojourn  in  the  wilderness,  its  typical 
import,  584. 

Solomon,  his  temple,  253;  his  splendor 
and  profuse  expenditures,  253. 

Solomon,  Song  of,  292,  seq. 


Comp.  to  Bible. 


28 


650 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Songs  of  degrees,  287. 

Sprinkling  of  the  sacrificial  blood,  601, 
603. 

Stevens,  Robert,  author  of  the  modern 
division  of  verses  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 377. 

Subscriptions  to  the  New  Testament 
books,  379. 

Symbols,  319,  554;  numerical,  508,  564, 
610;  distinguished  from  tj'pes,  555; 
real  and  seen  in  visions,  562,  seq. 

Symmachus,  his  version,  204. 

Synagogue,  the  great,  194. 

Synagogue  rolls,  179. 

Synagogues,  Jewish,  as  places  of  preach- 
ing, 447. 

Synoptical  gospels.     See  Gospels. 

Syriac  language,  175. 

Syriac  versions.     See  Versions. 

Syro-chaldaic,  369. 


Tabernacle,  Mosaic,  585,  seq. ;  its  typi- 
cal character,  602,  seq. 

Targum.of  Onkelos,  206;  of  Jonathan, 
207;  of  Pseudo-Jonathan,  207;  Jeru- 
salem Targum,  207;  Targums  on  the 
Hagiographa,  208. 

Tatian  and  his  Diatessaron,  50. 

Temple  of  Solomon,  253. 

Tent,  Mosaic,  as  distinguished  from  the 
tabernacle,  587. 

Testament,  various  ancient  designations 
of,  165;  origin  and  meaning  of  the 
term,  166. 

Testament,  Old,  its  insfparable  connec- 
tion with  the  New,  113,  seq. ;  its  in- 
spiration, 134,  142,  148,  195,  seq. ;  va- 
rious arrangements  of  its  books,  168, 
seq. ;  Old  Testament  text,  Jewish  di- 
visions of,  173;  modern,  173,  seq.; 
original  languages,  175;  criticism  of 
its  text,  209 ;  preparatory  character  of 
its  revelations,  215;  of&ce  of  its  seve- 
ral divisions,  218;  its  significance  to 
the  covenant  people,  220;  to  the  Chris- 
tian church,  222. 

Testament,  New,  the  natural  sequel  to 
the  Old,  113,  seq. ;  and  its  interpreter. 


119;  its  language,  365,  seq.;  main  di- 
visions of  its  books  and  their  order, 
371 ;  subdivisions,  of  the  historic  part, 
371;  of  the  epistolary,  372;  various 
arrangements  of  the  gospels,  372 ;  ar- 
rangement of  the  epistles,  373;  titles 
and  subscriptions,  378;  New  Testa- 
ment text,  its  essential  integrity,  05, 
390;  uncial  and  cursive  modes  of  wtI- 
ting,  373 ;  continuous  writing,  373 ; 
stichometry,  374;  ancient  divisions  of 
the  text,  375,  seq. ;  modern,  377,  seq. ; 
criticism  of  the  text,  380;  the  manu- 
script text,  380,  seq. ;  various  readings, 
381,  seq. ;  manuscripts,  384;  the  printed 
text,  388;  primary  editions,  388,  seq.; 
remarks  on  the  received  text,  390. 

TertuUian,  39.  See  also  under  the  sev- 
eral New  Testament  books. 

Thebaic  version,  407. 

Theocracy,  its  establishment  under  Mo- 
ses, 232;  Christ  its  end,  118;  and  tj^p- 
ified  by  it,  146;  alleged  objections  to 
it,  138,  seq. ;  its  preparatorj'  character 
and  practical  working,  141,  seq. ;  its 
condition  at  the  restoration,  259. 

Theodotion's  version,  204. 

Thessalonica  and  the  Thessalonian 
church,  471. 

Thessalonians,  first  epistle  to  the,  472; 
its  early  date,  occasion,  and  contents, 
472,  seq. 

Thessalonians,  second  epistle  to  the, 
date,  design,  and  contents,  473;  ques- 
tion respecting  our  Lord's  second  ad- ' 
vent,  474;  epistles  to  the  Thessaloni- 
nians  and  Philippians  contrasted,  474, 
seq. 

Timothy,  notices  of,  479. 

Timothy,  first  epistle  to,  time  of  wri- 
ting, occasion,  and  contents,  479. 

Timothy,  second  epistle  to,  its  peculiar 
tone  and  character,  481;  its  late  date, 
482. 

Titus,  notices  of,  480. 

Titus,  epistle  to,  480. 

Tobit,  apocryphal  book  of,  353. 

Tradition,  different  senses  of,  417. 

Tropes,  550,  seq. 


INDEX   OF    SUBJECTS. 


651 


Types,  distinguished  from  analogies  and 
from  simple  foreshadowings,  579;  their 
essential  character,  580;  different  kinds 
of  tj^pes,  historical,  581,  seq.,  618;  rit- 
ual, 585,  seq. 

Typical  orders  of  men,  581,  seq. ;  typi- 
cal historic  transactions,  583;  tyiDical 
ritual  acts,  laying  on  of  the  offerer's 
hands,  waving  and  heaving,  sprink- 
ling of  the  sacrificial  blood,  and  burn- 
ing on  the  altar,  601,  seq.;  burning 
of  incense,  589;  ceremonies  connected 
with  the  great  day  of  atonement,  603; 
with  the  scape-goat,  604. 

u. 

Uncial  manuscripts,  60,  373,  384. 
Uncleanness,  Levitical,  606. 

V. 

Vail  of  the  tabernacle,  586,  seq. 

Vail  of  the  temple,  rending  of  the,  603, 

Valentinus,  49. 

Various  readings  of  the  gospels,  63;  of 
the  New  Testament  text  generally, 
380 ;  examples  of  the  more  important, 
390. 

Verses,  of  the  Old  Testament,  173;  of 
the  New  Testament,  377. 

Version,  Armenian,  409;  English  of  Wic- 
lif,  400;  Ethiopic,  408;  Gothic,  409; 
Septuagint,  see  under  this  title. 

Versions,  Latin,  the  old  Latin,  47,  62, 
89,  400;  age,  place  of  execution,  and 
variety  of  text,  400;  its  canon,  401; 
made  in  the  Old  Testament  from  the 
Septuagint :  the  vulgate,  its  arrange- 
ment of  the  Old  Testament  books, 
171;  in  the  New  Testament  a  revision  ; 


of  the  old  Latin,  402;  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament mostly  a  new  translation,  403; 
its  diversified  character,  403;  history 
of  its  text,  404;  manuscripts  of  it,  404. 

Versions,  Syriac  :  the  Peshito  version  of 
the  New  Testament,  47,  62,  89;  of  the 
Old  Testament,  208;  its  canon,  398; 
made  in  the  Old  Testament  from  the 
original  Hebrew,  404 ;  its  age  and 
character,  404,  seq. ;  the  Cureton  Syr- 
iac, 405  ;  the  Philoxenian,  406  ;  the 
Hexapla,406,seq. ;  the  Jerusalem  Syr- 
iac Lectionary,  407. 

Versions,  ancient,  their  testimony  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  gospels,  47;  and 
to  their  integrity,  62;  their  use  in  sa- 
cred criticism,  210,  392. 

Vulgate.     See  Versions,  Latin. 

w. 

Wave-offerings,  601. 

Whale,  339. 

Wilderness,  sojourn  in  the,  234. 

Wisdom,  apocryphal  book  of,  356. 

Wisdom  of  the  son  of  Sirach.  See  Eccle- 
siasticus. 

Writing,  ancient  mode  of,  172,  seq. ;  ma- 
terials for,  59,  179,  384. 


Xerxes,  261,  263. 


z. 


Zebedee,  436. 

Zechariah,  Prophecies  of,  346,  seq. ;  ques- 
tion respecting  the  last  part  of,  348; 
Matthew's  quotation  from  Zechariah, 
348. 

Zephaniah,  Prophecies  of,  344. 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS. 


N.  B.  Texts  not  specified  in  this  Index  will  be  found  on  the  pages  of  the 
general  references,  prefixed  to  the  lists  from  the  several  books. 


GENESIS.  PAGE. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 225-231 

1:1—2:3 - 543 

1:2 137,  357 

2:4 - 225 

2:4-25. 230,  543 

2:23,  24 135 

3:15 572,  573 

3:19,22 135 

4:3-12 135 

4:4 - 567,  585 

4:8 203 

6:6 541 

Chs.  6-8 135 

7:19 229,  542 

8:20 585 

8:21 206,  602 

9:4 597 

11:5 206 

11:8 229 

12:3 - 117,  218 

12:7 628 

12:7,  8 585 

13:14,  15 244 

13:15 628 

14:14 234 

14:18-20 583,  618 

15:6 117,  221 

15:13 226 

15:1'',  16 233,  331 

15:18-21 244,  628 

Ch.  16 553 

17:8 241,  244,  628 

17:12,  13 234 

18:25 545 


GENESIS.  PAGE. 

Ch.  19 135 

22:18 116,  425,  573 

25:12-18 227 

25:19 - 225 

26:3 628 

26:14 234 

28:12-15 555 

28:13 628 

31:19 207 

31:54 585 

32 :  10 234 

33: 20 -585 

35:1,  7 585 

Ch.  36 227 

36:  P,  7 - 234 

36:31 122,  228 

37: 2  - - 225 

41:1-7 555 

41:57 542 

46:1 585 

49:1 608 

49:6 534 

50:25 131 

EXODUS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 232-235 

1:1,  5,  8 225 

2:24,25 225 


3:6- 


127 


3:6-10 130 

3:12 607 

4:22,  23 635,  638 

6:16-20 233 

12:22,  23 599 

12:37.  40 233 


654 


INDEX   OF    TEXTS. 


EXODUS.  PAGE. 

Ch.  12:46 638 

13:2 127 

13:19 131 

Ch.  15 174,  268 

15:18 616 

16:35,  36 122,  228 

20:19 ----118,  583 

22:29 --127 

24:3-8 125,  598,  600 

25:8 233,  586 

25:16,  21,  22 588 

25:30 589 

Ch.  26 586,  588 

26:1,  7 -587 

27:20 589 

Ch.  28 596 

29:12,  20 602 

29:23-28 601 

29:40 600 

30:6-8 589 

30:12,  seq. 127 

80:36 - 588 

31: 12-17 -233 

Ch.  32 126 

34:6,  seq. ^ 152 

34:15 292 

34: 19 127 

36:8,  14,  19 587 

40:22-27 589 

LEVITICUS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 235,  236 

Ch.  1 598 

Chs.1-10 - 236 

1:4 601 

1:9-- 602 

2:12 127 

2:13 600 

Chs.  3-9 598-605 

Ch.  10 126 

12:2,  seq. 127 

Chs.12-16 598-605 

17:10,  l]f 597 

18:5 127 

19:8,  34 139,  140 

23:40-43 123,  127,  185 

Ch.  24 126 

24:5-9,  25 589 

Ch.  26 144,  304,  629 


NUMBEKS.  PAGE. 

Ch.  1,  seq.--- 237,  238 

3:13 237 

5:6-8--- 598 

7 :  89 589 

8:17 127 

9:12 - --638 

12:6-8 148,  170,  219 

12:8 540 

Ch.  17 - - 581 

17:4 - 588 

18:15 127 

Ch.  19 - 600 

Chs.21-24 - ...268 

21:27-30 - 279 

Ch.  23 ---126 

24:14 --608 

27:15-23 242 

28:2,  seq. 127 

29:12,  seq. 127 

Ch.  32 242 

DEUTERONOIMY. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 238,  239 

1:1,  43 238 

2:4,  5,  8,  9,  18,  19 140 

4: 19 541 

4: 30 608 

6: 4,  5 140 

7:3,  4 138 

7:7,  8 570 

9:5 153 

13:1-5 219 

16:1-8 600 

16: 16 626 

17:18  • 193 

17:24 125 

18: 17-19 , 583,  638 

18:18 118,  129,  184 

21:1-9 600 

24:1 134 

Chs.  27-32 238,  304,  629 

27:1-8,  12,  13--- 129,  185 

Ch.  28- 144 

•  28:29 549 

28:58 125 

29:1,  10-15 125 

29:14 129 

30:11-14 - 636 

31:9,  24-26" -124,  125, 129, 184, 185 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


655 


DEUTERONOMY.  page. 

Ch.  31:9-13 • •• 184 

31:16 ...-292 

31:26 209 

31:29 608 

Ch.  32 174,  268 

32:4 545 

33: 10 598 

34: 1 360 

JOSHUA. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 241,  244 

4:1-7 - 581 

6:12 242 

6:25 243 

8:32--> 185 

10:12-14--- ---244 

12:9 184 

15:16-19 243 

19:13 338 

19:47 243 

24:26, 186 

JUDGES. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 245-247 

1:12-15 243 

1:21 247 

2:1 190 

4:4 - 190 

Ch.  5 174 

6:8,  11 - 190 

9:8-15 - 319 

9:23 541 

10:13 --243 

13:3 190 

15:20 247 

18:1 243 

RUTH. 

2:12 - 248 

2:14 • 184 

1  SAMUEL. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 248-250 

2:13-16 627 

2:27 190 

2: 34  •  -  -  - 608 

4:4 589 

7:12 581 

10:1 581 

10:2-7 .-..-608 

10:5,  10 --T 190 

10:25 186 


1  SAMUEL.                                                     PAGE. 
Ch.  11:8 252 

15:22 --153,219,296 

17:52 2.52 

18:16 252 

19:20 190 

20:25 184 

23: 9-12 608 

27:6 251 

2  SAMUEL. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 251,  252 

1:18 243 

1 :  19-27 279 

3:10 - 252 

5:6-9 247 

6:2 589 

6:17-19 599 

7:14 639 

7:16 - 119,  621 

8:4 257 

Ch.  22 174 

23:2 148 

23:8--- -  -258 

24:1 252 

24:13 257 

1  EINGS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 252-254 

2:3- 124 

3:5-12 193 

3:13 253 

4:26 258 

4: 32 - 290 

6:1 247 

8:9 588 

8:46-50 629 

8: 62-66 599 

9:6,7 304 

11:29-39 581 

11:41 188 

12:10 555 

12:29 337 

13:2,  3 608 

18:4 - ---190 

20: 35 190,  337 

22: 11 555,  581 

22: 19-23  • 284,  541 

2  KINGS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 254,  255 

2:3,  seq. 190,  337 


656 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


2  KINGS.  PAGE. 

14: 9 554 

14:23 333 

14:25 338 

14:25-28 337 

15:8-31 - 334 

17:1-6 334 

17:27,  28- 181 

18:13—19:37 --170 

18:13—20:21 536 

19:15 589 

20: 8-11 244,  608 

22:8 124,  193,  311 

23:5 344 

Ch.  24 338 

24:1-- 327 

24:12 328 

24:18-20 314 

25:8 328 

25:9 196 

25:27 255 

1  CHRONICLES. 

CK  1,  seq. 256-258 

1:43 122 

3:19-24 263 

6:31 192 

11:11 258 

18:4 258 

21:12 "257 

29:29 170,  187,  188,  251 

2  CHRONICLES. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 256-258 

9:25 258 

9:29 170,  188 

12:15 170,  188 

13:22 188 

15:1,  seq. 256 

16:7-12 257 

17:7-9 193 

19:2 257 

20:20 336 

20:34 170,  188,  189 

21:16,  17 338 

23:18 127 

24:6 •- 127 

26:22 170,  188 

27:7 189 

30:16 600 

Ch.  32 536 


2  CHRONICLES.  page. 

Ch.  32:25,  31 257 

32:32 170,  188 

33:18,  19 170,  188,  359 

34:14 124 

35:11 '. 600 

EZRA. 

1:1,  seq. 260,  261 

2:61-63 256 

3:1-5-- 122,  127 

4:8—6:18 175,  260 

5:1,  2 345,  346 

6:14 346 

7:1,  8 350 

7:6 123,  180 

7:10,  11 194 

NEHEMIAH. 

1:1,  seq. --- 261,  262 

Ch.  8 - 123 

8:5 180 

8:13-17 123,  127,  185 

12:4 - 346 

12:11,  22 195,  263 

13:6 262,  349 

13:24 -  T---177 

ESTHER. 

1:1,  seq. 261,  263 

8:2 264 

9:16 264 

JOB. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 280-283 

1:5  -; 585,  597,  598 

2:10- 280 

3:3 276 

5:14 549 

5:19-26 - 270 

20:24-28 270 

42:8 585,  597,  598 

PSALMS. 

Ps.  1,  seq. - 284-288 

Ps.  2 619,  621 

2:4 275 

2:8,  9 145 

5:12 27t) 

7:5 534 

8:4-6 .--638 

Ps.  16 - 622 

16:9 534 

16:11-- 540 

17:15 - 540 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


657 


PSALMS.  PAGE. 

Ps.   18:7-16 244,  549 

19:1-4 636 

Ps.  22 619 

22:1,  7,  8,  14-16,  18 622 

22:18 609 

Ps.  23 -- -272 

25:11---. 570 

28:4 276 

28:5 278 

30:12 534 

Ps.  40 619 

40:6-10 ---622 

40:7 635 

40:12 - 620 

42:2-4 532 

Ps.   45 292,  619 

45:13 -532 

46:4 625 

49:15 540 

Ps.  50 285 

51:1,  C,  7,  10,  11  --- 570,  571 

51:7,  17-- 274 

51:10,  16,  17 153 


Ps. 


Ps. 


Ps. 


51:11 

57:8-'-- 

61:4 --- 

69 

69:4,  7-9,  21 
69:5 --- 


542 

534 

■ 274 

■ 619 

• 622 

620 

69:30,  31 153 

72 284,  285,  619 

72:11 145 

72:20 286 

73:24-26 540 

74:8 196 

80 
80 
80 


319,  553,  558 

589 

- 558,  560 

-16 553,  558 

81:12,  13- 542,  543 

84:11 546,  551 

90,  title 268,  287 

91:7 184 

99:1 589 

103:3-5 276 

103:11-13 278 

108:1 534 

Ps.   109 619 


PSALMS.  PAGE. 

Ps.   109:1-20 622 

Ps.   110 --590,  619,  636 

110:1 620,  638 

110:4 145,  148,  573,  620,  G38 

129:6,  7 539 

139:23,  24- 541 

141:2 274 

PROVERBS. 

Ch.  1,  seq.- 289,  290 

1:27 276 

10:1,  7 •• 275 

10:26 r 552 

13:1 556 

14:5 556 

14:32 540 

15:12--- 555 

15:16 - 277 

15:17 556 

17:23 556 

18:10 555 

19:13 539 

20:15 556 

20:20  • 277 

21:2 277 

23:39 276 

24:23 290 

25:15 561 

26:3 277,552 

26:1-28 289 

26:20,  21,  23 552 

27:15 539,  556 

27:19 556 

ECCLESIASTES. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 290-292 

CANTICLES. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 292,  293 

1:5;  2:8,  9,  14;  4:1-3;  5:12,  >  „.„ 
13,  15;  7:7 \^'^ 

ISAIAH. 

Ch.  1,  seq. ^-299-303 

1:2-4 277 

1:10 276 

1:11-20 219,  296 

2:2 608 

2:2-4 341,  623,  626 

3:1-3,  25,  26 611 

4:1 174,  611 

4:2 609 


653 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


ISAIAH.  PAGE. 

Ch.  4:2-5 612 

4:5 624 

4:10 305 

5:1-6- 319 

5:7 560 

Ch.  6 ..-.629 

6:5 301 

6:8 - 300 

6:9-13 203,  623,  634 

6:10 541 

8:1-4 - 299 

9:1,  2.^ 635 

9:7 145 

10:33,  34 174,  612 

Ch.  11 ---629 

11:1 - 174,  590,  612 

11:2 145 

11:6-9------ 548,  612 

11:11,  12,  15,  16 624 

13:10 549 

13:13 548 

13:19,  20 144 

13:21,  22 -^- 344 

14:23 144 

Chs.l5,  16 314 

Ch.  20 563,  581 

20:2-4 563 

28:16  - 575 

32:2 273 

34:6,  13-15 274,  344 

35:6 625 

35:8- 526 

Chs.36-39 - 302,  536 

37:16 589 

38:7,  8 - 244 

39:6,  7 305,  322 

Chs. 40-66  -- 302,  609 

40:1 299,  607 

40:19,  20 309 

41:7 309 

41:14-16 616 

41:18 306 

41:25 307 

42:1-4 145,  635 

43:23,  24 307,  309 

44:28;  45:4 306 

46:1,  2;  47:8 309 

48:22 302 


ISAIAH.  PAGE. 

Ch.  49:25,  26 270 

50:4 145 

51:15;  52:7 309 

52:13-15 145,  174 

Ch.  53 146,  580,  592 

53:3-7 145 

53:6 ■* 620 

53:7,  8 - 638 

53:10 574 

54:5 292 

55:3 303 

55:12 552 

57:9 309 

57:15 219 

57:21 302 

58:6 634 

58:11,  12 442 

Chs.59,  60 612 

60:18-22 270,  613 

61:1,  2---- 74,  633 

62:5 292 

62:11 ■ 634 

63:10 542 

63:17 541 

Ch.  66 629 

66:2 219 

66:3 307 

66:24 302 

JEREMIAH. 

Ch.  ],  seq. • 310-314 

1:1,  3 311 

1:11-14 - 581 

1:13- 555 

2:2;  3:14 - 292 

4:23-28 548,  549 

10:3,  4 309 

10:1-16 359 

10:11 - 175 

11:18-23;  12:6  ---- 310 

13:1-11 320,  563,  581 

15:10 311 

20:1-6,  14-18 310,  311 

23:4-6 - 590 

23:5,  20 - 608,  609 

25:1,  9 327,  328 

25:12-14 312 

25:13 314 

26:12-15 • 311 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


659 


JEREMIAH.  PAGE. 

Ch.  26:18 340 

27:2;  28:10 319 

27:1-8;  28:10,  11 555 

29:10-14 312 

Clis.30,  31 629 

30:8;  21:31 609 

30:24 - 608 

31:31-33 167,  571 

31:35 309 

32:2;  33:1 310 

32:6-15 563 

33:15,  16 --590 

36:1-4,  27-32 313 

37:5-10 312 

39:11-14—40:1-4 310 

46:2 327 

47:6,7 551 

48:47;  49:39 608 

49:7-22 314,  338 

50:2 309 


314-316 


LAMENTATIONS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 

EZEKIEL. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 316-322 

Ch.  1 318,555,  563,  564 

1:1-3;  2:3,  4,  6;  3:15 316-318 

Ch.  3 581 

Ch.  4 320,  563 

4-8 565 

1 316 

8:1-4 562,  563 

Ch.  10 563,  564 

12:3-12 - 563 

14:1 316 

14:14,  20 284 

Ch.  16 318,  319,  560 

17:1-10 319,  559 

18:31 219 

20:1 316 

21:27 548 

22:6-12 318 

Ch.  23 318,  319,  560 

24:15-18 316,  319 

25:12 338 

26:4,  5,  14 144 

32:7,  8 549 

33:21 320 


EZEKIEL.  PAGE. 

Ch.  33:30-32 316 

35:5-15--- - 338 

Chs.  36-39 629 

36:22 570 

36:25-27 152,  571 

36:25.  37,  38 274 

36:32 ---154 

37:1-14 319,  562 

37:16-20 319,  563 

38:8;  16 608 

38:20 548 

39ai 609 

Chs.  40-48 319,  627 

42:15-20;  43:13-27 321,  627 

43:24 600 

45:1-8 321,  627 

47:1-12 321,  625,  627 

Ch.  48 321,  627 

DANIEL. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 322-324 

1:1 338 

1:5 328 

1:7 326 

2:1-5 338 

2:4—7:28 175 

2:33,  40-45 330,  609,  610 

2:46 589 

Ch.  3 323,  326 

3:21 -327 

Ch.  5 323,  328 

5:2 327 

5:22,  31 328,  329 

Ch.  6 323,  326,  329 

7:7-28 330,  609,  610 

7:25 509,  565,  610 

9:2 194 

9:18 570 

9:24-27 137,  262,  565 

9:27 ---325 

10:14 - 608 

HOSEA. 

Chs.  1-3 5C3 

1:10,  11 629 

2:16,  19,  20 292 

3:5 608 

10:12 --219 

11:1 635,  638 

12:1 ..-334 


660 


INDEX    or    TEX*TS. 


HOSEA.  PAGE. 

Ch.  14 334 

14:2 -* 219,  274 

JOEL. 

2:1,  2 344 

2:12,  13 -219 

2:28 609 

2:28-32 - 336,  623 

2:31 - 549 

Ch.  3 -■ 629 

3:1^17 613 

3:15,  16 335,  548,  549 

3:18 335,  625 

3:19 338 

AMOS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 336,  337 

1:1 191,  336 

1:2 335 

1:11 338 

5:11 344 

5:21-24 153,  219,  296 

7:1-9 564,  581 

7:14 191,  336 

8:1-3 581 

8:2 555 

8:9 - 548 

Ch.  9 --- 629 

9:11 609 

9:11,  12 623 

9:13-- 335 

OBADIAH. 

338 

JONAH. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 338-340 

IVnCAH. 

Ch.  1,  seq. - 340,  341 

4:1 608 

4:1-4 623,  626,  629 

6:6-8--- 219,  296 

7:8-20--- 629 

NAHUM. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 341,  342 

1:5-8- - 272 

1:15 309 

Chs.2,  3 144 

2:13-- 551 

HABAKKUK. 

Ch.  1,  seq.-- 342,  343 

2:2 526 


HABAKKUK.  page. 

Ch.  3 244 

3:10,  11 - 551 

ZEPHANIAH. 

Ch.  1,  seq. -. 343-345 

2:15 .309 

HAGGAI. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 345,  346 

2:6,  7--- 548 

ZECHARIAH. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 346-348 

1:8-11 581 

1:18-21 564 

3:8 590 

3:8-20 629 

4:1-10;  5:5-11;  6:1-9;  11:4-14-564 

6:9-14 590 

9:9 347,  609,  634 

11:13 -- 348,  609 

13:7 - 581 

14:5-- 336 

14:8----. 625 

14:16-21 626,  629 

MALACHI. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 348,  349 

1:8,  13,  14 600 

3:1 348,  349,  635 

♦ — - — - 

1  ESDKAS. 

352 

2  ESDRAS. 

- 352,  353 

7:3 - 353 

TOBIT. 

353,  354 

2:10 353 

JUDITH. 

-354,  355 

4:3 355 

4:6,  8;  5:18,  19;  15:8 353 

WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 356,  357 

ECCLESIASTICUS. 

357,558 

48:24,  25 - 308 

49:1,  seq. 329 

BARUCH,  AND  EPISTLE  OF  JEREMIAH. 
358,  359 

BOOKS  OF  THE  MACCABEES. 

359-362 

1  Mac.  1:54 ---325 

2  Mac.  7:14 - --361 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


661 


MATTHEW.  PAGE. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 420,  426 

1:12 346 

1:17,  22 424 

1:23 426 

2:5,  6 341 

2:15 334,  635,  638 

2:17 - 424 

3:3 308 

4:14 424 

4:15,  16 635 

4:21 436 

5:17 31 

5:29,  seq. 153 

6:19,  20 76 

6:25,  31 45 

6:27 528 

7:12 ---216 

7:15,  16 552 

7:21-23 91,  575,  577 

8:11,  12 - 425 

8:17 308 

8:25,  26 537 

9:13 • 334 

9:17 539 

10:3 420,  487 

10:5,  6 425,  446 

10:16 74 

10:19,  20 105 

10:35,  36 341 

10:40 395 

11:10 --635 

11:13 147 

11:27 • 575 

11:28-30 75,  82 

12:1 417 

12:7 334 

12:13 422 

12:17 424 

12:17-21 308,  635 

12:39-41 340 

13:3-8,  19-23 560 

13:14,  15 203,  623,  634 

13:24 554 

13:24-30,  37-43 561 

13:35 424 

14:22—16:12 412,  434 

14:37-39 135 

15:24 • 425,  446 


MATTHEW, 

Ch.  16:18,  19,  27 

17:1 

18:18 


PAGE. 

--575 
--436 
--575 


18:23-35 561 

19:3-9--» -..-135,  637 

20:16 47 

20:21 -• 425 

20:28 592 

21:4 424 

21:5 634 

21:28-31 560 

21:33-41 554 

21:43 - 425 

22:14 47 

22:15-22,  31,  32 ..---538 

22:29 166 

22:37-40 151 

22:41-46 590 

22:44 638 

23:35 - 135 

23:37-39 425 

Ch.  24 331 

24:3,  19-22,  29 51 

24:10-13 489 

24:15,  16 326 

25:1-13 539,561 

25:34-46 562,575 

25:46 570 

26:26-28 166,  548 

26:33 540 

26:37 - 436 

27:9,  10 348 

27:35 424 

27:46 426 

27:50,  51 603 

27:56 436 

28:1-10 - 544 

28:18 575 

28:19,  20 425,  446 

MARK. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 427-4.31 

1:2 635 

1:19,  20 436 

2:14 -420 

3:5,  34 4.30 

3:14,15 103 

3:17 429 

3:18 420,  487 


662 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


MARK.  PAGE. 

Ch.  3:23,  26 67 

4:1 ■ 417 

4:12 203,  623,  634 

4: 28 33,  580 

4:30 V 560 

4:26-29 435 

4: 38,  40 *- 430,  537 

5:2-20,  32,  42 430 

5:37 436 

5:41,  42 429,  430 

5:43 73 

6:40 430 

6:45—8:26 412,  434 

7:3,  4,  11,  34 429 

7:32-37 435 

7:34 430 

8:12,  33 430 

8:22-26 - 435 

9:2 436 

9:14-27 -430 

9:43-48 557 

9:49 600 

10:3-5 124 

10:5 120 

10:27 430 

10:45 592 

10:40-49 429 

11:10 429 

12:1-9 319 

12:13-17 528 

12:35-37 590,  636 

12:42 429 

13:3 429 

13:11 106 

13:12 341 

13:14 326 

13:31 - 557 

14:12,  36 429 

14:24 166 

14:29 540 

14:33 436 

15:28 - 592 

15:32,  34,  42 - 429 

15:37,  38 603 

15:40,  41 436 

16:8 431 

16:9-20 391,  431 

16:15 217,  568 


LUKE.  PACK. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 431-436 

1:1 37,  56 

1:1-4 431,  433 

1:3 68,  416 

1:6 -40 

1:32,  33 119,  573,  621,  639 

2:14 152 

2:22-24 127 

2:40-52 418 

3:4 308 

3:27 346 

3:38 433 

4:17-19 308,634 

5:10,  11.--. 436 

5:27,  29 420 

6:15 - 420,  487 

7:27 635 

7:37,  38 539 

8:10 203,  623,  634 

8:24,  25 537 

8:51 436 

9:18,  57 417 

9:43— Ig:  30 412,  434,  436 

10:1 446 

10:26 - 120 

10:30-37 433 

10:40-42 540 

11:5-9--- 561 

11:29-32 340 

11:51 ■- 135 

12:11,  12 106 

12:53 341 

13:1-5 -606 

13:6-9 560 

Ch.  15 433 

16:1-9 553,  561,  562 

16:10 554 

16:19-31 -.-558 

16:29 551 

16:31 222 

17:26-29 •• 135 

18:1-8 561 

18:9-14--" - 560 

19:3 -528 

20:20-26 538 

20:37 127 

20:41-44 636 

21:14,  15 106 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


663 


LUKE.  PAGE. 

Ch.  21:24 144,  628 

22: 9,  20 432 

22:20 - 166 

22:37 592 

23:45,  46 603 

24:27 115 

24:37-43 70 

24:44 32,  115,  148,  165,  619^ 

JOHN. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 436-444 

1.1-18 418 

1:4--.. .--589 

1:17 120 

1:18 390 

1:23 308 

1:29 155,  236,  485,  547,  580,  591 

1:36 547 

1:37,  40 436 

Clis.3,  5-12  -418 

3:2 79 

3:3-5 43 

3:16 31 

3:17,  18 569 

3:20 524 

3:36 570 

4:14-- 44 

5:2 53 

5:4 390 

5:17-23 81 

5:20 103 

5:28,  29--, 82,  629 

5:36 79 

5:45-47 535 

5:46 120 

•  6:1^21 438 

6:4 53 

6:12 73 

6:44 541 

6:51,54 547 

7:1-10 74 

7:2 53 

7:15,  16 78 

7: 17 523 

7:19 120 

7:22,  23 127 

7:38 166 

7:39 ---542 

7:42 341 


JOHN.  PAGE. 

Ch.  8:3-11 - 390 

8:12 .--81,  103,  589 

8:23 - 76 

8:26 103 

8:39-41,  44,  56 535 

8:42 79 

8:56 221 

9:4 291 

9:24 70 

10:1-18 554 

10:7,  9 547 

10:8 535 

10:9,  11,  14 560 

10:15,  17,  18 592 

11:25,  26 82 

11:44 73 

11:47 70 

•12:15 -634 

12:38-41 308,  535,  623 

12:40 203,  634 

12:46 589 

12:49,  50 103 

Chs.  13-17 418 

13:3 107 

13:23,  25 436,  539 

14:6 • 595 

14:25,  26 106 

14:27 - 82 

15:1 547,  551 

15:1-7 83 

15:26,  27 -87 

16:2 40 

16:7 87,  630 

16:12,  13 88,  104 

16:12-15 ^ 106 

16:28 84 

16:33 82 

17:2 575 

17:5 84 

18:15,  16 436 

19:36 638 

20:2-8 436 

20:22,  23 576 

20:27 - 70 

20:30,  31 84,  415,  438,  530 

21:7,  20 436 

21:15 540 

21:25 415 


664: 


INDEX  OF  TEXTS. 


A.CTS.  rAGE. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 440-444 

1:1 52,  89,  440 

1:3 71 

1:6-8 104,  607 

1:13 420,  487 

1:15-22 441 

1:21,  22 - 103,  432 

2:11 480 

2:14-40 441 

2:16-21 336,  623 

2:30,  31 622 

2:34,  35 636 

3:1,  4-26 441 

3:6,  12,  16-- 80 

3:22 124 

3:22,  23 638 

4:8-13,  19 441 

5:1-11 90 

5:3-11,  29-32 441 

6:4 441,  445 

7:37 638 

7:42,  43 337 

8:1 415 

8:5-25 441,  443,  447 

8:32,  33 638 

8:26-40 441,  592 

8:28-33 308 

8:37 391 

9:1-22 536 

9: 1-31 ,  32-43 441 

9:7,  17,  27 543 

9:22-26,  29,  30 91,  449 

Ch.  10 441,  443,  447 

10:40,  41 71 

11:1-18 441,575 

11:19-26 442,  447 

11:20 - 443 

11:25-30 441,  442,  449 

12:3-19 441 

12:12,  25-- -427 

12:17 487 

12:25 441,  442,  449 

13:1,  seq. 441,  442,  449 

13:5,  13--- 427 

13:14 442,447 

13:15 121 

13:20 190,  247 

13:45-47 447 


ACTS.  PAGE, 

Ch.  14:1 447 

14:19-28 --442,  443 

Ch.  15 488 

15:1 450 

15:1-29 447 

15:2 449 

15:6 415 

15:10-- 139 

15:13-21 -- 487,  488 

15:15-18 446 

15:16,  17 337 

15:18 566 

15:21 121,546 

15:22-35«- 442 

15:23-29 108 

15:36—18:22 449,  450 

15: 37-39 427,  428 

15:40 472 

16:1,  2 479,480 

16:6 458 

16:9,  12-40 -469 

16:10 89,431 

16:19,  25,  29 472 

16:19-40 - 475 

17:1-10,  14-16 471,  472 

17:2,  10 ---447,  448 

17:5-10,  13,  14,  31 475 

18:1-11 454 

18:4,  6 447 

18:5 472 

18:6-17 --475 

18:19-21 465 

18:22,  23 442,  449 

18:23—21:15 449,  450,  458 

18:24 476 

19:1—20:31 465 

19:1-10,  21 --451,  454 

19:8,  9 447 

20:1-3 451,  454 

20:1-6----- 469 

20:17 443 

20:28 290 

20:29,  30 476 

20:31 454 

Chs.21-28 449 

21:8-10,  15 90,  449 

21:18 487,  488 

22:1-21 536 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


665 


ACTS. 

Ch.  22:9,  14 

23:8 

23:35—26:32 
24:17 


PAGE. 

543 

538 

450 

-451,  454 

26:1-26 - Ill,  536 

26:14 - 543,  546,  551 

27:1 90 

27:8" - 480 

28:16-31 450 

28:26,  27 203,  623,  634 

28:30,  31 91 

ROMANS. 

Ch.  ],  seq. - 451-458 

1:10-15 451 

1:7 - 466 

1:13,  18-32 452 

1:10-15 451 

1:17 -- 343 

2:7 535 

2:8-11 529 

3:7,  8 637 

3:21,  31 446 

3:22 535 

3:25,  26 593 

3:28 529,  530,  577 

4:4- 370 

4:6-25 446 

4:11 --117 

4:12-17 492 

5:12-24 116,  135 

8:17 639 

9:13 349 

9:25,  26 334 

10:5 .127 

10:6,  8,^18 636 

10:16,  20,  21 308 

10:19 124 

11:6 529 

11:8 203,  623 

11:13-25,  30,  31 452,  492,  582 

12:1 596,  627 

14:2,  23 531 

15:8-21 453 

15:16 452 

15:22—16:27 453 

16 466 

16:1 451 

16:14 - 517 


Ch. 


1  CORINTHIANS.  page. 
Ch.  1,  seq. 453-456 

1:11-14,  31 454,  455 

1:14 451 

1:18—2:16 455 

2:12,  13 --108 

3:3-23 - 454,  455 

3:11 - 575 

3:11-15 547 

4:17 457 

5:7 581,  600 

5:9 ---99,  455 

7:1 - ..-455,  530 

9:22 448 

10:4 547 

11:2---- •• 417 

11:7-9 135,  637 

11:23-25 432 

12:15,  16 552 

Ch.  15 105,  109,  111,  629 

15:5-18,  14,  17 71 

15:14 • 36 

15:15 550 

15:21,  22 116,  135 

15:24-28 574,  575,  630 

15:26,  54 --630,  631 

15:51 109 

15:55 - 334,  552 

16:l'-6,  23 451,  454 

16:3-8 454 

16:10,  11 457,  480 

2  CORINTHIANS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. - 456-458 

1: 15-17 - 457,  477 

2:13 - 481 

3:6,  14 - 167 

5:10 575 

7:6,  7,  13,  14 • 457,  481 

8:1-4 451,  455 

8:6,  16,  23 ■ 481 

9:1-5 - 451,  456 

10:10-13 454 

12:10 - --157 

12:14 454 

12:18 481 

13:1 454 

GALATIANS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 458-461 

Chs.l,  2 Ill,  449 


29 


666 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


Gi^LATIANS.  PAGE. 

Cli.  1:1 104,460 

1:11,  12 103,  108,  460 

1: 15-18 91,  460 

1:16,  21 449 

1:19.-- - 487 

2:1-3 481 

2:5 448 

2:9,  12 - 488 

2:11 442 

3:6-9,  18 446,  461,  492 

3:8,  17 -- 117,  233 

3:10-29 - 461 

3:13 592 

3:14-18- 582 

3:15 572 

3:24,  25 --118,  139,  221,  571 

4:1-3 - 217 

4:4 215 

4:7 639 

4:8—6:18 461 

4:13-16 458,  459 

4:21,  seq. 121 

5:2 - 108 

5:3,  4 461 

5:4 - -532 

5:7 459 

6:6 313 

6:17 459 

EPHESIANS. 

Cb.  1,  seq. 1463-469 

1:1  -- 92 

1:7 592 

1:10 467 

1:20-23 575 

2:20^ - 575,  582 

3:1;  4:1 - 462 

5:23-32 468 

6:20-22 - 462 

PHILIPPIANS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 469-471 

1:25 477 

2:9-11 575 

4:3 512 

COLOSSIANS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 463-465 

1:10 467 

1:15-19 575 


COLOSSIANS.  PAGE. 

3:5 549 

4:10,  13,  16 462 

4:11 57,431 

4:14 431 

4:16 99,  465,  466 

4:18 469 

1  THESSALONIANS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. ----471,  472 

1:7,  8 -- -152 

2:2,  15,  16 475 

4:11 ---473 

4:13-18 105,  473,  629 

4:15 108 

5:8 468 

2  THESSALONIANS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 473-475 

1:7-10 542,  569,  629 

2:2,  3 474 

2:11,  12 ---'- 542 

2:15 - 417 

1  TIMOTHY. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 476-480 

2:4 542 

2: 11-14 -  - 135,  637 

3:16 ---390,  526 

2  TIMOTHY. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 476-478,  481,  482 

3:6,  8 - -477 

3:7 - 214 

3:8,  9 - 501 

3:11 442 

3:15 - - 166 

3:16 148,  577 

4: 9,  21 -' 480 

4:11  --- 427,  428,  431 

TITUS. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 480,  481 

1:10,  14-16 477 

2:2,  3 -- -374 

3:5 - 570 

3:9 - 477 

3: 13 476 

PHILEMON. 

Ver.l,  9,  10,23- 462 

18 4G9 

24 - 431 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


667 


HEBREWS.  PAGE. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 482-486 

1:3 --.-..----:-.-. 575 

Ch.  1:5 G39 

1:13 630 

2:6-8 638 

2:11,  14,  17,  18 594,595 

2: 14-18 - 584 

3:7—4:11 585 

4:2 -220 

4:7-11 619 

4:12 - 154,  527 

4: 15 584,  595 

5:1-6 484,  595 

7:3 584 

7:5,  8,  13,  21,  23,  28 484 

7:4-10 618 

7:7 -- 583 

7:23,  24,  26 596 

7 :  25 603 

7:27 595 

8: 3 - 484,  591,  595 

8:5,  13 484 

8:8-10 167 

8:9 635 

Chs.9,  10 321 

9:1-9,  13,  22 • 484 

9:7,  8-.- -603 

9:11-14,  25-28 591,  596 

9:12-28 - 595 

9: 13,  14 602 

9:14 529 

9: 15-17 166,  167 

9:22 - 119,  598 

10:1 485,  581,  587 

10:5 r --- 635 

10:10-22 --485,  591,  596,  627 

10:19,  20,  22 602,  603 

Ch.  11 --- .--568 

11:4,  7 135 

11:9 - 568 

11:11 - 528 

11:13,  39,  40 221 

11: 33,  34-  • 326 

11:37 299 

12:24    135,  602 

12:29 152 

13:11,  12 - 605 

13:15 596 


HEBREWS. 
13:24 


PAGE. 

-  •  484 


JAMES. 

Ch.  1,  seq.-- -487-491 

1:13,  14 541,  545 

2:10 ---^ 153 

2:14-26 490 

2:24 - 529 

5:11 284 

1  PETER. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 491-493 

1:1,  2 - 602 

1:6,  7 ^ -- 492 

1:8,  21 - 94 

1:11 - 297,  574 

1: 19,  20 -600 

2:3  ■ 467 

2:5-9 --321,  568,  596,  603,  627 

2:6,  8 -. 547,  575 

2:23 75 

2:24,  25 592 

3:18 -^ ---592 

3:20 - 135 

5:1 - 500 

5:13 --- 421 

2  PETER. 

Ch.  1,  seq. 493-497 

' --148,  168 


1:21- 
9-1  - 


497 

135 

■166,  496 


2:5,  6-- -- 

3:16 

1  JOHN. 

Ch.  1,  seq. ^..... 497-499 

1:5 - - 545 

2:2 - 591 

3:8 116 

3:12 -135 

4:3 46,  94 

4:14 - 33 

5:7,  8 - -390 

2  AND  3  JOHN. 

Ver.  1,  seq. --500,  501 

2  John  12;  3  John  13 - 60 


JUDE. 
Ver.  1,  seq. 

4 

7,  11- 


-501,  502 

497 

135 


668 


INDEX    OF    TEXTS. 


REVELATION.  page. 

Ch.  1,  seq.-- 503-510 

1:5 592 

3:7 575 

3:18 551 

5:5,  12 - 547 

5:9 510,  592 

6:1 547,  610 

7:14 592 

8:3,  4-- 589 

9:15   137 


REVELATION.  page. 

Ch.  11:2,  3 137,  509,  565,  610 

11:11 509,  631 

12:6 509,  565,  610 

13:5 509,  565 

19:8 - --532 

19:10 118 

20:4,  5,  11-15 630 

21:9 292 

22:18,  19- 578 


